Wireless (Chapter 4)

Chapter 4
Wireless Systems and

Standards
Wireless Systems and Standards 4-1

Chapter 4: Outline
Chapter goal: Overview/Roadmap:
❖ AMPS
❖ Introduce basic terminology ❖ ETACS
and concepts related to ❖ D-AMPS (IS-54, IS-136)
WWAN ❖ GSM
❖ approach: ❖ ISM-95
❖ CT2
▪ use various ❖ DECT
communication ❖ PACS
standards as example ❖ PDC
❖ PHS
❖ Wireless Cable TV
❖ 3G
❖ 4G
❖ 5G
❖ 6G
Chapter 4: Roadmap
1.1 AMPS
1.2 ETACS
1.3 D-AMPS (IS-54, IS-136)
1.4 GSM
1.5 IS-95
1.6 CT2
1.7 DECT
1.8 PACS
1.9 PDC
1.10 PHS
1.11 Wireless Cable TV
1.12 3G
1.13 4G
1.14 5G
1.15 6G
Generations of Mobile
Communications

First Generation 1G
❖ Voice communication using analog signals
❖ First-generation mobile system used in North America
▪ Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS)
© Data Communications and Networking, 5th ed, Behrouz A. Forouzan Wireless Systems and Standards 4-5
AMPS (1)
❖ Bands
▪ Two providers can share an area, which means 416 channels
in each cell for each provider.
▪ Out of these 416, 21 channels are used for control, which
leaves 395 channels.
▪ AMPS has a frequency reuse factor of 7; this means only
one-seventh of these 395 traffic channels are actually
available in a cell.
AMPS (2)
❖ Transmission
▪ Uses FM and FSK for modulation
AMPS Reverse Communication Band

