WEEK 13: LOCAL GOVERNMENT AND DECENTRALIZATION

TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION

A. THE LOCAL GOVERNMENT UNITS (LGU) OF THE PHILIPPINES

LOCAL GOVERNMENT

The Constitution of the Philippines recognizes the importance of local governments. It provides as a policy that
"the State shall guarantee and promote the autonomy of the local government units -- especially the barangays --
to ensure their fullest development as self-reliant communities."

Local governments constitute the foundation of the entire structure of the government. The acts of the local
government units affect the ordinary citizen more directly than those of the national government. The average
citizen has more and closer contacts with the local governments and their agencies than with the national or
provincial government, and is more concerned with the local affairs than with those of the national or provincial in
scope.

The President of the Philippines exercises supervision over the whole country. But for purposes of administrative
control, the Philippines is divided into units of different sizes -- known as political subdivisions. These are provinces,
municipalities, cities, and barangays. These political subdivisions enjoy autonomy, especially in local affairs. But
they are also under the general supervision of the Chief Executive, through the Secretary of the Department of
Interior and Local Government (DILG). These local governments are agencies of the national government in the
matter of collection of taxes, law enforcement, and other governmental functions, which may be delegated by the
national government to these local governments.

1. PROVINCES

The provincial government takes care of the function so which affect the people of a certain province. The province
is the largest political unit in the Philippines. It possesses the following powers --- 1) to acquire and transfer real
and personal properties, 2) to enter into contracts, including those incurring obligations, which are expressly
provided by law; and 3) to exercise such other rights and incur such other obligations as are expressly authorized
by law.

There are 77 provinces in the Philippines. They are classified according to their average income for five
consecutive years. The higher the income of the province, the higher is its classification. The salaries that can be
paid to the provincial officials depend upon the class to which it belongs. Higher salaries are paid to the officials of
the higher-class provinces. A province elects its executives -- the governor, vice governor, and the members of
the provincial board (vocales). There are three vocales in the first-, second-, and third-class provinces, and two in
the other classes of provinces. The rest of the provincial officials -- like the provincial treasurer, provincial assessor,
district auditor, judges of the Regional Trial courts, provincial fiscal, division superintendent of schools, district
health officer, district engineer, and register of deeds -- are all appointed by the corresponding departments of the
national government. However, under the New Local Government Code, they are the administrative control of the
provincial governor. The election of the governor, vice governor, and members of the provincial board takes place
on the Second Tuesday of November of the election year. They hold office for three years. They cannot serve for
more than three consecutive terms. The provincial governor exercises general supervisory powers over the entire
province. He also makes known to the people of his province all laws and orders of the government, especially
those which directly concern them and sees to it that they are faithfully carried out. He acquaints himself with the
conditions of the municipalities comprising the province and advises local officials in matters affecting their official
work.

The provincial board is the law-making body of the province, with the provincial governor serving as the presiding
officer. Some of its most important functions are as follows: a) it passes laws for the welfare of the municipalities
and cities within its jurisdiction; b) it prepares and approves the provincial budget; c) it appropriates money for
provincial purposes; d) it exercises the power of eminent domain; and e) it provides for the maintenance of
equipment and buildings for provincial purposes. The board holds a regular weekly meeting upon a day fixed by it.
Special meetings, however, may be called by the provincial governor on any day.

