CHAPTER 4: LEADERSHIP TRAINING
means the drive and ambition needed to
Human Behavior
According to businessdictionary.com,
human behavior is the "capacity of mental,
physical, emotional, and social activities
experienced during the five stages of a
human being's life-prenatal, infancy,
childhood, adolescence, and adulthood
It includes the behaviors as dictated by
culture, society, values, morals, ethics, and
genetics."
Encyclopedia Britannica (2012) states that
human beings have a typical life course that
consists of successive phases of growth,
each of which is characterized by a distinct
set of physical, physiological, and
behavioral features. These phases are
prenatal life, infancy, childhood,
adolescence, and adulthood (including old
age).
Human development or developmental
psychology is a field of study that attempts
to describe and explain the changes in
human cognitive, emotional, and behavioral
capabilities and functioning over the entire
life.
Motivation
Motivation encompasses the internal and
external factors that stimulate desire and
energy in people to be continually interested
in and committed to a job, role, or subject,
and to exert persistent efforts in attaining a
goal. It results from the interaction among
conscious and unconscious factors such as
the (a) intensity of desire or need, (b)
incentive or reward value of the goal, and
(c) expectations of the individual and of
his/her significant others.
According to Swindell (2012), motivation
achieve our goals. We all need that extra
push at some stage of our life, whether it be
at work, in school, or home; or maybe to
give up a bad habit or shed a few pounds.
We need motivation to get a job done and
achieve a goal.
Self-motivation can work for some people.
For example, if you are trying to lose some
weight, just imagine how you will look and
feel when you can fit again in your smaller-
sized clothes. An old photograph of a
slimmer you could help motivate you to
keep going
If you work in sales, it is important to stay
motivated to achieve your targets in order to
earn cash bonuses or even job promotion in
addition to commission.
It is also easy to become demotivated. For
example, you may be way off your sales
targets and you realize there is no chance
of reaching them, so you just give up.
Negative people can demotivate you as
well.
Good Leadership
Leadership pertains to the qualities
exemplified by a leader. It also refers to acts
of leading or the "process of social influence
in which one person can enlist the aid and
support of others in the accomplishment of
a common task." It is often said that some
people are good leaders while others are
not. But what is really the basis for judging
one's capacity to be a good leader? From a
follower's perspective, good leadership can
be attributed to qualities that make people
follow a leader. It would be great to have all
these qualities, but not all leaders do have
them.
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD 6. Communication skills. Good leaders
LEADER are usually great orators and persuaders.
They can express their ideas clearly and
Here are ten essential characteristics of a
convincingly.
good leader. Do you think you possess
them?
7. Persistence. Good leaders are
determined to attain their goals in spite of
1. Vision. Good leaders know where they
the obstacles and problems. They believe
want to go and they can motivate people to
that the benefits of attaining their goals
believe in their vision for their country,
outweigh the risks and hardships.
community, and family. Good leaders view
things as what they could be and not simply
as what they are.
8. Integrity. Good leaders mean what they
say. They walk the talk, practice what they
preach, and keep their promises. They are
2. Wit. Good leaders can make sound
reliable.
judgments and decisions even during
crucial situations.
9. Daring. Good leaders are bold, willing to
take risks, and determined to chase their
3, Passion. Good leaders are very
dreams amid the reality of fear and
passionate and intensely obsessed in
uncertainty. Winston Churchill states that
whatever they are focused on, be it
courage is the virtue on which all others
business, sport, or hobby.
virtues rest.

4. Compassion. Good leaders show

compassion for their supporters and
followers They possess exemplary coaching
and development skills. While these leaders
have goals to accomplish, they can still
consistently care for their constituents. They
are not selfish individuals who think only
about their own wants and needs. They
have a heart for others.
5. Charisma. Good leaders are captivating,
charming individuals who tend to draw
people toward them. It could be because of
the way they talk, or carry themselves. They
excel in building relationships and eliciting
performance from their groups.
10. Discipline. Good leaders observe self-
control and order. Where most people are
easily distracted or dejected, good leaders
manage to stay focused and steady
regardless of the situation.
SOME OF THE TRAITS OF THAT
LEADER:
1. Character is the quality of a person's
behavior as revealed by his/her habits,
thoughts and expressions, attitudes and
interests, actions, and personal
philosophies in life. Be a piece of the rock.
There are always two paths to choose from:
character and compromise. Opt for
character.
2. Charisma a special spiritual bestowed Transformational Leadership
temporarily by the Holy Spirit on a group or
Bass (1990) explains that transformational
an individual for the general good. It is an
leadership is a form of leadership that
extraordinary power in a person, group, or
occurs when leaders broaden and elevate
cause, which takes hold of popular
the interests of their employees, when they
imagination and wins popular support.
generate awareness and acceptance of the
purposes and mission of the group, and
they stimulate their employees to look
3. Commitment engages one to do
beyond their own self-interest for the good
something as a continuing obligation. It is
of the group.
state of intellectual and emotional
adherence to some political, social, and
religious theory of action.
Transformational leaders have a clear
collective vision, and most importantly, they
manage to communicate it effectively to all
4. Communication is a two-way process of
employees. By acting as role models, they
reaching mutual understanding, in which
inspire employees to put the good of the
participants do not only exchange (encode-
whole organization above self-interest. They
decode) information but also create and
also motivate employees to be more
share meaning. The meaning of
innovative, and they themselves take
communication is in the and not in what is
personal risks and are not afraid to use
said or how it is said.
unconventional (but ethical) methods to
achieve the collective vision.