Chapter 4: Roadmap
1.1 AMPS
1.2 ETACS
1.3 D-AMPS (IS-54, IS-136)
1.4 GSM
1.5 IS-95
1.6 CT2
1.7 DECT
1.8 PACS
1.9 PDC
1.10 PHS
1.12 3G
1.13 4G
1.14 5G
1.15 6G
ETACS (1)
❖ European Total Access Communication System
(ETACS)
❖ Developed in the mid 1980s
❖ virtually identical to AMPS, except
▪ it is scaled to fit in 25 kHz (as opposed to 30 kHz) channels
used throughout Europe.
▪ Another difference between ETACS and AMPS is how the
telephone number of each subscriber (called the mobile
identification number or MIN) is formatted, due to the need to
accommodate different country codes throughout Europe and
area codes in the U.S.
© Wireless Communications – Principles & Practice, TS Rappaport Wireless Systems and Standards 4-9
Second Generation 2G
❖ Higher-quality (less noise-prone) mobile voice
communications
❖ 1G - analog voice communication
❖ 2G - digitized voice communication
❖ Three major systems evolved in the second generation:
▪ D-AMPS (Digital AMPS)
▪ GSM (Global System for Mobile Communication)
▪ IS-95 (Interim Standard 95)
Chapter 4: Roadmap
1.1 AMPS
1.2 ETACS
1.3 D-AMPS (IS-54, IS-136)
1.4 GSM
1.5 IS-95
1.6 CT2
1.7 DECT
1.8 PACS
1.9 PDC
1.10 PHS
1.12 3G
1.13 4G
1.14 5G
1.15 6G
D-AMPS (1)
❖ Backward-compatible with AMPS
❖ In a cell, one telephone can use AMPS and another
D-AMPS.
❖ D-AMPS was first defined by IS-54 (Interim Standard
54) and later revised by IS-136.
❖ Band
▪ D-AMPS uses the same bands and channels as AMPS.
D-AMPS (2)
❖ Transmission
▪ 25 frames per second, with 1944 bits per frame
▪ Each frame lasts 40 ms (1/25) and is divided into six slots shared by three
digital channels; each channel is allotted two slots.
▪ Each slot holds 324 bits
• 159 bits from the
digitized voice
• 64 bits are for control
• 101 bits are for error
correction
▪ Each channel drops
159 bits of data into
each of the two
slots assigned to it.
▪ The system adds 64
control bits and 101
error-correcting
bits.
▪ D-AMPS has a
frequency reuse factor
of 7.
Chapter 4: Roadmap
1.1 AMPS
1.2 ETACS
1.3 D-AMPS (IS-54, IS-136)
1.4 GSM
1.5 IS-95
1.6 CT2
1.7 DECT
1.8 PACS
1.9 PDC
1.10 PHS
1.12 3G
1.13 4G
1.14 5G
1.15 6G
GSM (1)
❖ Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM)
❖ European standard
❖ second-generation technology for all Europe
❖ The aim was to replace a number of incompatible
first-generation technologies.
GSM (2)
❖ Two Bands – for duplex communication
GSM (3)
❖ Transmission
▪ Each slot carries 156.25 bits
GSM (4)
❖ Multi-frame components
▪ user data and overhead in a multiframe.
49 error control bits
42.25 TDMA control bits
GSM (5)
❖ Reuse Factor
▪ Because of the complex error correction mechanism, GSM
allows a reuse factor as low as 3
Chapter 4: Roadmap
1.1 AMPS
1.2 ETACS
1.3 D-AMPS (IS-54, IS-136)
1.4 GSM
1.5 IS-95
1.6 CT2
1.7 DECT
1.8 PACS
1.9 PDC
1.10 PHS
1.12 3G
1.13 4G
1.14 5G
1.15 6G
IS-95 (1)
❖ One of the dominant second-generation standards in
North America is Interim Standard 95 (IS-95).
❖ It is based on CDMA and DSSS.
IS-95 (2)
❖ Bands and Channels
▪ Two bands for duplex communication
▪ Traditional ISM 800-MHz band or the ISM 1900-MHz band.
▪ Each band is divided into 20 channels of 1.228 MHz
separated by guard bands.
▪ IS-95 can be used in parallel with AMPS.
▪ Each IS-95 channel is equivalent to 41 AMPS channels (41 ⋅
30 kHz = 1.23 MHz).
IS-95 (3)
❖ Synchronization
▪ All base channels need to be synchronized to use CDMA.
▪ To provide synchronization, bases use the services of GPS
(Global Positioning System), a satellite system
IS-95 (4)
❖ Transmission Techniques
▪ Forward – Base to Mobile
▪ Reverse – Mobile to Base
IS-95 (5)
❖ Forward Transmission
55 traffic channels, 9 control and synchronization channels
Channel 0 – send continuous stream of 1s to mobile stations
Channel 32 gives information about the system to the mobile station.
Channels 1 to 7 for paging, to send messages to one or more mobile stations.
Channels 8 to 31 and 33 to 63 traffic channels
Walsh 64 × 64
ESN – Electronic Serial Number
242 pseudorandom chips

