Chapter 11 The Cardiovascular System

Chapter 11
The Cardiovascular System
The Cardiovascular System

o A closed system of the heart and blood vessels
o The heart pumps blood
o Blood vessels allow blood to circulate to all parts of the body
o Functions of the cardiovascular system
o Transport oxygen, nutrients, cell wastes, hormones to and from
cells
Anatomy of the Heart

o Size of a human fist, weighing less than a pound
o Located in the thoracic cavity, between the lungs in the inferior
mediastinum
o Orientation
o Apex is directed toward left hip and rests on the diaphragm
o Base points toward right shoulder

o Coverings of the heart
o Pericardium—a double-walled sac
o Fibrous pericardium is loose and superficial
o Serous membrane is deep to the fibrous pericardium and
composed of two layers
1. Parietal pericardium: outside layer that lines the inner surface of
the fibrous pericardium
2. Visceral pericardium: next to heart; also known as the
epicardium
o Serous fluid fills the space between the layers of pericardium,
called the pericardial cavity

o Walls of the heart
1. Epicardium
o Outside layer; the visceral pericardium
2. Myocardium
o Middle layer
o Mostly cardiac muscle
3. Endocardium
o Inner layer known as endothelium
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Chambers and Associated Great Vessels
o Four chambers of the heart
o Atria (right and left)
o Receiving chambers
o Assist with filling the ventricles
o Blood enters under low pressure
o Ventricles (right and left)
o Discharging chambers
o Thick-walled pumps of the heart
o During contraction, blood is propelled into circulation

o Interatrial septum
o Separates the two atria longitudinally
o Interventricular septum
o Separates the two ventricles longitudinally

o Heart functions as a double pump
o Arteries carry blood away from the heart
o Veins carry blood toward the heart
o Double pump
o Right side works as the pulmonary circuit pump
o Left side works as the systemic circuit pump

o Pulmonary circulation
o Blood flows from the right side of the heart to the lungs and
back to the left side of the heart
o Blood is pumped out of right side through the pulmonary trunk,
which splits into pulmonary arteries and takes oxygen-poor
blood to lungs
o Oxygen-rich blood returns to the heart from the lungs via
pulmonary veins

o Systemic circulation
o Oxygen-rich blood returned to the left side of the heart is
pumped out into the aorta

o Blood circulates to systemic arteries and to all body tissues
o Left ventricle has thicker walls because it pumps blood to the
body through the systemic circuit
o Oxygen-poor blood returns to the right atrium via systemic
veins, which empty blood into the superior or inferior vena cava
Heart Valves
o Allow blood to flow in only one direction, to prevent backflow
o Atrioventricular (AV) valves—between atria and ventricles
o Left AV valve: bicuspid (mitral) valve
o Right AV valve: tricuspid valve
o Semilunar valves—between ventricle and artery
o Pulmonary semilunar valve
o Aortic semilunar valve
Heart Valves
o AV valves
o Anchored the cusps in place by chordae tendineae to the walls
of the ventricles
o Open during heart relaxation, when blood passively fills the
chambers
o Closed during ventricular contraction
o Semilunar valves
o Closed during heart relaxation
o Open during ventricular contraction
o Valves open and close in response to pressure changes in the
heart
Cardiac Circulation
o Blood in the heart chambers does not nourish the myocardium
o The heart has its own nourishing circulatory system consisting
of:
o Coronary arteries—branch from the aorta to supply the heart
muscle with oxygenated blood
o Cardiac veins—drain the myocardium of blood
o Coronary sinus—a large vein on the posterior of the heart;
receives blood from cardiac veins
o Blood empties into the right atrium via the coronary sinus
Physiology of the Heart

o Intrinsic conduction system of the heart

o Cardiac muscle contracts spontaneously and independently of
nerve impulses
o Spontaneous contractions occur in a regular and continuous
way
o Atrial cells beat 60 times per minute
o Ventricular cells beat 20−40 times per minute
o Need a unifying control system—the intrinsic conduction system
(nodal system)

o Intrinsic conduction system of the heart (continued)
o Two systems regulate heart activity
o Autonomic nervous system
o Intrinsic conduction system, or the nodal system
o Sets the heart rhythm
o Composed of special nervous tissue
o Ensures heart muscle depolarization in one direction only (atria
to ventricles)
o Enforces a heart rate of 75 beats per minute