5. Competence indicates a sufficiency of

knowledge and skills that enable someone
This form of leadership goes beyond
to act in a wide variety of situations. It is the
traditional forms of transactional leadership
capacity of a person to understand a
that emphasizes corrective action and
situation and to respond to it accordingly
mutual exchanges and rewards only when
and reasonably. A core competency is
performance expectations are met.
fundamental knowledge, ability, or expertise
in a specific area. Transactional leadership relies mainly on
centralized control. Managers direct most
activities by telling each person what to do,
6. Courage is the quality of the mind that when to do it, and how to do it.
enables a person to face difficulty and
Transformational leaders, on the other
danger without fear. It begins with an inward
hand, trust their subordinates and give them
battle. It is making things right, not just
enough space to breathe and grow.
smoothing them over. It inspires
commitment from followers.. Life expands in
proportion to one's courage.
TRANSACTIONAL AND
TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP
Transactional leadership is based on power
that makes use of rewards and coercion to
deliver benefits to members (patronage), or
to force or instill fear as illustrated by
colonization, vote-buying, and similar
methods.
Transformational leadership or real
leadership starts from the recognition of
what
the members need and the steps toward
achieving these needs, and relating rewards
to effort. The leader acts as a role model.
He/She lives out values, demonstrates
personal qualities, is approachable and
accessible, and accepts pressure to
perform. The leader treats people as
individuals and involves many in decision-
making, seeks to empower and give
maximum freedom, and is concerned with
developing members collectively and
individually.
BEHAVIORS OF A
TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADER
1. Is articulate in creating compelling vision
of the future
2. Uses stories and symbols to
communicate his/her vision and message
3. Specifies the importance of having a
strong sense of purpose and a collective
mission
4. Talks optimistically and enthusiastically
and expresses confidence that goals will be
achieved
5. Engenders the trust and respect of
his/her followers by doing the right thing
rather than simply doing things right
6. Instills pride in employees
7. Talks most about important values and
beliefs 8. Considers the moral and ethical
consequences of decisions
9. Seeks different perspectives when
solving problems 10. Encourages
employees to challenge old assumptions
and to think about problems in new ways
11. Spends time teaching and coaching 12.
Considers each individual employee's
different needs, abilities, and aspirations
13. Is compassionate, appreciative, and
responsive to each employee and
recognizes and celebrates each employee's
achievements.
FOUR COMPONENTS OF
TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP
1. Charisma. The leader's charisma or
idealized influence is envisioning and
building confidence, and he/she sets high
standards to be followed.
2. Inspirational motivation. The leader's
inspirational motivation provides followers
with challenges and meanings/reasons for
engaging in shared goals and undertakings.
3. Intellectual stimulation. The leader's
intellectual stimulation moves followers to
question assumptions and generate more
creative solutions to problems. 4.
Individualized consideration. The leader
treats each follower as an individual and
provides coaching, mentoring, and growth
opportunities.
The qualities of transformational leadership
can be found at different levels:
community, national, and even global
communities, and in various sectors of
the society.
The leaders are able to translate their vision
and commitment into institutional practice.
Transformational leadership is non-
hierarchical in structure and participatory in
the processes. It is characterized by high
moral and ethical standards in each of the
aforementioned components.
THE TRANSFORMATION OF VALUES,
processes, and institutions appears as
follows:
A. Transformation of values
✓ from power as dominion to power as
liberation
✓ from war and conflict to peace
✓ from efficiency consideration to equality
and equity (balance between genders)
✓ from growth to sustainability
✓ from "winner take-all norm to sharing and
caring
B. Transformation of processes
✓from hierarchical to participatory
✓from corrupt to clean
✔from secretive to transparent
✓from burdensome to empowering
C. Transformation of institutions
✓ from bureaucratic to egalitarian,
responsive, and accountable.
Moving from transactional leadership to
transformational leadership requires a shift
in leadership functions.
1. People are taking more responsibility for
their own decisions. This situation requires
the leaders to provide conditions for
creativity and develop fewer levels of
leadership-flatter structures,
2. Leaders concentrate on strategy to help
people respond to the changing world. In
this context, transformational leadership is
critical for an organization. The primary
leader needs to come from the ranks of
members. Leadership cannot be left to the
executives. The organization must grow its
own leaders.
Transformational leadership has three types
of functions: task functions, team functions,
and individual functions. There has to be
balance among the three functions.
1. Transformational leadership and task
functions:
✓ Defining the tasks-involves others
✓ Making the plan-involves others
✓ Allocating the tasks-involves others rather
than the leader giving out tasks
✓ Controlling the tasks-uses peer pressure
and self-control rather than being
disciplinary ✓ Checking the performance-
more self-management within the
transformational approach
✓ Adjusting the plan-with group review
2.Transformational leadership and team
functions:
✓ Setting the standards-involves the group
✓ Enforcing discipline
✔ Promoting team spirit
✓Encouraging and motivating
✓ Developing sub-leaders
✓ Communicating with the group has to be
open and honest
✓ Training-lifelong learning process
everyone needs to undergo
3. Transformational leadership and
individual function.
✓ Attending to personal problems
✓Praising individuals, enhancing confidence
✔Giving status pride
✓ Using abilities of the people within the
organization-training as a continuing
process
✓ Involving individuals in decision-making
processes
Leadership Development
• Develop a pool of leaders
✓ find people with basic leadership qualities
✓ widen the "catchment area"
✓assure a democratic process
• Provide knowledge and skills
✓build leaders personal capacities
✔ recognize this as a lifelong process
• Support active leaders
✔actively support leaders continuously and
not to place them in positions and leave
them there
Virtuous Cycle of Leadership Control
There has to be awareness of the
framework through which transformational
leadership must operate, emphasizing that
an active and informed membership is
critical to effective leadership
Students A leader has wholehearted faith
and belief in the rightness of a cause. A
leader who shows his/her full support to an
organization indirectly tells the members to
do the
1. A leader should be energetic,
sympathetic, friendly, and understanding to
ensure the enthusiastic cooperation of
followers.
2. He/She should have confidence in
knowing and doing his/her job to gain the
confidence of followers.
3. He/She should be an example to
followers.
SEVEN HABITS OF HIGHLY EFFECTIVE
PEOPLE ADOPTED FROM SEVEN
HABITS OF HIGHLY EFFECTIVE PEOPLE
BY STEPHEN
1. Be proactive.
Covey (2007)
Proactive means being able to take
responsibility for your life. You have the
freedom to choose your behavior and
response to stimuli. Use your creativity and
have some initiative. You are the one in
charge.
2. Begin with the in mind.
Know where you want to go. When making
plans and decisions, see to it that the time
and effort that will be spent conform to what
you want to achieve. Envision your goal and
make it happen.
3. Put first things first.
Practice self-management. Know your
priorities.
4. Think win-win.
Look at life as a cooperative arena, not a
competitive one. Enter agreements or make
solutions that are mutually beneficial and
satisfying to both parties.
5. Seek first to understand, then to be
understood.
As the saying goes, "The best way to
understand is to listen." The practice of
empathy governs this habit. It is about
putting yourself in someone else's shoes.
By listening to a person's explanation, only
then can you evaluate, probe, give advice,
and interpret his/her feelings.
6. Synergize.
The whole is greater than the sum of its
parts. More tasks can be done if all things
within reach are maximized and utilized.
Synergize is the habit of creative
cooperation. Better results can be produced
as a group than as individuals.
7. Sharpen the saw.
What you have learned a couple of years
back will have become outdated. Many
things evolve and develop so fast that you
need to update through various food-for-the
brain resources. A sense of humor is vital to
relieve tension and boredom as well as to
defuse hostility. Effective leaders know how
to use humor to energize his/her followers.
Humor is a form of power that provides
some control over the work environment
even as it fosters camaraderie.
TEAMWORK
Teamwork is the process of working
collaboratively with a group of people in
order to achieve a goal. It is often a crucial
part of a business as it is often necessary
for colleagues to work well together and try
their best in any circumstance. Teamwork
means that people will try to cooperate by
using their individual skills and providing
constructive feedback, despite any personal
conflict between individuals. Teamwork
brings people together for a common
purpose or goal and subordinates the needs
of individuals to the needs of the group.
Many management gurus define team as a
group of individuals passionately committed
to their end goal. When groups have
common goals, teamwork is vital to
success. Teachers expect teamwork among
students, employers expect employees to
function effectively as a team; and most
organizations convene teams to handle
problems or projects. Therefore, it is
important to learn teamwork skills even if
you prefer to work independently.
What does teamwork look like in action?
Basically, group members focus on the
goal. They put aside individual differences
and petty grievances to get the job done.
They show passion for the project and each
contributes to its success.
TIME MANAGEMENT
The succeeding sections have been
adopted from the writing of Paulla Estes
edited by Niki Foster (May 28, 2012).
 Time management is the art of
arranging, organizing, scheduling,
and budgeting one's time for the
purpose of generating more effective
work and productivity. There is an
abundance of books, classes,
workshops, day-planners, and
seminars on time management,
which teach individuals and
corporations how to be more
organized and productive. Time
management has become crucial in
recent years, thanks to the 24/7,
busy world in which we live.
 Time management is important for
everyone. While time management
books and seminars often place their
focus on business leaders and
corporations, time management is
also necessary for students,
teachers, factory workers,
professionals, and homemakers
 Time management is perhaps most
essential for the person who runs a
business of his her own or not.
Managing work and home
responsibilities under the same roof
takes a special type of time
management. An important aspect
of time management is planning
ahead. Sometimes, successful time
management involves putting in
more time at the outset in order to
reorganize one's life. Though many
time management books and
teachings differ in their suggestions,
most agree that the first step in
efficient time management is to
organize the workspace. Even if
one's schedule is well ordered but if
the office and filing systems are a
disaster, time will be wasted trying to
work efficiently in a disorderly place.
After cleaning, purging, and reorganizing
the home or office, the next step in time
management is to look at all the activities
one participates in during a week. Every last
detail should be written down, including the
time it takes to shower, dress, commute,
attend meetings, make phone calls, clean
the house, cook dinner, pick up the children
from school, take them to after-school
activities, and cat cals. Also time for
entertainment or exercise, such as driving to
the gym, going for a walk, watching
television, or surfing the Internet.
Often, when individuals write down every
last activity, they find that there is very little
time left for sleeping. The end result is that
many activities must be pared down,
eliminated, consolidated, or delegated.
Prioritizing activities on a scale of one to
three one being the most important and
three being the least-can help with this task.