MUNICIPALITIES

Each province is composed of municipalities commonly called towns. The municipality is a public corporation
created by an act of congress and is governed by the Municipality Law, which defines its duties and powers. Being
public corporations, municipalities can sue or be sued in court; enter into contracts; acquire and hold real and
personal properties for municipal purposes; and exercise such other powers as are granted by law. Municipalities
are classified according to their average annual income for the last four fiscal years. There are 1,540 municipalities
in the Philippines. They are autonomous units of government and have elective and appointive officials. The
elective officials are the municipal mayor, vice mayor, and councilors. They are elected by the qualified voters for
a term of three years. They cannot serve for more than three consecutive terms. The appointive officials are the
municipal secretary, treasurer, justice of the peace, and chief of police. The municipal mayor is the chief executive
officer of the town. His main functions are: 1) to execute all laws and municipal ordinances; 2) to supervise the
administration of the town; 3) to issue orders relative to the maintenance of peace and order; 4) to preside over
the meetings of the municipal council; and 5) to recommend measures to the municipal council aimed at the
improvement of the social and economic conditions of the people. The municipal councils are the lawmaking body
of the town and is composed of the mayor -- who is the chairman of the council -- vice mayor, and the councilors.
The number of councilors for each municipality depends upon the class to which the municipality belongs. Each
councilor is in-charge of a village or barangay. Some of the more important mandatory powers of the municipal
council are the following: 1) to fix the salaries of all municipal offices and employees, except the treasurer, teachers
in the public schools, and staff of national government agencies assigned to the municipality; 2) to provide for
expenses necessary to carry out the functions of the municipality; 3) to provide for buildings adequate for municipal
uses, including school houses; 4) to provide for the levy and collection of taxes, fees, and charges as sources of
municipal revenue; and 5) to establish and maintain an efficient police department and an adequate municipal jail.

CITIES

The chartered city is also a unit of local administration. It is created by a special law which serves as its charter.
The charter is the constitution of the city. The charter creates the city, defines its boundaries, provides its system
of government, and defines the powers and duties of its officials. A city or any of its officials cannot perform any
official act which is not permitted by its charter. The city elective officials are the mayor, vice mayor, and the
members of the city council. They are elected for a term of three years. They cannot serve for more than three
consecutive terms. The mayor is the executive official of the city, aided by the appointive heads of the various
departments. The vice mayor is the presiding officer of the board. And the city courts exercise judicial functions.
The lawmaking body of the city is council. Among its important functions are as follows: 1) to levy and collect taxes
in accordance with law; 2) to enact ordinances; 3) to provide for public works constructions and for the maintenance
of a local police force; 4) to establish fire zones within the city and to regulated the type of building which may be
constructed within each zone; and 5) to provide for the protection of the inhabitants from public calamities and to
provide relied in times of emergency. There are 67 chartered cities in the Philippines.

BARANGAYS

Each municipality or city is composed of a number of villages or barangays. The barangays are the smallest units
of local government in the Philippines. They are governed by the Barrio Charter. The elective officials of the
barangays are the Barangay Captain and the Barangay Councilors. As chief executive, the barangay captain is its
recognized leader. He enforces all the laws and ordinances applicable to his constituency. He may organize fire
brigades, preside over all meetings both of the barangay council and assembly, organize groups of citizens to fight
criminality and brigandage, and approve all payments from barangay funds. He also sings all contacts in which the
barangay is a party. There are 41, 945 barangays in the Philippines. They are public corporations and so, they can
sue and be sued in court; can enter into contracts, can acquire and hold all kinds of property; and can exercise
such powers or perform such acts as are provided by law.

B. DECENTRALIZATION

Decentralization is defined as the transfer of power and authority from central institution to lower or local levels
of a government system. According to Raul P. De Guzman, decentralization generally refers to the systematic and
rational dispersal of power, authority and responsibility from the center to the periphery, from top to lower levels,
or from national to local governments.

Decentralization refers to the transfer of powers from central government to local levels in a political-administrative
and territorial hierarchy. This process allows the participation of the people and the local government.

Decentralization hands over political, financial and administrative authority from central to local governments, so
that the government can facilitate and guarantee better public services for the people.
Three Forms of Decentralization

1. Devolution – transfer of power and authority from the national government to local government units;
political and territorial decentralization
2. Deconcentration – transfer of power, authority or responsibility or the discretion to plan, decide and
manage from central to local levels; administrative and sectoral decentralization
3. Debureaucratization – transfer of some public functions and responsibilities, which government may
perform to private entities or non-government organizations (NGOs). It involves the harnessing of the
private sector and non-governmental organizations in the delivery of services through various modalities
including contracting out, private-public partnership and joint ventures.