Each chip having 42 bits
IS-95 (6)
❖ Reverse Transmission
IS-95 (7)
❖ Two Data Rate Sets
▪ IS-95 defines two data rate sets, with four different rates in
each set.
▪ The first set defines 9600, 4800, 2400, and 1200 bps.
▪ The second set defines 14,400, 7200, 3600, and 1800 bps.
IS-95 (8)
❖ Frequency Reuse Factor
▪ In an IS-95 system, the frequency-reuse factor is normally 1
because the interference from neighboring cells cannot affect
CDMA or DSSS transmission.
❖ Soft Handoff
▪ Every base station continuously broadcasts signals using its
pilot channel.
▪ This means a mobile station can detect the pilot signal from
its cell and neighboring cells.
▪ This enables a mobile station to do a soft handoff in contrast
to a hard handoff.
Chapter 4: Roadmap
1.1 AMPS
1.2 ETACS
1.3 D-AMPS (IS-54, IS-136)
1.4 GSM
1.5 IS-95
1.6 CT2
1.7 DECT
1.8 PACS
1.9 PDC
1.10 PHS
1.12 3G
1.13 4G
1.14 5G
1.15 6G
CT2 (1)
❖ Cordless Telephone 2
❖ CT2 is the second generation of cordless telephones
introduced in Great Britain in 1989.
❖ The CT2 system is designed for use in both domestic
and office environments.
❖ It is used to provide telepoint services which allow a
subscriber to use CT2 handsets at a public telepoint (a
public telephone booth or a lamp post) to access the
PSTN.
CT2 (2)
❖ CT2 Services and Features
▪ CT2 is a digital version of the first generation, analog,
cordless telephones.
▪ When compared with analog cordless phones, CT2 offers
good speech quality, is more resistant to interference, noise,
and fading, and like other personal telephones, uses a compact
handset with built-in antenna.
▪ The digital transmission provides better security.
▪ Calls may be made only after entering a PIN, thereby
rendering handsets useless to unauthorized users.
▪ The battery in a CT2 subscriber unit typically has a talk-time
of 3 hours and a standby-time of 40 hours.
▪ The CT2 system uses dynamic channel allocation which
minimizes system planning and organization within a
crowded office or urban environment.
Chapter 4: Roadmap
1.1 AMPS
1.2 ETACS
1.3 D-AMPS (IS-54, IS-136)
1.4 GSM
1.5 IS-95
1.6 CT2
1.7 DECT
1.8 PACS
1.9 PDC
1.10 PHS
1.12 3G
1.13 4G
1.14 5G
1.15 6G
DECT (1)
❖ The Digital European Cordless Telephone (DECT) is a
universal cordless telephone standard developed by the
European Telecommunications Standards Institute
(ETSI).
❖ It is the first pan-European standard for cordless
telephones and was finalized in July 1992.
DECT (2)
❖ Features and Characteristics
▪ DECT provides a cordless communications framework for high
traffic density, short range telecommunications, and covers a broad
range of applications and environments.
▪ DECT offers excellent quality and services for voice and data
applications.
▪ The main function of DECT is to provide local mobility to portable
users in an in-building Private Branch Exchange (PBX).
▪ The DECT standard supports telepoint services, as well.
▪ DECT is configured around an open standard (OSI) which makes it
possible to interconnect wide area fixed or mobile networks, such
as ISDN or GSM, to a portable subscriber population.
▪ DECT provides low power radio access between portable parts and
fixed base stations at ranges of up to a few hundred meters.
Chapter 4: Roadmap
1.1 AMPS
1.2 ETACS
1.3 D-AMPS (IS-54, IS-136)
1.4 GSM
1.5 IS-95
1.6 CT2
1.7 DECT
1.8 PACS
1.9 PDC
1.10 PHS
1.12 3G
1.13 4G
1.14 5G
1.15 6G
PACS (1)
❖ Personal Access Communication System (PACS)
▪ PACS is a third generation Personal Communications System
originally developed and proposed by Bellcore in 1992.
▪ PACS is able to support voice, data, and video images for
indoor and microcell use.
▪ PACS is designed to provide coverage within a 500 meter
range.
▪ The main objective of PACS is to integrate all forms of
wireless local loop communications into one system with full
telephone features, in order to provide wireless connectivity
for local exchange carriers (LECs).
▪ Bellcore developed PACS concept with LECs in mind and
named it Wireless Access Communication System (WACS),
but when the Federal Communications Commission
introduced an unlicensed PCS band, the WACS standard was
modified to produce PACS.
PACS (2)
❖ Personal Access Communication System (PACS)
▪ In the original WACS proposal, ten TDMA/FDM time slots
were specified in a 2 ms frame, and a 500 kbps channel data
rate was proposed for a channel bandwidth of 350 kHz using
QPSK modulation.
▪ In PACS, the channel bandwidth, the data rate, the number of
slots per frame, and the frame duration were altered slightly,
and π/4 QPSK was chosen over QPSK.