Lastly, good time management involves
keeping a schedule of the tasks and
activities that have been deemed important.
Keeping a calendar or daily planner is
helpful to stay on task, but self-discipline is
also required. The most efficient to-do list in
the world will not help someone who does
not look at or follow his/her own daily
planner.
Of course, the other side of the argument is
to remember to live. Get on top of your time
management, get organized, and stay on
task, but live your life. Schedule some time
off every day and at least one day off each
week. Be organized, but do not be a slave
to time management.
DECISION-MAKING
 Decision-making is a process that
involves selecting the most logical
choice from among two or more
options. An example is deciding
whether to move to a new
apartment, to live with the in-laws, or
stay in the same apartment. Making
a decision is instrumental in the
survival and prosperity of human
beings. The right choice is what sets
an average individual from the rest.
Although the ability of making the
correct decision within a short span
of time is a highly valued trait, we
cannot simply follow a set of
patterns when deciding on a course
of action at all points in time. There
are different types of decision-
making that we do depending on the
situation at hand. Consider the
following in decision-making:
1. Identification of alternative solutions.
2. Evaluation of possible options to
determine which one meets the decision
objectives.
3. Selection of the best option after an in-
depth evaluation
Involvement in Decision-making
Every group has to make a decision at one
time or another and all the members have to
make a commitment to choose the best
option available. The following are the
different types of involvement in making
decisions:
1. Consensus or agreement involves
compromising various possibilities after all
opinions have been heard. Disagreements
and minority viewpoints are discussed fully.
Everyone feels free to express
himself/herself. This method helps build
understanding, unity, cooperation, and
commitment.
2. Majority voting is considered the most
effective way to make a decision. However,
one may lose the interest or loyalty of the
members of the minority who voted against
the decision, especially if they feel their side
was not heard.
3. The minority is not consciously
organized, but a few powerful personalities
dominate the group, often unconsciously.
These people later wonder why the others
are apathetic.
4. The silent consensus of some groups
leads to unanimous decisions. This type of
involvement in decision-making is rarely
applied when tackling important issues.
Unanimous agreement is sometimes
assumed when some members do not want
to disagree and have chosen to stay silent.
5. The clique is a small group whose
members plan beforehand to get their way
in decision-making. Because they are better
organized than those who disagree, they
are often successful in getting/having their
own way in resolving an immediate issue,
but they bring a spirit of rivalry, rather than
cooperation, to the group.
4. Hidden agenda or secret motive can
hinder decision-making for reasons a
member-does not share with the group.
5. Blundering methods include using rigid
procedure that leaves little room for
expressing differing views, substituting
personal opinions for adequate information,
and disregarding proper consultation or
consensus
6. Inadequate leadership restricts the
expression of opinions and discussion on
issues. Leaders fail to provide assistance in
selecting appropriate methods for decision-
making or are insensitive to the factors that
cause difficulty in the group.