o Components include:
o Sinoatrial (SA) node
o Located in the right atrium
o Serves as the heart’s pacemaker
o Atrioventricular (AV) node is at the junction of the atria and
ventricles
o Atrioventricular (AV) bundle (bundle of His) and bundle
branches are in the interventricular septum
o Purkinje fibers spread within the ventricle wall muscles

o The sinoatrial node (SA node) starts each heartbeat
o Impulse spreads through the atria to the AV node
o Atria contract
o At the AV node, the impulse is delayed briefly
o Impulse travels through the AV bundle, bundle branches, and
Purkinje fibers
o Ventricles contract; blood is ejected from the heart

o Tachycardia—rapid heart rate, over 100 beats per minute
o Bradycardia—slow heart rate, less than 60 beats per minutes

o Cardiac cycle and heart sounds
o The cardiac cycle refers to one complete heartbeat, in which
both atria and ventricles contract and then relax
o Systole = contraction
o Diastole = relaxation
o Average heart rate is approximately 75 beats per minute
o Cardiac cycle length is normally 0.8 second

o Cardiac cycle and heart sounds (continued)
o Atrial diastole (ventricular filling)
o Heart is relaxed
o Pressure in heart is low
o Atrioventricular valves are open
o Blood flows passively into the atria and into ventricles
o Semilunar valves are closed

o Atrial systole
o Ventricles remain in diastole
o Atria contract
o Blood is forced into the ventricles to complete ventricular filling

o Isovolumetric contraction
o Atrial systole ends; ventricular systole begins
o Intraventricular pressure rises
o AV valves close
o For a moment, the ventricles are completely closed chambers

o Ventricular systole (ejection phase)
o Ventricles continue to contract
o Intraventricular pressure now surpasses the pressure in the
major arteries leaving the heart

o Semilunar valves open
o Blood is ejected from the ventricles
o Atria are relaxed and filling with blood

o Isovolumetric relaxation
o Ventricular diastole begins
o Pressure falls below that in the major arteries
o Semilunar valves close
o For another moment, the ventricles are completely closed
chambers
o When atrial pressure increases above intraventricular pressure,
the AV valves open

o Heart sounds
o Lub—longer, louder heart sound caused by the closing of the AV
valves
o Dup—short, sharp heart sound caused by the closing of the
semilunar valves at the end of ventricular systole

o Cardiac output (CO)
o Amount of blood pumped by each side (ventricle) of the heart in
1 minute
o Stroke volume (SV)
o Volume of blood pumped by each ventricle in one contraction
(each heartbeat)
o About 70 ml of blood is pumped out of the left ventricle with
each heartbeat
o Heart rate (HR)
o Typically 75 beats per minute

o Cardiac output is the product of the heart rate (HR) and the
stroke volume (SV)
o CO = HR × SV
o CO = HR (75 beats/min) × SV (70 ml/beat)
o CO = 5250 ml/min = 5.25 L/min

o Regulation of stroke volume
o 60 percent of blood in ventricles (about 70 ml) is pumped with
each heartbeat
o Starling’s law of the heart
o The critical factor controlling SV is how much cardiac muscle is
stretched
o The more the cardiac muscle is stretched, the stronger the
contraction
o Venous return is the important factor influencing the stretch of
heart muscle

o Factors modifying basic heart rate
1. Neural (ANS) controls
o Sympathetic nervous system speeds heart rate
o Parasympathetic nervous system, primarily vagus nerve fibers,
slow and steady the heart rate
2. Hormones and ions
o Epinephrine and thyroxine speed heart rate
o Excess or lack of calcium, sodium, and potassium ions also
modify heart activity
3. Physical factors
o Age, gender, exercise, body temperature influence heart rate
Blood Vessels
o Blood vessels form a closed vascular system that transports
blood to the tissues and back to the heart
o Vessels that carry blood away from the heart
o Arteries and arterioles
o Vessels that play a role in exchanges between tissues and
blood
o Capillary beds
o Vessels that return blood toward the heart
o Venules and veins
Microscopic Anatomy of Blood Vessels

o Three layers (tunics) in blood vessels (except the capillaries)
o Tunica intima forms a friction-reducing lining
o Endothelium
o Tunica media
o Smooth muscle and elastic tissue
o Controlled by sympathetic nervous system
o Tunica externa forms protective outermost covering
o Mostly fibrous connective tissue
o Supports and protects the vessel

o Structural differences in arteries, veins, and capillaries
o Arteries have a heavier, stronger, stretchier tunica media than
veins to withstand changes in pressure
o Veins have a thinner tunica media than arteries and operate

under low pressure
o Veins also have valves to prevent backflow of blood
o Lumen of veins is larger than that of arteries
o Skeletal muscle “milks” blood in veins toward the heart