Chapter 4: Roadmap
1.1 AMPS
1.2 ETACS
1.3 D-AMPS (IS-54, IS-136)
1.4 GSM
1.5 IS-95
1.6 CT2
1.7 DECT
1.8 PACS
1.9 PDC
1.10 PHS
1.12 3G
1.13 4G
1.14 5G
1.15 6G
PDC (1)
❖ Pacific Digital Cellular (PDC)
▪ The Pacific Digital Cellular (PDC) standard was developed
in 1991 to provide for needed capacity in congested cellular
bands in Japan.
▪ PDC is also known as Japanese Digital Cellular (JDC).
PDC (2)
❖ PDC is somewhat similar to the IS-54 standard, but uses 4-ary
modulation for voice and control channels, making it more like
IS-136 in North America.
❖ Frequency division duplexing and TDMA are used to provide
three time slots for three users in a 20 ms frame (6.67 ms per user
slot) on a 25 kHz radio channel.
❖ On each channel, π/4 DQPSK is used, with a channel data rate of
42 kbps.
❖ Channel coding is provided using a rate 9/17, K = 5
convolutional code with CRC.
❖ Speech coding is provided with a 6.7 kbps VSELP speech coder.
❖ An additional 4.5 kbps is provided by the channel coding,
thereby proving 11.2 kbps of combined speech and channel
coding per user.
❖ A new half-rate speech and channel coding standard will support
six users per 20 ms frame.
PDC (3)
❖ PDC is allocated 80 MHz in Japan.
❖ The low PDC band uses 130 MHz forward/reverse
channel splits.
❖ The forward band uses 940 MHz to 956 MHz and the
reverse band 810 MHz to 826 MHz.
❖ The high PDC band uses 48 MHz channel splits and
operates in 1477 MHz to 1501 MHz for the forward
link and 1429 MHz to 1453 MHz for the reverse link.
❖ PDC uses mobile assisted handoff (MAHO) and is able
to support 4-cell reuse.
Chapter 4: Roadmap
1.1 AMPS
1.2 ETACS
1.3 D-AMPS (IS-54, IS-136)
1.4 GSM
1.5 IS-95
1.6 CT2
1.7 DECT
1.8 PACS
1.9 PDC
1.10 PHS
1.12 3G
1.13 4G
1.14 5G
1.15 6G
PHS (1)
❖ Personal Handyphone System
❖ The Personal Handyphone System (PHS) is a Japanese
air interface standard developed by the Research and
Development Center for Radio Systems (RCR).
❖ The PHS network interface was specified by the
Telecommunications Technical Committee of Japan
PHS (2)
❖ The PHS standard, like DECT and PACS-UB, uses
TDMA and TDD.
❖ Four duplex data channels are provided on each radio
channel.
❖ π/4 DQPSK modulation at a channel rate of 384 kbps is
used on both forward and reverse links.
❖ Each TDMA frame is 5 ms in duration, and 32 kbps
ADPCM is used in conjunction with CRC error
detection (without correction).
PHS (3)
❖ PHS supports seventy-seven radio channels, each 300
kHz wide, in the 1895 MHz to 1918.1 MHz band.
❖ Forty channels in the 1906.1 MHz to 1918.1 MHz are
designated for public systems, and the other
thirty-seven channels are used for home or office use in
the 1895 MHz to 1906.1 MHz band.
PHS (4)
❖ PHS uses dynamic channel assignment, so base stations
are able to allocate channels based on the RF
(interference) signal strength seen at both the base and
portable.
❖ PHS uses dedicated control channels (unlike DECT)
which all subscribers lock to while idle.
❖ Handoffs are supported only at walking speeds, as PHS
is designed for microcell/indoor PCS use
Chapter 4: Roadmap
1.1 AMPS
1.2 ETACS
1.3 D-AMPS (IS-54, IS-136)
1.4 GSM
1.5 IS-95
1.6 CT2
1.7 DECT
1.8 PACS
1.9 PDC
1.10 PHS
1.12 3G
1.13 4G
1.14 5G
1.15 6G
Wireless Cable TV (1)
❖ U.S. wireless cable systems use microwave radio
frequencies in the 2150 MHz to 2160 MHz and 2500
MHz to 2700 MHz bands to provide multiple channel
television programming similar to that offered by
traditional hard wire ("wireline") cable systems.
❖ The microwave signals are transmitted over the air from
a transmission tower to an antenna at each subscriber's
home, thus eliminating the need for the large networks
of cable and amplifiers required by wireline cable
operators.
Wireless Cable TV (2)
❖ A typical wireless system consists of head-end
equipment (satellite signal reception equipment, radio
transmitter, other broadcast equipment, and
transmission antenna) and reception equipment at each
subscriber location (antenna, frequency conversion
device, and set-top device).
❖ Currently, wireless cable systems are licensed by the
Federal Communications Commission to deliver up to
thirty-three channels of programming and typically
deliver programming on twenty to thirty-five channels,
including local "off-air" broadcast channels that are
received directly by the customer's antenna rather than
retransmitted by the wireless cable operator.
Chapter 4: Roadmap
1.1 AMPS
1.2 ETACS
1.3 D-AMPS (IS-54, IS-136)
1.4 GSM
1.5 IS-95
1.6 CT2
1.7 DECT
1.8 PACS
1.9 PDC
1.10 PHS
1.12 3G
1.13 4G
1.14 5G
1.15 6G