6. The handclasp happens when one

person makes a suggestion and another 7. Clash of interest occurs when different
commends it. Without further discussion, groups or individuals within an organization
the matter is decided. Resentment, have opposing interests.
however, surfaces later on.
7. The one-person decision is quickly
made, but later when the decider needs free
or voluntary support from others to
implement the decision, he/she might find
trouble getting it.
8. The plop occurs when a group makes a
decision by not making a decision at all.
Someone makes a suggestion, but it is
dropped or junked altogether and no one
pays any attention to it.

DIFFICULTIES IN DECISION-MAKING
1. Fear of consequences brings division and
disagreement.
2. Conflicting loyalties of one person as a
member of different groups frequently leads
to divided loyalties about decisions.
3. Interpersonal conflicts and personal
differences evoke various feelings among
members, which interfere with sound
decision-making.
CHAPTER 5: FUNDAMENTAL OF GROUP
DYNAMICS
Group
Group is defined as two or more persons
engaged in a social interaction. This implies
that each member of a group is aware of the
other members and their influence. Some
psychologists consider this definition too
general and prefer to limit the use of the
term group to a collection of individuals who
find their association with one another
rewarding. Others say that a group exists
only when the individual members have
developed status and role relationships with
respect to one another. Still others insist
that the individuals must have a common
goal in order for them to be considered as a
group.
The existence of any group is assumed to
depend on the participation and satisfaction
of the individuals comprising it.
Group Dynamics
The social process by which people interact
in a small group and in a face-to-face
manner is called group dynamics. Dynamics
comes from the Greek word dunamis which
means "force." Group dynamics then refers
to the study of the forces operating within a
group.
Forces Found in Small Groups
There are two important historical
landmarks in understanding small groups.
These are the research of Elton Mayo and
his associates in the 1920s and 1930s, and
the experiments conducted in the 1930s by
Kurt Lewin, considered as the founder of the
group dynamics movement. According to
Mayo, workers tend to establish formal
groups that affect job satisfaction and
effectiveness. Lewin shows that different
kinds of leadership attitudes produce
different responses in groups.
A group is composed of individuals who
have come together to accomplish a
particular task or goal. Group dynamics
refers to the attitudinal and behavioral
characteristics of a group. In a group, the
members share consciousness of
membership and interaction. A group is not
a mere collection of individuals but an
aggregate of personalities acting and
interacting with one another in the process
of living. To be a member of a group, one
must participate in its common life and
activities. Group dynamics form the
structure of a group and how its members
function.
Concepts of Social Group
San Juan and Centeno (2011) present that
"psychologically, man is said to be a rational
being; politically, he is a political and power-
seeking being; theologically, he is a
religious, God-seeking being, and
sociologically, man is a gregarious social
being seeking the company of other social
beings. The saying "No man is an island"
explains that a person cannot live
satisfactorily by himself/herself alone.
His/Her very existence and the satisfaction
of his/her needs and wants, as well as
his/her happiness, depends to a large
degree upon his/her association with other
people.
Special Properties of Groups
The special properties of groups are
illustrated by a simple lesson in
mathematics, as in one plus one equals
three. This is a logical error in the world of
mathematics. In the world of group
dynamics, however, this is rational. In a
group, there is no such thing as merely a
composition of two people. It is their
relationship that makes it three. For
instance, salt (sodium chloride) has different
properties from the sodium and the chlorine
elements that form a group to make it (San
Juan & Centeno, 2011).
Group types are classified as formal or
informal in nature. Formal work groups are
established by an organization to achieve its
goals.
TYPES OF GROUPS
Groups are generally classified as follows:
1. Primary group is characterized by
intimate face-to-face association and
cooperation among its members. It
fundamentally forms the social nature and
ideals of an individual. It involves sympathy
and mutual identification which is a form of
natural expression (San Juan & Centeno,
2011).
2. Secondary group consists of members
who are aware and cognizant of personal
relationships, but they do not feel that their
lives are bound with one another except in
time of social crisis. The members may be
separated from one another by distance or
by a lack of personal physical contact.
Nevertheless, they can share their interests
through correspondence, press, radio,
telephone, or other means (San Juan &
Centeno, 2011).
Characteristics of a Group
Here are the important characteristics of a
group:
1. Interaction is the pattern of mutual
influence (physical, verbal, non-verbal,
emotional, etc.).
2. Structure is a stable pattern of
relationships.
 Roles deal with the behavior
expected of members in a given
position.
 Norms are the rules that identify
and describe appropriate behavior.
 Inter-member relations are
influenced by authority and
communication.
3. Goals are the reason for existence.
4. Perceived groupness is the extent in
which members see themselves as one
(common fate, similarity, proximity).
5. Dynamic interdependency occurs when
the members are active, energized, vibrant,
and changing 6. Motivation focuses on
personal needs which when attained-lead to
satisfaction.
KINDS OF FORMAL GROUPS
Formal groups are divided into the following:
1. Command groups are specified by the
organizational chart and often composed of
a leader and the members who directly
report to him/her.
Example: An academic department
consisting of a chair and faculty members
2. Task groups consist of people who work
together to achieve a common task.
Members are brought together to
accomplish a narrow range of goals within a
specified time.
Examples: Ad hoc committees, project
groups, standing committees
 organization and members can invite others
to join from time to time.
3. Functional groups are created by an
organization to accomplish specific goals
within an unspecified time frame. They
Meeting is convened for different purposes.
continue to function even after their goals
Some are for information, advice, decision-
have been achieved.
making, negotiation, coordination, and
Example: A sales and marketing creative thinking. A committee holds a
department specific type of meeting in which members
have been delegated authority with regard
to the problem at hand.
KINDS OF INFORMAL GROUPS
I. Interest groups usually continue over
A meeting of five people seems to be
time and may last longer than general
preferred for typical situations (Davis 1982).
informal groups. The goals and objectives of
A smaller group sometimes has difficulty
interest groups are specific to each group
functioning because conflicts of power
and may not be related to organizational
develop. If membership rises above seven,
goals and objectives.
communication tends to become centralized
Example: Students who come together to because members do not have adequate
form a study group for a specific class opportunity to communicate with one
another (Evangelista 1992).
2. Friendship groups are formed by
individuals who enjoy similar social
activities, political beliefs, religious values,
Conclusion
or other common bonds. Members enjoy
each other's company. A person cannot live alone; he/she needs
the company of others. By nature a social
Examples: Students who have an exercise
being who needs to form a group, a person
group or who meet for at so-called jamming
has his/her own community. Aside from
3. Reference groups are composed of permanent groupings, there are also
people who are evaluated for social temporary ones such as the various
validation and social comparison. Social organizations in society, which may be
validation allows individuals to justify their religious, economic, or political in nature.
attitudes and value while social comparison
Forming a group is important to every
helps individuals evaluate their own actions
human being because he/she needs a
by comparing themselves with others.
companion for the rest of his/her life.
However, regulation must be imposed and
followed for the smooth existence of any
Informal groups are formed naturally in group.
response to the common interests and
shared values of individuals. They are
created for purposes other than the
accomplishment of organizational goals and
do not have a specified time frame. Informal
groups are not designated by an
CHAPTER 6: DIMENSION OF
DEVELOPMENT: HEALTH AWARENESS
Communicable Diseases Here are some
common infections diseases:
 Dengue
Hawker et al. (2007) mention in their book
that dengue fever is a febrile disease
caused by one of four closely related virus
serotypes of the genus Flavivirus, family
Flaviviridae. Each scrotype is sufficiently
different that there is no cross-protection,
and epidemics caused by multiple serotypes
(hyperendemicity) can occur. Dengue is
transmitted to humans by the Aedes aegypti
mosquitoes that are found in the tropics.
They tend to bite just after dawn and just
before sunset. However, it has been
observed that they can bite and spread
infection at any time of day. Incubation
period is from 3 to 15 days.
Signs and Symptoms of Dengue
Dengue is manifested by a sudden onset of
high fever with severe headache and
muscle and joint pains, myalgia and
arthralgia. It is also called breakbone fever
or bonecrusher disease. The patient may
develop dengue rashes that are
characteristically bright red petechiae.
These usually appear first on the lower
limbs and chest and spread to cover most of
the body. The patient may suffer from
gastritis, abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting,
or diarrhea,
Mild cases of dengue, where no rash is
present, can be misdiagnosed as flu or
other viral infection. Patients can pass on
the infection through mosquitoes or blood
products while they are still febrile.
Prevention of Dengue
The best way of prevention is to avoid being
bitten by mosquitoes. Take note of the
following tips:
1. Use mosquito nets and insect repellent.
2. Put screens on doors and windows.
3. Refrain from going outdoors during the
time of the day when mosquitoes are most
active.
4. Remove stagnant water. Cover water
containers and change water in flower
vases frequently.
 Malaria
Malaria is a vector-borne infectious disease
that is widespread in tropical and
subtropical regions, including the
Philippines. It is "commonly associated with
poverty but is also an effect of poverty and a
major hindrance to economic development"
(Engelkirk, 2007).
Malaria, according to Engelkirk (2007) in
Burton's Microbiology for the Health
Sciences is one of the most common
infectious diseases and enormous public-
health problems." It is caused by protozoan
parasites of the genus Plasmodium. The
most serious forms of the disease are
caused by Plasmodium falciparum and
Plasmodium vivax, but other related species
can also infect humans. This group of
human-pathogenic Plasmodium species is
usually referred to as malaria parasites
(Hawker et al., 2007). They are transmitted
by female Anopheles mosquitoes.