(continued)
o Capillaries
o Only one cell layer thick (tunica intima)
o Allow for exchanges between blood and tissue
o Form networks called capillary beds that consist of:
o A vascular shunt
o True capillaries
o Blood flow through a capillary bed is known as microcirculation

(continued)
o True capillaries
o Branch off a terminal arteriole
o Empty directly into a postcapillary venule
o Entrances to capillary beds are guarded by precapillary
sphincters
Gross Anatomy of Blood Vessels

o Major arteries of systemic circulation
o Aorta
o Largest artery in the body
o Leaves from the left ventricle of the heart
o Regions
o Ascending aorta—leaves the left ventricle
o Aortic arch—arches to the left
o Thoracic aorta—travels downward through the thorax
o Abdominal aorta—passes through the diaphragm into the
abdominopelvic cavity

o Major arteries of systemic circulation (continued)
o Arterial branches of the ascending aorta
o Right and left coronary arteries serve the heart

o Arterial branches of the aortic arch
o Brachiocephalic trunk splits into the:
o Right common carotid artery
o Right subclavian artery
o Left common carotid artery splits into the:
o Left internal and external carotid arteries
o Left subclavian artery branches into the:
o Vertebral artery
o In the axilla, the subclavian artery becomes the axillary artery →
brachial artery → radial and ulnar arteries

o Arterial branches of the thoracic aorta
o Intercostal arteries supply the muscles of the thorax wall
o Other branches of the thoracic aorta (not illustrated) supply the:
o Lungs (bronchial arteries)
o Esophagus (esophageal arteries)
o Diaphragm (phrenic arteries)

o Arterial branches of the abdominal aorta
o Celiac trunk is the first branch of the abdominal aorta. Three
branches are:
1. Left gastric artery (stomach)
2. Splenic artery (spleen)
3. Common hepatic artery (liver)
o Superior mesenteric artery supplies most of the small intestine
and first half of the large intestine

o Arterial branches of the abdominal aorta (continued)
o Left and right renal arteries (kidney)
o Left and right gonadal arteries
o Ovarian arteries in females serve the ovaries
o Testicular arteries in males serve the testes

o Lumbar arteries serve muscles of the abdomen and trunk

o Arterial branches of the abdominal aorta (continued)
o Inferior mesenteric artery serves the second half of the large
intestine
o Left and right common iliac arteries are the final branches of the
aorta
o Internal iliac arteries serve the pelvic organs
o External iliac arteries enter the thigh → femoral artery
o → popliteal artery → anterior and posterior tibial arteries

o Major veins of systemic circulation
o Superior vena cava and inferior vena cava enter the right atrium
of the heart
o Superior vena cava drains the head and arms
o Inferior vena cava drains the lower body

o Major veins of systemic circulation (continued)
o Veins draining into the superior vena cava
o Radial and ulnar veins → brachial vein → axillary vein
o Cephalic vein drains the lateral aspect of the arm and empties
into the axillary vein
o Basilic vein drains the medial aspect of the arm and empties
into the brachial vein
o Basilic and cephalic veins are joined at the median cubital vein
(elbow area)

o Veins draining into the superior vena cava (continued)
o Subclavian vein receives:
o Venous blood from the arm via the axillary vein
o Venous blood from skin and muscles via external jugular vein
o Vertebral vein drains the posterior part of the head
o Internal jugular vein drains the dural sinuses of the brain

o Veins draining into the superior vena cava (continued)
o Left and right brachiocephalic veins receive venous blood from
the:
o Subclavian veins
o Vertebral veins
o Internal jugular veins
o Brachiocephalic veins join to form the superior vena cava →
right atrium of heart
o Azygos vein drains the thorax

o Veins draining into the inferior vena cava
o Anterior and posterior tibial veins and fibial veins drain the legs
o Posterior tibial vein → popliteal vein → femoral vein → external
iliac vein
o Great saphenous veins (longest veins of the body) receive
superficial drainage of the legs
o Each common iliac vein (left and right) is formed by the union of
the internal and external iliac vein on its own side