Third Generation 3G (1)
❖ Provide both digital data and voice communication
❖ Voice quality similar to that of the existing fixed
telephone network
❖ A person can
▪ download and watch a movie,
▪ download and listen to music,
▪ surf the Internet or play games,
▪ have a video conference, and do much more.
❖ IMT 2000
▪ Internet Mobile Communication 2000 (IMT-2000).
▪ The blueprint defines some criteria for third-generation
technology as outlined below:
a. Voice quality comparable to that of the existing public telephone
network.
b. Data rate of 144 kbps for access in a moving vehicle (car), 384 kbps
for access as the user walks (pedestrians), and 2 Mbps for the
stationary user (office or home).
c. Support for packet-switched and circuit-switched data services.
d. A band of 2 GHz.
e. Bandwidths of 2 MHz.
f. Interface to the Internet.
❖ IMT 2000 Radio Interfaces
❖ IMT-DS
▪ Direct Sequence
▪ This approach uses a version of CDMA called wideband
CDMA or W-CDMA.
▪ W-CDMA uses a 5-MHz bandwidth.
▪ It was developed in Europe, and it is compatible with the
CDMA used in IS-95.
❖ IMT-MC
▪ Multi Carrier
▪ This approach was developed in North America and is known
as CDMA 2000.
▪ It is an evolution of CDMA technology used in IS-95
channels.
▪ It combines the new wideband (15-MHz) spread spectrum
with the narrowband (1.25-MHz) CDMA of IS-95.
▪ It is backward-compatible with IS-95.
▪ It allows communication on multiple 1.25-MHz channels (1,
3, 6, 9, 12 times), up to 15 MHz.
▪ The use of the wider channels allows it to reach the 2-Mbps
data rate defined for the third generation.
❖ IMT-TC
▪ Time Code
▪ This standard uses a combination of W-CDMA and TDMA.
▪ The standard tries to reach the IMT-2000 goals by adding
TDMA multiplexing to W-CDMA.
❖ IMT-SC
▪ Single Carrier
▪ This standard uses only TDMA.
❖ IMT-FT
▪ Frequency Time
▪ This standard uses a combination of FDMA and TDMA.
Chapter 4: Roadmap
1.1 AMPS
1.2 ETACS
1.3 D-AMPS (IS-54, IS-136)
1.4 GSM
1.5 IS-95
1.6 CT2
1.7 DECT
1.8 PACS
1.9 PDC
1.10 PHS
1.12 3G
1.13 4G
1.14 5G
1.15 6G
Fourth Generation 4G (1)
❖ Some of the objectives defined by the 4G working
group are as follows:
a. A spectrally efficient system.
b. High network capacity.
c. Data rate of 100 Mbit/s for access in a moving car and 1
Gbit/s for stationary users.
d. Data rate of at least 100 Mbit/s between any two points in the
world.
e. Smooth handoff across heterogeneous networks.
f. Seamless connectivity and global roaming across multiple
networks.
g. High quality of service for next generation multimedia
support.
h. Interoperability with existing wireless standards.
i. All IP, packet-switched, networks.
❖ The fourth generation is only packet-based (unlike 3G)
and supports IPv6.
❖ This provides better multicast, security, and route
optimization capabilities.
❖ Access Scheme
▪ To increase efficiency, capacity, and scalability, new access
techniques are being considered for 4G.
▪ For example, orthogonal FDMA (OFDMA) and interleaved
FDMA (IFDMA) are being considered respectively for the
downlink and uplink of the next generation Universal Mobile
Telecommunications System (UMTS).
▪ Similarly, multicarrier code division multiple access
(MC-CDMA) is proposed for the IEEE 802.20 standard.
❖ Modulation
▪ More efficient quadrature amplitude modulation (64-QAM) is being
proposed for use with the Long Term Evolution (LTE) standards.
❖ Radio System
▪ The fourth generation uses a Software Defined Radio (SDR)
system.
▪ Unlike a common radio, which uses hardware, the
components of an SDR are pieces of software and thus
flexible.
▪ The SDR can change its program to shift its frequencies to
mitigate frequency interference.
❖ Antenna
▪ The multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) and multiuser
MIMO (MU-MIMO) antenna system, a branch of intelligent
antenna, is proposed for 4G.
▪ Using this antenna system together with special multiplexing,
4G allows independent streams to be transmitted
simultaneously from all the antennas to increase the data rate
into multiple folds.
❖ Applications
▪ At the present rates of 15-30 Mbit/s, 4G is capable of
providing users with streaming high-definition television.
Chapter 4: Roadmap
1.1 AMPS
1.2 ETACS
1.3 D-AMPS (IS-54, IS-136)
1.4 GSM
1.5 IS-95
1.6 CT2
1.7 DECT
1.8 PACS
1.9 PDC
1.10 PHS
1.12 3G
1.13 4G
1.14 5G
1.15 6G
Fifth Generation 5G (1)
❖ 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP), defines
"5G" as any system using 5G NR (5G New Radio)
© https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/5G Wireless Systems and Standards 4-65