Signs and symptoms of Malaria
The parasites multiply within the red blood
cells and cause anemia, high fever, chills,
nausea, headache, diarrhea, and in severe
cases, coma and death.
Prevention of Malaria
Malaria can be prevented by avoiding
mosquito bites through the use of mosquito
nets and insect repellent, spraying
insecticides, and draining standing water
where mosquitoes lay their eggs.
No vaccine is currently available for malaria.
Preventive drugs must be taken
continuously to reduce the risk of infection.
 Cholera
Cholera is an acute intestinal infection
caused by ingestion of food or water
contaminated with the bacterium Vibrio
cholerae. It has a short incubation period
lasting from less than one day to five days.
It also produces an enterotoxin that causes
copious, painless, and watery diarrhea that
can quickly lead to severe dehydration and
death if treatment is not promptly given.
Vomiting also occurs in most patients
(Hawker et al., 2007).
The incubation period of cholera according
to Hawker, et al. (2007) is from six (6) to
forty-eight (48) hours, but there are reported
cases of people being infected during the
period of diarrhea and up to seven (7) days
after.
Signs and Symptoms of Cholera Aside from
diarrhea, the patient may also experience
nausea, vomiting, fever, and muscle
clamps.
Prevention of Cholera
Follow these precautions to reduce the risk
of contracting cholera:
1. Wash hands with soap and water
frequently and throughly,
2. Drink safe water only.
3. Eat food that is completely cooked.
4. Avoid raw food, street food, and any food
from suspicious sources. 5. Observe proper
hygiene and sanitation at all times.
 Avian Influenza (Bird Flu)
Avian influenza is an infection caused by
avian influenza A viruses found chiefly in
birds, but infections can occur in humans.
The risk is generally low to most people
because the viruses do not usually infect
humans. However, confirmed cases of
human infection have been reported since
1997. Most cases of avian influenza
infection in humans could have resulted
from direct contact with infected poultry or
contaminated surfaces. H5N1 is a
particularly deadly strain of bird flu that can
infect humans and other mammals.
Signs and Symptoms of Avian Influenza
Symptoms of avian flu in humans include
fever, cough, sore throat, and muscle
aches. Some people may also experience
nausea, vomiting, pneumonia, diarrhea, and
others severe and life threatening
complications, depending on which virus
has caused the infection.

