Definition 1-11
although the proof of this fact is too advanced
A, h, and c are integers such that a •
b = c.
A and b are called factors or divisors
of c, and c is a multiple of a or b.
Thus, 2, 3, and 5 are factors of 30, as are —
6 or —15. We recall (Problem 4) that an even
integer is any integer which has 2 as a factor
(or is a multiple of 2).
If we define an odd integer to be any integer
which is not even, it is possible to express
any odd integer as 2k - 1, where k is the
integer. The integer —8 is even since —8 =
2 • —4, while 9 is odd since 9 = 2-4+1
All positive integers except the number one
may be classified as either composite
numbers or primes.
A positive integer is called composite if it is
different from one and can be expressed as
the product of two or more positive integers,
which are its factors. In certain cases, some
of these factors may be equal.
For example, 4, 6, 9, and 12 are composite,
for 4 = 2 • 2, 6 = 3 • 2, 9 = 3-3, and 12 = 3 • 2
• 2. In fact, every even integer greater than 2
is composite.
A positive integer is called prime if it is
different from one and is not composite. In
other words, it can be expressed as a
product of two positive integers only in the
trivial way in which one factor is itself and the
other the integer one.
Examples of prime numbers are 2, 3, 5, and
7. The decomposition of any composite
number, that is, the expression of such a
number as a product of prime numbers, is
most important. Such a decomposition is
always possible, since each factor which is
composite can be expressed as the product
of smaller factors, and ultimately the factors
will all be prime. Thus, 60= 12-5 = 4-3-5 = 2-
2-3-5.
Moreover, a decomposition is unique
for this discussion. Specifically, a composite
number can be expressed as a product of
prime factors in one and only one way,
except for the order of the factors. Thus 60
can also be expressed as 15-4 = 5 • 3 • 4 = 5
• 3 • 2 • 2.
Two integers are called relatively prime or
prime to each other if they contain no
common prime factors. We shall consider
factors again in a more general way in Article
3-5.
Definition 1.12
Rational Numbers:
Rational numbers are numbers that can be
expressed as fractions, where both the
numerator (the top part) and the denominator
(the bottom part) are whole numbers, and the
denominator is not zero. For example,
numbers like 1/2, 3/4, and 5 are rational
because they can be written as fractions with
whole numbers on the top and bottom.
Irrational Numbers:
Irrational numbers are numbers that cannot
be expressed as simple fractions. They have
never-ending decimal representations that
do not repeat in a regular pattern. Examples
of irrational numbers include the square root
of 2 (√2), the number π (pi), and the number
e. These numbers go on forever without
repeating the same digits.
Decimal Representations:
Any rational number can be written as a
decimal, which is a number with a decimal
point. Some decimal numbers stop after a
certain number of digits (like 1/4, which is
0.25), and these are called terminating
decimals. Others, like 1/3 (which is
0.3333...), go on forever with a repeating
pattern and are called repeating or periodic
decimals.
Proof of Irrationality:
Proving that a number is irrational means
showing that it cannot be expressed as a
simple fraction. This often involves assuming
the opposite (that it can be expressed as a
fraction) and then finding a contradiction. For
example, to prove that √2 is irrational, you
can assume it can be written as a fraction
p/q, where p and q are whole numbers with
no common factors. If you follow the logic,
you'll find that this assumption leads to a
contradiction, showing that √2 cannot be
rational.
Real Numbers:
Real numbers are a bigger set that includes
both rational and irrational numbers. Real
numbers can be represented as decimals,
whether they terminate or go on forever.
They cover all possible numbers on the
number line.
Usefulness of Rational Numbers:
Rational numbers are quite useful because
they can be involved in mathematical
operations like addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division. They are closed
under these operations, which means the
result of these operations with rational
numbers is also a rational number.
Irrational Approximation:
Even though irrational numbers cannot be
expressed as simple fractions, we can
approximate them with rational numbers. For
example, the approximation 1.414 is used for
√2. While not exact, it's close enough for
many practical purposes.
So, in simple terms, rational numbers are like
fractions, while irrational numbers are those
with never-ending, non-repeating decimals,
and real numbers encompass both. The
proof of irrationality involves assuming the
opposite and finding contradictions, and
rational numbers are quite handy for math
operations.
1-6 Equality.
We recall the definition which concerned the
equality of two sets. The equality relation in
general, we shall assume, is reflexive,
symmetric, and transitive (see Problem 14,
Article 1-2). Specifically, for all elements a, b,
and c of F:
Axiom E1. Reflexive property for equality: a
= a.
Axiom E2. Symmetric property for equality: If
a = b, then b = a.
Axiom E3. Transitive property for equality: If
a = b and b = c, then a = c.
In addition, we shall assume the addition and
multiplication properties.
Axiom E4. Addition property for equality: If a
= b and c = d, then a + c = b + d.
Axiom E5. Multiplication property for equality:
If a = b and c ≠ d, then a * c ≠ b * d.
Finally, we shall assume that any quantity
may be substituted in any expression for an
equal quantity.
We do not intend to belabor what is basic to
the idea of equality but rather wish to point
out precisely what assumptions we do make,
and we shall ordinarily use them henceforth
without specific comment.
There are two main types of equations in
mathematics, the identity and the conditional
equation. These two have many of the same
properties but differ in meaning. Let us
distinguish between them.
Definition 1-13.
An identity is a statement of equality which
holds true for all permissible values* of the
letters involved.
The permissible values are all those values
for which both sides of the equation are
defined. Each such identity will be denoted
by the symbol =, in order to emphasize its
nature. The following simple examples will
help to clarify the concept.
Illustration 1: x + 2 + 5 - 4 - x = 3 holds for
all values of x.
Illustration 2: x^2 - 4 = (x + 2)(x - 2), where
x^2 represents x times x, holds for all values
of x. This statement may be checked by
substituting any value for x in both sides of
the identity, and it is proved in Article 3-4.
The conditional equation is more commonly
used.
Definition 1-14.
The conditional equation is a statement of
equality which holds true for some but not all
permissible values of the letters involved.
One is usually required to solve such an
equation, that is, to find all possible values
(the solution) for which the equation is true.
Later, we shall discuss the solving of
equations, but now let us consider the
following examples.
Illustration 3: x + 2 = 4 is a conditional
equation since it is true only for x = 2.
Illustration 4: x^2 - 7x + 12 = 0 is a
conditional equation since it is true only for x
= 3 or 4. Any other value substituted for x in
this equation will not satisfy it.
The use of the symbol = for an identity and of
= for a conditional equation emphasizes the
distinction between the two types of
equalities.