DECENTRALIZATION AND LOCAL GOVERNANCE

Three Components of Decentralization:

1. Political Decentralization - focuses among others on improved planning and monitoring of development
measures, formulating strategies for the active integration of civil society and the economic sector, and
the promotion of information exchange and management.
2. Fiscal Decentralization – focuses on the increase in local government’s responsibility for expenditures
3. Institutional Decentralization - focuses among others on the delivery of basic services from the national
government to the local government units concerned

Indicators of Political Decentralization:

1. Accountability – local committees consisting of men and women work in selected LGUs according to the
guidelines of the Local Government Code of 1991 to implement result-oriented & target-relevant decisions
and measures.
2. Transparency – selected LGUs and national organizations/departments publish their annual budgets in
media accessible to citizens such as newspapers, bulletin boards at the town hall and churches; and report
semi-annually on the implementation status of programs in citizen’s assemblies.
3. Responsibility and Participation – The portion of programs and projects realized by LGUs through active
and quantifiable participation, such as job performance & financial contributions of citizens.

Impact of Political Decentralization

• Decentralization empowered Local leaders to take greater control over their region’s destinies.
• Local leaders, citizens and other stakeholders are given more freedom in determining their development
paths.
• Political Decentralization delegated some powers from the central authority to the local authorities, who are
much familiar with the cultural, social and economic aspects of their respective regions.
• The main objective is for the provinces, cities and municipalities to use their financial resources more
efficiently, generate additional resources and tap alternative resources.

Indicators of Fiscal Decentralization:

1. improved financial management including qualification of participants in areas of financial management

2. strengthening cooperation on different levels
3. promoting exchange of experiences, formulating strategies for an improved integration of the business
sector and civil society in social and economic programs.

Impact of Institutional Decentralization:

• Better service delivery is a matter of coordination& collaboration.

• Bridging and empowering the public and private sectors of different regions in the country through forums,
seminars, workshops, studies and researches.
• Working within networks is a strategic element in achieving sustainability, reliability and a broad effect,
especially for the forging of “strategic alliances”.
• Exchange of ideas and mutual understanding among local chief executives, police and military is crucial in
achieving sustainable peace and development

WEEK 15: LESSON XI CITIZENSHIP

TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION

A. MEANING OF CITIZENSHIP: THE CITIZEN AND NON-CITIZEN

Since the state is organized and the government is established for the welfare of the citizen, it becomes essential
that we should know the meaning of the term “citizen”. The term ‘citizen’ can be understood in a narrow or in a
broad sense. In a narrow sense, it means the resident of a city or one who enjoys the privilege of living m a city.
While in a broad sense citizen means a person, who resides within the territorial limits of the state.

Speaking in terms of Political Science, citizen means a person who is the member of the state and who enjoys
social and political rights. In our country an adult 18 years of age enjoys, regardless of economic or social status,
color and creed, education, property and residence, etc.

As a matter of fact, the concept of citizenship goes back to the ancient city- states where the population was divided
into two classes —the citizens and the slaves. The citizens enjoyed both civil and political rights. They directly or
indirectly participate in all the functions of the civil and political life of the state.

Definition of the Citizen:

According to Aristotle, citizen is he “who has the power to take part in the deliberative or judicial administration of
any state is said by us to be a citizen of that state”. Vattal has defined citizens as, “the members of a civil society
bound to this society by certain duties, subject to its authority and equal participants in its advantages”.
“Citizenship”, according to Laski, “is the contribution of one’s instructed judgment to the public good”.

Meaning of citizenship and citizen.

Citizenship is a term denoting membership of a citizen in a political society, which membership implies, reciprocally,
a duty of allegiance on the part of the member and duty of protection on the part of the State.