Prevention of Avian Influenza
Consider these precautionary measures to
prevent infection:
1. Wash hands or use alcohol-based hand
sanitizer to avoid infection of all kinds.
2. Stay away from farms and live animal
markets.
3. Cover mouth and nose when coughing or
sneezing.
4. Cook chicken throughly. Do not eat raw
eggs. 5. Avoid cross-contamination. Do not
use the same utensils for both raw meat
and other kinds of food.
H1N1
H1N1 is a flu virus that is also known as the
swine flu. Scientists call the HINI virus a
"quadruple reassortant" virus because it
contains two genes found in flu viruses
which circulate among pigs and two genes
found in flu viruses which circulate among
birds. The HINI virus is passed from person
to person just like other flu strains. But not
by eating pork.
What sets the HINI virus apart from other
seasonal flu viruses is that studies have
shown it to cause more severe symptoms in
people younger than 25 years of age while
people over 60 years old have some
immunity against it.
Most cases of flu caused by HINI are mild.
However, there have been cases of severe
complications in people with other medical
conditions such as pregnancy, diabetes,
heart disease, kidney disease, and asthma.
H1N1 is a subtype of the influenza A virus
and is the most common form that infects
people. Certain strains of H1N1 are
endemic in the human population and cause
periodic flu outbreaks. It was an H1N1 flu
virus that was responsible for the 1918 flu
pandemic which killed 50 to 100 million
people at the end of World War I and into
1919.
Here are important facts about swine flu
1. Swine flu is a respiratory disease caused
by influenza viruses that infect the
respiratory tract of pigs and result in nasal
secretions, barking cough, decreased
appetite, and listless behavior.
2. Swine flu viruses may mutate (change),
so that they are easily transmissible among
humans.
3. The 2009 swine flu outbreak was due to
the HINI virus and was first observed in
Mexico.
4. Two antiviral agents, zanamivir (Relenza)
and oseltamivir (Tamiflu), have been
reported to help prevent or reduce the
effects of swine flu if taken within 48 hours
at the onset of symptoms.
Signs and Symptoms of Swine Flu
Symptoms of swine flu to humans are
similar to those of ordinary flu: fever, cough,
sore throat, runny or stuffy nose, body
aches, headache, chills, and fatigue. Some
people may experience vomiting and
diarrhea.
Prevention of H1N1
The best way to avoid influenza infections is
through vaccination.
Almost all vaccines have some side effects.
Common side effects of HINI vaccines are
typical of the vaccines.
They are as follows:
1.Flu shot: Soreness, redness, minor
swelling at the shot site, muscle aches, low-
grade fever, and nausea. These do not
usually last for more than 24 hours
2. Nasal spray: runny nose, low-grade fever,
vomiting, headache, wheezing, cough, and
sore throat
The nasal spray vaccine contains live virus
that has been altered to hinder its ability to
replicate in human tissue. People with a
suppressed immune system should not get
vaccinated with the nasal spray. Also most
vaccines that contain flu viral particles are
cultivated in eggs, so individuals with an
allergy to eggs should not get the vaccine
unless tested and advised by their doctor
that they are cleared to obtain it.
 Typhoid Fever
Typhoid fever, also known as typhoid, is an
acute illness most often caused by the
Salmonella typhi bacteria or the Salmonella
paratyphi, a related bacterium that usually
leads to a less severe infection. The
bacteria are deposited in water or food by a
human carrier and are then spread to other
people in the area (Hawker et al., 2007).
Typhoid is common worldwide and has
received various names such as gastric
fever, abdominal typhus, infantile remittent
fever, slow fever, nervous fever, or
pythogenic fever. The name typhoid means
"resembling typhus" and comes from the
neuropsychiatric symptoms common to
typhoid and typhus. Despite this similarity of
their names, typhoid fever and typhus are
distinct diseases and are caused by
different species of bacteria.
Diagnosis of typhoid fever is made when the
salmonella bacteria is detected with a stool
culture. Typhoid fever is treated with
antibiotics. Approximately 3 to 5 percent of
patients become carriers of the bacteria
once infection becomes an acute illness.
Patients with acute illness can contaminate
the surrounding water supply through stool,
which contains a high concentration of the
bacteria. Contamination of the water supply
can, in turn, taint the food supply. Some
patients suffer a very mild illness that goes
unrecognized. These patients can become
long-term carriers of the bacteria. The
bacterium multiplies in the gallbladder, bile
ducts, or liver and passes into the bowel.
The bacteria can survive for weeks in water
or dried sewage (Hawker et al., 2007).
Signs and Symptoms of Typhoid Fever
People with typhoid fever usually have a
sustained high fever. Chest congestion
develops in many patients, and abdominal
pain and discomfort are common. The fever
becomes constant. Other symptoms include
poor appetite, headache, body aches and
lethargy. Improvement occurs in the third
and fourth weeks for those who do not
experience complications. About 10 percent
of patients have recurrent symptors
(relapse) after feeling better for one to two
weeks. Relapses are actually more common
in individuals treated with antibiotics.
Prevention and Treatment of Typhoid The pressure of the circulating blood
Fever decreases as blood moves through arteries.
arterioles, capillaries, and veins. Blood
Typhoid fever can be prevented by drinking
pressure generally refers to arterial
safe water only, improving sanitation. and
pressure, i.e.. the pressure in the larger
eating well-cooked food while it is still hot.
arteries, the arteries being the blood vessels
Washing the hands often and keeping the
which take blood. away from the heart.
surroundings clean will help stop the spread
of infection,
Blood pressure consists of two numbers:
the systolic pressure (when the heart beats)
Two vaccines, one injected and the other
and the diastolic pressure (when the heart
given orally, are available. These are
relaxes). The systolic pressure is the
recommended especially to people in high-
number above the diastolic pressure.
risk areas. Typhoid fever is treated with
antibiotics that kill the salmonella bacteria. 1. Normal Blood Pressure
Prior to the use of antibiotics, the fatality
Blood pressure reading 120/80 or lower is
rate was 20 percent. Death occurred from
considered normal.
overwhelming infection, pneumonia,
intestinal bleeding, or intestinal perforation. 2. High Blood Pressure
With antibiotics and supportive care,
mortality has been reduced to 1 to 2 Blood pressure reading 140/90 or higher is
percent. With appropriate antibiotic therapy, considered high. If one or both numbers are
there is usually improvement within one to usually high, you have high blood pressure
two days and recovery within seven to ten or hypertension.
days. 3. Low Blood Pressure
Blood pressure that is too low is known as
The carrier state, which occurs in 3 to 5 hypotension. High Blood Pressure Range
percent of those infected, can be treated Systolic pressure (mmHg)
with prolonged antibiotics. Often, removal of
the gallbladder, the site of chronic infection, 210
will cure the carrier state.
180
160
NON-COMMUNICABLE DISEASES
140
Here are some non-communicable but
Diastolic pressure (mmHg)
dreaded diseases:
85
80
Hypertension
75
Blood pressure refers to the force exerted
by the circulating blood on the walls of blood
vessels. It is one of the body's vital signs.
Normal Blood Pressure Range 40
Systolic pressure (mmHg) 33
130
120 Pressure Range
110 Borderline low blood pressure
Diastolic pressure (mmHg) Too low blood pressure
120 Dangerously low blood pressure
110
100 For most people who are suffering from
hypertension, there is no obvious cause
90
why their blood pressure is high. This
Stages of High Blood condition is called essential hypertension
and it is especially important that their blood
Pressure pressure is kept under control.
Stage 4
Stage 3 Prevention of Hypertension
Stage 2 Changing your diet and lifestyle can do
Stage 1 much in managing blood pressure
1. Quit smoking.