o Veins draining into the inferior vena cava (continued)
o Right gonadal vein drains the right ovary in females and right
testicle in males
o Left gonadal vein empties into the left renal vein
o Left and right renal veins drain the kidneys
o Hepatic portal vein drains the digestive organs and travels
through the liver before it enters systemic circulation
o Left and right hepatic veins drain the liver

o Arterial supply of the brain and the circle of Willis
o Internal carotid arteries divide into:
o Anterior and middle cerebral arteries
o These arteries supply most of the cerebrum
o Vertebral arteries join once within the skull to form the basilar

artery
o Basilar artery serves the brain stem and cerebellum

o Arterial supply of the brain and the circle of Willis (continued)
o Posterior cerebral arteries form from the division of the basilar
artery
o These arteries supply the posterior cerebrum

o Arterial supply of the brain and the circle of Willis (continued)
o Anterior and posterior blood supplies are united by small
communicating arterial branches
o Result—complete circle of connecting blood vessels called
cerebral arterial circle, or circle of Willis

o Hepatic portal circulation is formed by veins draining the
digestive organs, which empty into the hepatic portal vein
o Digestive organs
o Spleen
o Pancreas
o Hepatic portal vein carries this blood to the liver, where it is
processed before returning to systemic circulation
Physiology of Circulation
o Vital signs
o Measurements of arterial pulse, blood pressure, respiratory rate,
and body temperature
o Arterial pulse
o Alternate expansion and recoil of a blood vessel wall (the
pressure wave) that occurs as the heart beats
o Monitored at pressure points in superficial arteries, where pulse
is easily palpated
o Pulse averages 70 to 76 beats per minute at rest, in a healthy
person
Blood Pressure
o Blood pressure
o The pressure the blood exerts against the inner walls of the
blood vessels
o The force that causes blood to continue to flow in the blood

vessels

Blood Pressure
o Blood pressure gradient
o When the ventricles contract:
o Blood is forced into elastic arteries close to the heart
o Blood flows along a descending pressure gradient
o Pressure decreases in blood vessels as distance from the heart
increases
o Pressure is high in the arteries, lower in the capillaries, and
lowest in the veins
Blood Pressure
o Measuring blood pressure
o Two arterial blood pressures are measured
o Systolic—pressure in the arteries at the peak of ventricular
contraction
o Diastolic—pressure when ventricles relax
o Expressed as systolic pressure over diastolic pressure in
millimeters of mercury (mm Hg)
o For example, 120/80 mm Hg
o Auscultatory method is an indirect method of measuring
systemic arterial blood pressure, most often in the brachial
artery
Blood Pressure
o Effects of various factors on blood pressure
o Arterial blood pressure (BP) is directly related to cardiac output
and peripheral resistance
o Cardiac output (CO; the amount of blood pumped out of the left
ventricle per minute)
o Peripheral resistance (PR; the amount of friction blood
encounters as it flows through vessels)
o BP = CO × PR
Blood Pressure
o Effects of various factors on blood pressure (continued)
o Neural factors: the autonomic nervous system
o Parasympathetic nervous system has little to no effect on blood
pressure
o Sympathetic nervous system promotes vasoconstriction
(narrowing of vessels), which increases blood pressure

Blood Pressure
o Renal factors: the kidneys
o Kidneys regulate blood pressure by altering blood volume
o If blood pressure is too high, the kidneys release water in the
urine
o If blood pressure is too low, the kidneys release renin to trigger
formation of angiotensin II, a vasoconstrictor
o Angiotensin II stimulates release of aldosterone, which
enhances sodium (and water) reabsorption by kidneys
Blood Pressure
o Temperature
o Heat has a vasodilating effect
o Cold has a vasoconstricting effect
o Chemicals
o Various substances can cause increases or decreases in blood
pressure
o Epinephrine increases heart rate and blood pressure
Blood Pressure
o Diet
o Commonly believed that a diet low in salt, saturated fats, and
cholesterol prevents hypertension (high blood pressure)
Blood Pressure
o Variations in blood pressure
o Normal human range is variable
o Systolic pressure ranges from 110 to 140 mm Hg
o Diastolic pressure ranges from 70 to 80 mm Hg
Blood Pressure
o Variations in blood pressure (continued)
o Hypotension (low blood pressure)
o Low systolic (below 100 mm Hg)
o Often associated with illness
o Acute hypotension is a warning sign for circulatory shock