Citizen is a person having he title of citizenship. He is a member of a democratic community who enjoys full civil
and political rights, and is accorded protection inside and outside the territory of the State. Along with other citizens,
they compose the political community.

A Citizen Must Have:

1. The membership of the state.

2. The Social and Political rights.
3. Sentiment of devotion to the state.

Distinction between an Alien and a Citizen:

There is a marked distinction between an alien and a citizen. A citizen enjoys civil and political rights in his own
country. Whereas an alien is not privileged to enjoy the political rights of the country but sometimes he is privileged
to enjoy a few of the social rights. It depends entirely on the government of the country, in which he lives, to permit
him to enjoy the social rights or not.

B. TRADITIONAL AND MODERN VIEWS

The Traditional and Modern Views of Citizenship, i.e., the State-Centric vs. Participatory Notions of Citizenship

Traditional Views on Citizenship

Many thinkers point to the concept of citizenship beginning in the early city-states of ancient Greece, although
others see it as primarily a modern phenomenon dating back only a few hundred years and, for mankind, that the
concept of citizenship arose with the first laws. Polis meant both the political assembly of the city-state as well as
the entire society. Citizenship has generally been identified as a western phenomenon. There is a general view
that citizenship in ancient times was a simpler relation than modern forms of citizenship, although this view has
come under scrutiny. The relation of citizenship has not been a fixed or static relation, but constantly changed
within each society, and that according to one view, citizenship might "really have worked" only at select periods
during certain times, such as when the Athenian politician Solon made reforms in the early Athenian state.

Historian Geoffrey Hosking in his 2005 Modern Scholar lecture course suggested that citizenship in ancient Greece
arose from an appreciation for the importance of freedom. Hosking explained: It can be argued that this growth of
slavery was what made Greeks particularly conscious of the value of freedom. After all, any Greek farmer might
fall into debt and therefore might become a slave, at almost any time. When the Greeks fought together, they
fought in order to avoid being enslaved by warfare, to avoid being defeated by those who might take them into
slavery. And they also arranged their political institutions so as to remain free men.

Geoffrey Hosking suggests that fear of being enslaved was a central motivating force for the development of the
Greek sense of citizenship. Slavery permitted slave-owners to have substantial free time, and enabled participation
in public life. Polis citizenship was marked by exclusivity. Inequality of status was widespread; citizens had a higher
status than non-citizens, such as women, slaves or barbarians. The first form of citizenship was based on the way
people lived in the ancient Greek times, in small-scale organic communities of the polis. Citizenship was not seen
as a separate activity from the private life of the individual person, in the sense that there was not a distinction
between public and private life.

The obligations of citizenship were deeply connected into one's everyday life in the polis. These small-scale organic
communities were generally seen as a new development in world history, in contrast to the established ancient
civilizations of Egypt or Persia, or the hunter-gatherer bands elsewhere. From the viewpoint of the ancient Greeks,
a person's public life was not separated from their private life, and Greeks did not distinguish between the two
worlds according to the modern western conception. The obligations of citizenship were deeply connected with
everyday life.

To be truly human, one had to be an active citizen to the community, which Aristotle famously expressed: "To take
no part in the running of the community's affairs is to be either a beast or a god!" This form of citizenship was based
on obligations of citizens towards the community, rather than rights given to the citizens of the community. This
was not a problem because they all had a strong affinity with the polis; their own destiny and the destiny of the
community were strongly linked. Also, citizens of the polis saw obligations to the community as an opportunity to
be virtuous; it was a source of honor and respect. In Athens, citizens were both ruler and ruled, important political
and judicial offices were rotated and all citizens had the right to speak and vote in the political assembly.

Modern views on citizenship

The modern idea of citizenship still respects the idea of political participation, but it is usually done through
"elaborate systems of political representation at a distance" such as representative democracy. Modern citizenship
is much more passive; action is delegated to others; citizenship is often a constraint on acting, not an impetus to
act. Nevertheless, citizens are usually aware of their obligations to authorities, and are aware that these bonds
often limit what they can do.