Pressure Range 2. Limit the intake of alcoholic beverages.

High normal blood pressure 3. Lose weight if you are overweight.

Normal blood pressure 4. Exercise and eat well-balanced, nutritious

meals that are low in fat, salt, and
Low normal blood pressure cholesterol but high in fiber.
Low Blood Pressure Range

Signs and Symptoms of Hypertension

Systolic pressure (mmHg) General signs of high blood pressure
include headache, dizziness, pounding in
90
ears, and nosebleed. These symptoms
60 typically do not occur until high blood
pressure has reached an advanced and
50 even a possibly life-threatening stage.
Diastolic pressure (mmHg)
60
  Cardiovascular Disease
High blood pressure increases the risk of
coronary artery disease, also called
atherosclerosis, High blood pressure puts
added force against the artery wall. Over
time. this extra pressure can damage the
arteries. These injured arteries tend to
become narrow and hardened by fatty
deposits. They block the flow of blood to the
heart and cannot deliver enough oxygen to
the other parts of the body.
Other causes of cardiovascular disease are
as follows:
1. Smoking-Cigarette smokers are at a
greater risk than pipe and cigar smokers.
but all forms of tobacco are proven to be
detrimental to the heart's health.
2. Diabetes
3. Overweight - Persons who have an
excess body fat are at a higher risk than
persons of normal weight.
4. Diet high in saturated fat and salt
5. Family history - Children of parents who
developed heart disease before the age of
55 have a higher risk of developing heart
disease.
6. Lack of exercise
7. Age -Risk of heart disease increases
over the age of 45 in males and over 55 in
females.
8. Too much drinking-People who take
two alcoholic drinks per day are at risk.
9. High blood pressure
10. Having high cholesterol level
 Heart Attack
A heart attack causes permanent damage
to the heart muscle due to loss of blood to
the heart. Some heart attacks are sudden
and intense; however, most heart attacks
start slowly with mild pain and discomfort.
Generally, heart attacks involve discomfort
in the center of the chest that lasts more
than a few minutes or that goes away and
comes back. It can feel like uncomfortable
pressure, squeezing,. fullness, or pain.
Shortness of breath may occur, as well as
nausea or lightheadedness. It is vital to get
help immediately if any of these symptoms
occurs.
 Stroke
The brain requires unobstructed blood flow
to function. Very high, sustained blood
pressure will eventually cause blood vessels
to weaken. Over time, these weakened
vessels could break, and blood could leak
into the brain. The area of the brain that a
being fed by these broken vessels start to
die, and this will cause a stroke. In addition
if a clot blocks a narrowed artery, blood
ceases to flow and a stroke will occur.
Symptoms of a stroke include sudden
numbness or weakness of the face, arm, or
leg, especially on one side of the body,
confusion, trouble in speaking, poor vision
and sudden severe headache,
Prevention of Cardiovascular Diseases
Here are some tips on how to keep your
heart healthy:
1. Quit smoking
2. Control diabetes, blood pressure, and
cholesterol level.
3. Exercise regularly.
4. Eat a diet that is rich in fiber and low in
salt and saturated fat.
5. Maintain a healthy weight.
6. Manage stress.
 Diabetes
Diabetes, also referred to as diabetes
mellitus, describes a group of metabolic
diseases in which the person has high blood
glucose or blood sugar, either because
insulin production is inadequate, or the cells
in his/her body do not respond properly to
insulin, or both. Patients with high blood
sugar will typically experience frequent
urination (polyuria), excessive thirst
(polydipsia), and increased appetite
(polyphagia).
Diabetes is classed as a metabolism
disorder. Metabolism refers to the way the
body uses digested food for energy and
growth. Most of what is eaten is broken
down into glucose. Glucose is a form of
sugar in the blood. It is the principal source
of fuel for the body.
When food is digested, glucose makes its
way into the bloodstream. The cells use
glucose for energy and growth. However,
glucose cannot enter the cells without
insulin.
Insulin makes it possible for the cells to take
in the glucose.
Insulin is a hormone that is produced by the
pancreas. After eating, the pancreas
automatically releases an adequate quantity
of insulin to move the glucose present in the
blood into the cells. As soon as glucose
enters the cells, blood glucose levels drop.
In a person with diabetes, the quantity of
glucose in the blood is too elevated
(hyperglycemia) because the body does not
produce enough insulin, produces no
insulin. or has cells that do not respond
properly to the insulin that the pancreas
produces. This results in too much glucose
building up in the blood. This excess blood
glucose eventually passes out of the body
through the urine. So, even though the
blood has plenty of glucose, the cells are
not getting it for their essential energy and
growth.
THREE TYPES OF DIABETES
Type I Diabetes
The body does not produce insulin. This
type is also referred to as insulin-dependent
diabetes, juvenile diabetes, or early-onset
diabetes. People usually develop type 1
diabetes before their 40th year, often in
early adulthood or teenage years.
Type 1 diabetes is nowhere near as
common as type 2 diabetes. Approximately
10 percent of all diabetes cases are type 1.
Patients with type 1 diabetes will need to
take insulin injections for the rest of their
life. They must also ensure proper blood-
glucose levels by carrying out regular blood
tests and following a special diet.
Type 2 Diabetes
The body does not produce enough insulin
for proper function, or the cells in the body
do not react properly to insulin (insulin
resistance). Approximately 90 percent of all
cases of diabetes worldwide are of this type.
Some people may be able to control their
type 2 diabetes by losing weight, following a
healthy diet, doing plenty of exercise, and
monitoring their blood glucose levels.
However, type 2 diabetes is typically a
progressive disease. It gradually gets worse
and the patient will probably end up having
to take insulin, usually in tablet form.
Overweight and obese people have a much
higher risk of developing type 2 diabetes
compared to those with a healthy body