❖ Application Areas
▪ The ITU-R has defined three main application areas for the
enhanced capabilities of 5G
• Enhanced Mobile Broadband (eMBB)
• Ultra Reliable Low Latency Communications (URLLC)
• Massive Machine Type Communications (mMTC)
▪ Only eMBB is deployed in 2020; URLLC and mMTC are
several years away in most locations
❖ Enhanced Mobile Broadband (eMBB)
▪ uses 5G as a progression from 4G LTE mobile broadband
services, with faster connections, higher throughput, and
more capacity.
▪ This will benefit areas of higher traffic such as stadiums,
cities, and concert venues.

❖ Ultra-Reliable Low-Latency Communications (URLLC)
▪ refer to using the network for mission critical applications
that require uninterrupted and robust data exchange.
▪ The short-packet data transmission is used to meet both
reliability and latency requirements of the wireless
communication networks.

❖ Massive Machine-Type Communications (mMTC)
▪ would be used to connect to a large number of devices.
▪ 5G technology will connect some of the 50 billion connected
IoT devices.
▪ Most will use the less expensive Wi-Fi. Drones, transmitting
via 4G or 5G, will aid in disaster recovery efforts, providing
real-time data for emergency responders.
▪ Most cars will have a 4G or 5G cellular connection for many
services. However, most autonomous vehicles also feature
teleoperations for mission accomplishment, and these greatly
benefit from 5G technology

❖ Speed
▪ 5G speeds will range from around 50 Mbps to 1,000 Mbps (1
Gbps) depending on the RF channel and BS load.
▪ The fastest 5G speeds would be in the mmWave bands and
can reach 4 Gbit/s with carrier aggregation and MIMO
(assuming a perfect channel and no other BS load).