Modern citizenship has often been looked at as two competing underlying ideas:

The liberal-individualist or sometimes liberal conception of citizenship suggests that citizens should have
entitlements necessary for human dignity. It assumes people act for the purpose of enlightened self-interest.
According to this viewpoint, citizens are sovereign, morally autonomous beings with duties to pay taxes, obey the
law, engage in business transactions, and defend the nation if it comes under attack, but are essentially passive
politically, and their primary focus is on economic betterment. This idea began to appear around the seventeenth
and eighteenth centuries, and became stronger over time, according to one view. According to this formulation,
the state exists for the benefit of citizens and has an obligation to respect and protect the rights of citizens, including
civil rights and political rights. It was later that so-called social rights became part of the obligation for the state.

The civic-republican or sometimes classical or civic humanist conception of citizenship emphasizes man's political
nature, and sees citizenship as an active process, not a passive state or legal marker. It is relatively more
concerned that government will interfere with popular places to practice citizenship in the public sphere. Citizenship
means being active in government affairs.] According to one view, most people today live as citizens according to
the liberal-individualist conception but wished they lived more according to the civic-republican ideal. An ideal
citizen is one who exhibits "good civic behavior". Free citizens and a republic government are "mutually
interrelated." Citizenship suggested a commitment to "duty and civic virtue".

What is Participatory Citizenship?

A citizen that is active at local, state, or national levels in addressing social issues relevant to the community by
learning how government systems work and taking part in community-based initiatives.

Ways Citizens Can Participate

Looking for information in newspapers, magazines, and reference materials and judging its accuracy; Voting in
local, state, and national elections; Participating in a political discussion; Trying to persuade someone to vote a
certain way; Signing a petition; Wearing a button or putting a sticker on the car; Writing letters to elected
representatives; Contributing money to a party or candidate; Attending meetings to gain information, discuss
issues, or lend support; Campaigning for a candidate; Lobbying for laws that are of special interest; Demonstrating
through marches, boycotts, sit-ins, or other forms of protest; Running for office; Holding public office; Serving the
country through military or other service; Disobeying laws and taking the consequences to demonstrate that a law
or policy is unjust.

Should citizens participate?

Many citizens do not participate in our government. They don't vote or participate in most of the other ways you
have just discussed. However, some people believe that citizens have a responsibility to participate.

Deciding whether to participate and how much time to spend participating is important. To make good decisions,
you must think about several things. Some of these are: The purpose of our government; How important your rights
are to you; How satisfied you are with the way the government is working.

C. PRINCIPLES OF CITIZENSHIP

1. The Principles of Jus Soli and Jus Sanguinis

Philippine citizenship: From jus soli to jus sanguinis
The recent Supreme Court decision on Grace Poe has made many legal minds raise the question of whether
or not they still knew the law as they had learned it in law school. Although the High Court’s decision is
acceptable to a majority of the electorate as a recent survey reveals, many lawyers find it hard to accept the
decision, which they believe throws the book on citizenship out the window. For instance, that foundlings are
presumed natural-born Filipinos is unprecedented.

This case reminds us that citizenship is not a static, but rather a dynamic, political concept. New legislation may
be enacted – such as, in 2003, RA 9225, “An Act Making the Citizenship of Philippine Citizens Who Acquire
Foreign Citizenship Permanent” – which changes the rules of political membership. But the law need not be
changed for a different reading to surface. The same law can be interpreted differently under a new set of
circumstances.

Today, we take it for granted that the Philippines follows the principle of jus sanguinis (law of the blood) to
determine citizenship, but in the first half of the 20th century, the principle of jus soli (law of the soil) was once
regnant.

In fact, the 1899 Malolos Constitution enunciated jus soli as the principle of citizenship, declaring that Filipinos
included “all persons born on Filipino territory.” Malolos was remarkably inclusive. However, the US military
invasion of the Philippines truncated the Malolos Republic and left no opportunity to probe its tenets on
citizenship before a court of law.