weight. People with a high level of visceral
fat also known as central obesity, belly fat,
or abdominal obesity, are especially at risk
Being overweight or obese causes the body
to release chemicals that can destabilize the
body's cardiovascular and metabolic
systems. The risk of developing type 2
diabetes increases with age, particularly
when aging put on weight and become less
physically active. Those with a close relative
who has type 2 diabetes and those of
Middle Eastern, African, and South Asian
descents are at a higher risk of developing
the disease, including men whose
testosterone levels are low,
 Cancer
Cancer is a class of diseases characterized
by out-of-control cell growth. There are over
100 different types of cancer, and each is
classified by the type of cell that is initially
affected.
Cancer harms the body when damaged
cells divide uncontrollably to form lumps or
masses of tissue called tumors (except in
the case of leukemia where cancer prohibits
normal blood function by abnormal cell
division in the bloodstream). Tumors can
grow and interfere with the digestive,
nervous, and circulatory systems and they
can release hormones that alter body
functions. Tumors that stay in one spot and
demonstrate limited growth are generally
considered to be benign..
More dangerous or malignant tumors form
when two things occur:
1. A cancerous cell manages to move
throughout the body using the lymph
systems, destroying healthy tissue in a
process called invasion.
2. A cancerous cell manages to divide and
grow, making new blood vessels to feed
itself in a process called angiogenesis.
When a tumor successfully spreads to other
parts of the body and grows, invading and
destroying other healthy tissues, it is said to
have metastasized. This process itself is
called metastasis, and the result is a serious
condition that is very difficult to treat.
Physicians and researchers who specialize
in the study, diagnosis, treatment, and
prevention of cancer are called oncologists.
Cancer is ultimately the result of cells that
grow uncontrollably and do not die. Normal
cells in the body follow an orderly path of
growth, division, and death. Programmed
cell death is called apoptosis, and when this
process breaks down, cancer begins to
form. Unlike regular cells, cancer cells do
not experience programmatic death and
instead continue to grow and divide. This
leads to a mass of abnormal cells that grow
out of control.
CLASSIFICATION OF CANCER
There are five broad groups of cancer,
namely:
1. Carcinomas are characterized by cells
that cover internal and external parts of the
body such as lung, breast, and colon.
2. Sarcomas are characterized by cells that
are located in the bone, cartilage, fat,
connective tissue, muscle, and other
supportive tissues.
3. Lymphomas are cancers that begin in the
lymph nodes and immune system tissues.
4. Leukemias are cancers that begin in the
bone marrow and often accumulate in the
bloodstream.
5. Adenomas are cancers that arise in the
thyroid, pituitary gland, adrenal gland, and
other glandular tissues,
Signs and Symptoms of Cancer
Cancer symptoms are quite varied and
depend on where the cancer is located,
where it has spread, and how big the tumor
is. Some cancers can be felt or seen
through the skin. For instance, a lump on
the breast or testicle can be an indicator of
cancer in those locations. Skin cancer
(melanoma) is often marked by a change in
a wart or mole on the skin. Some oral
cancers present white patches inside the
mouth or white spots on the tongue.
Other cancers have symptoms that are less
physically apparent. Some brain tumors
tend to manifest early as they affect
important cognitive functions. Pancreas
cancers are usually too small to produce
symptoms until they induce pain by pushing
against nearby nerves or interfere with liver
function to bring about a yellowing of the
skin and eyes called jaundice.
Symptoms can also appear as a tumor
grows and pushes against organs and blood
vessels. For example, colon cancers lead to
constipation, diarrhea, and changes in stool
size. Bladder or prostate cancers affect
bladder functions such as more frequent or
infrequent urination.
As cancer cells use the body's energy and
interfere with normal hormone function, it is
possible to cause fever, fatigue, excessive
sweating, anemia, and unexplained weight
loss. However, these symptoms are
common in several other maladies as well.
For example, coughing and hoarseness can
point to lung or throat cancer as well as
several other conditions.
When cancer spreads or metastasizes,
additional symptoms can be noted in the
newly affected area. Swollen or enlarged
lymph nodes are common and likely. When
cancer spreads to the brain, patients may
experience vertigo, headaches, or seizures
le the lungs cancer may cause coughing
and shortness of breath. The liver may
become enlarged and cause jaundice;
bones become painful and brittle or break
easily.
Prevention of Cancer
The following are essential measures to
help prevent cancer.
1. Quit smoking and drinking to significantly
lower the risk of several types of cancer,
most notably in the lung, throat, mouth, and
liver. The earlier you quit, the better.
2. Stay in the shade and protect yourself
with a hat, shirt, and sunscreen when under
the sun, to prevent skin cancer.
3. Diet is an important part of cancer
prevention since what we eat has been
linked to the disease. Follow recommended
diets that are low in fat and rich in fresh
fruits and vegetables and whole grains.
A systematic screening will help detect
small irregularities or tumors as early as
possible even when there are no clear
symptoms yet. Breast self-examination,
mammograms, testicular self-examination,
and Pap smears are common screening
methods for various cancers.

Conclusion
A person can only take proper precautions
regarding communicable and non
communicable diseases if he/she is aware
about them.
His/Her familiarity with the said diseases will
enable him/her to adopt certain lifestyle
modifications, like avoidance of alcoholic
beverages, to avoid diseases and stay
healthy as he/she performs his/her various
functions in life.
Health is wealth and a person's good health
is crucial to his/her being a successful
person who has the opportunity to maximize
his/her potentials in order to achieve all
his/her goals in life.