o Hypertension (high blood pressure)
o Sustained elevated arterial pressure of 140/90 mm Hg
o Warns of increased peripheral resistance
Blood Pressure
o Capillary exchange of gases and nutrients
o Interstitial fluid (tissue fluid) is found between cells
o Substances move to and from the blood and tissue cells through
capillary walls
o Exchange is due to concentration gradients
o Oxygen and nutrients leave the blood and move into tissue cells
o Carbon dioxide and other wastes exit tissue cells and enter the
blood
Blood Pressure
o Capillary exchange of gases and nutrients (continued)
o Substances take various routes entering or leaving the blood
1. Direct diffusion through membranes
2. Diffusion through intercellular clefts (gaps between cells in the capillary
wall)
3. Diffusion through pores of fenestrated capillaries
4. Transport via vesicles
Blood Pressure
o Fluid movements at capillary beds
o Fluid movement out of or into a capillary depends on the
difference between the two pressures
1. Blood pressure forces fluid and solutes out of capillaries
2. Osmotic pressure draws fluid into capillaries
Blood Pressure
o Fluid movements at capillary beds (continued)
o Blood pressure is higher than osmotic pressure at the arterial
end of the capillary bed
o Blood pressure is lower than osmotic pressure at the venous
end of the capillary bed
o Thus, fluid moves out of the capillary at the beginning of the bed
and is reclaimed at the opposite (venule) end
Developmental Aspects of the Cardiovascular System

o In an embryo

o The heart develops as a simple tube and pumps blood by week
4 of pregnancy
o The heart becomes a four-chambered organ capable of acting
as a double pump over the next 3 weeks

o Umbilical cord
o Carries nutrients and oxygen from maternal blood to fetal blood
o Fetal wastes move from fetal blood to maternal blood
o Houses:
o One umbilical vein, which carries nutrient- and oxygen-rich
blood to the fetus
o Two umbilical arteries, which carry wastes and carbon dioxide–
rich blood from the fetus to placenta

o Shunts bypassing the lungs and liver are present in a fetus
o Blood flow bypasses the liver through the ductus venosus and
enters the inferior vena cava → right atrium of heart
o Blood flow bypasses the lungs
o Blood entering right atrium is shunted directly into left atrium
through foramen ovale (becomes fossa ovalis at or after birth)
o Ductus arteriosus connects aorta and pulmonary trunk
(becomes ligamentum arteriosum at birth)

o Age-related problems associated with the cardiovascular
system include:
o Weakening of venous valves
o Varicose veins
o Progressive arteriosclerosis
o Hypertension resulting from loss of elasticity of vessels
o Coronary artery disease resulting from fatty, calcified deposits in
the vessels

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Chapter 11

The Cardiovascular System

The Cardiovascular System

Anatomy of the Heart

Anatomy of the Heart

Anatomy of the Heart

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd. 1

Chambers and Associated Great Vessels

Chambers and Associated Great Vessels

Chambers and Associated Great Vessels

Chambers and Associated Great Vessels

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd. 3

Physiology of the Heart

4 © 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd. 5

Physiology of the Heart

Physiology of the Heart

Physiology of the Heart

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Physiology of the Heart

Physiology of the Heart

Physiology of the Heart

Physiology of the Heart

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Physiology of the Heart

Physiology of the Heart

Physiology of the Heart

Physiology of the Heart

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Microscopic Anatomy of Blood Vessels

Microscopic Anatomy of Blood Vessels

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Microscopic Anatomy of Blood Vessels

Microscopic Anatomy of Blood Vessels

Gross Anatomy of Blood Vessels

Gross Anatomy of Blood Vessels

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Gross Anatomy of Blood Vessels

Gross Anatomy of Blood Vessels

Gross Anatomy of Blood Vessels

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14 © 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Gross Anatomy of Blood Vessels

Gross Anatomy of Blood Vessels

Gross Anatomy of Blood Vessels

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Gross Anatomy of Blood Vessels

Gross Anatomy of Blood Vessels

Gross Anatomy of Blood Vessels

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Gross Anatomy of Blood Vessels

Gross Anatomy of Blood Vessels

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