❖ Standards
▪ Initially, the term was associated with the International
Telecommunication Union's IMT-2020 standard, which
required a theoretical peak download speed of 20 gigabits
per second and 10 gigabits per second upload speed, along
with other requirements.
▪ Then, the industry standards group 3GPP chose the 5G NR
(New Radio) standard together with LTE as their proposal
for submission to the IMT-2020 standard

❖ New Radio Frequencies
▪ The air interface defined by 3GPP for 5G is known as New
Radio (NR), and the specification is subdivided into two
frequency bands, FR1 (below 6 GHz) and FR2 (24–54 GHz)
❖ Frequency range 1 (< 6 GHz)
▪ Otherwise known as sub-6, the maximum channel bandwidth
defined for FR1 is 100 MHz, due to the scarcity of
continuous spectrum in this crowded frequency range.
▪ The band most widely being used for 5G in this range is
3.3–4.2 GHz.
▪ The Korean carriers use the n78 band at 3.5 GHz.

❖ Frequency range 2 (24–54 GHz)
▪ The minimum channel bandwidth defined for FR2 is 50 MHz
and the maximum is 400 MHz, with two-channel aggregation
supported in 3GPP Release 15.
▪ The higher the frequency, the greater the ability to support
high data-transfer speeds.
▪ Signals in this frequency have been described as mmWave.

❖ Massive MIMO
▪ Massive MIMO (multiple-input and multiple-output) antennas
increases sector throughput and capacity density using large
numbers of antennas.
▪ This includes Single User MIMO and Multi-user MIMO
(MU-MIMO)

❖ Small Cell
▪ Small cells are low-powered cellular radio access nodes that
operate in licensed and unlicensed spectrum that have a
range of 10 meters to a few kilometers.
▪ Small cells are critical to 5G networks, as 5G's radio waves
can't travel long distances, because of 5G's higher
frequencies.

❖ Beamforming
▪ There are two kinds of beamforming: digital and analog.
▪ Digital beamforming involves sending the data across multiple
streams (layers),
▪ Analog beamforming shaping the radio waves to point in a
specific direction.
❖ 5G uses both digital and analog beamforming to
improve the system capacity

Chapter 4: Roadmap
1.1 AMPS
1.2 ETACS
1.3 D-AMPS (IS-54, IS-136)
1.4 GSM
1.5 IS-95
1.6 CT2
1.7 DECT
1.8 PACS
1.9 PDC
1.10 PHS
1.12 3G
1.13 4G
1.14 5G
1.15 6G
Sixth Generation 6G (1)
❖ Terahertz and millimeter wave progress
▪ Millimeter waves (30 to 300 GHz) and Terahertz radiation
(300 to 3000 GHz) might, according to some speculations, be
used in 6G.
▪ The wave propagation of these frequencies is however much
more sensitive to obstacles than the microwave frequencies
(about 2 to 30 GHz) used in 5G and Wi-Fi, which are more
sensitive than the radio waves used in 1G, 2G, 3G and 4G.
© https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/6G_(network) Wireless Systems and Standards 4-77

Sixth Generation 6G (2)
❖ Speed
▪ In January 2022, Purple Mountain Laboratories of China
claimed that its research team had achieved a world record
of 206.25 gigabits per second (Gbit/s) data rate for the first
time in a lab environment within the terahertz frequency
band which is supposed to be the base of 6G cellular
technology
© https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/6G_(network) Wireless Systems and Standards 4-78

END

Wireless (Chapter 4)

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Wireless (Chapter 4)

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Chapter 4

Wireless Systems and

Wireless Systems and Standards 4-1

Wireless Systems and Standards 4-4

AMPS Reverse Communication Band

49 error control bits

42.25 TDMA control bits

ESN – Electronic Serial Number

242 pseudorandom chips

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Wireless Systems and Standards 4-79

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