The invention of Philippine citizenship came with the Philippine Bill of 1902, signed into law on July 1, 1902, to
become the country’s “first organic act.” Section 4 stipulated that the “inhabitants” of the Philippine Islands who
were Spanish subjects on April 11, 1899, the date when the Treaty of Paris was proclaimed as duly ratified by
both Spain and the United States, became “citizens of the Philippine Islands” (unless one opted for Spanish
nationality). Philippine citizenship was a direct successor to Spanish subjecthood. The diverse populations in
the country at that time thus acquired Philippine citizenship, a political status they could pass on to their children
– suggesting jus sanguinis as one of the means to determine Philippine citizenship.

2. Dual Nationality/Citizenship

DUAL CITIZENSHIP (RA 9225)

Republic Act 9225 otherwise known as the Citizenship Retention and Reacquisition Act of 2003 (more popularly
known as the Dual Citizenship Law) enables former natural-born Filipinos who have become naturalized citizens
of another country to retain/reacquire their Philippine citizenship by taking an oath of allegiance to the Republic of
the Philippines before a Philippine Consular Officer. Upon retaining or reacquiring their Philippine citizenship, they
shall enjoy full civil, economic and political rights as Filipinos.

Under the principle of derivative citizenship, unmarried children below eighteen (18) years of age, whether
legitimate, illegitimate, or adopted, of former Filipino parents who retained/reacquired their Philippine citizenship
under this law, may also be deemed Filipino citizens, if they are included in the parent’s application for
retention/reacquisition of Philippine citizenship and the requisite fees paid.

Because different countries have different rules for conferring citizenship, an individual can be a citizen of more
than one nation. Individuals born of non-citizen parents in the United States ordinarily obtain U.S. citizenship at
birth yet they also may be vested with the citizenship of their parents by the jus sanguinis laws of the foreign state.
Likewise, children born abroad to U.S. citizen parents may acquire dual citizenship at birth.

Dual nationality can also arise through naturalization. U.S. citizens who obtain naturalization in another country
will retain U.S. citizenship unless they formally relinquish it. Similarly, since some countries do not consider the
oath of allegiance required for naturalization in the United States to be an expatriating act, individuals may acquire
U.S. citizenship without losing their prior citizenship.

Dual nationality is not without problems. Citizenship normally implies allegiance to only one country, so dual
citizens may face conflicts of loyalty. They may also be subject to multiple or inconsistent obligations, such as
owing military service or taxes to more than one country. Diplomatic conflicts can arise if a dual citizen claims the
protection of one country of citizenship when he or she faces legal difficulties in the other country. Foreign
governments might be able to affect U.S. policies - at least inadvertently - through the votes of their dual nationals.
Hence, the U.S. government, although recognizing that it exists, officially discourages dual nationality.

Despite the potential problems of dual nationality, a growing number of countries recognize this status. In the
1990s, several Latin American countries, most notably Mexico, opted to permit dual nationality. Many European
countries, including France, Ireland, Italy, and the United Kingdom, also recognize dual nationality.

The increasing acceptance of dual nationality reflects changes in the nature of immigration. Until the late twentieth
century, difficulties in travel and communication forced most immigrants to make a total break from their country
of origin. Today, however, immigration need not result in complete or permanent separation from one's home
country. Immigrants may retain property and provide financial support to family in their homelands or remain
involved with politics there. Some immigrants intend to resume residence in their country of origin in the future.
While the U.S. requires non-citizens to renounce their previous nationality in obtaining naturalization the effect of
this renunciation, and thus the availability of dual citizenship, depends upon the laws of the naturalized citizen's
country of origin.

D. FILIPINO CITIZENSHIP: ART. 4 CITIZENSHIP

SECTION 1. The following are citizens of the Philippines:

(1) Those who are citizens of the Philippines at the time of the adoption of this constitution;
(2) Those whose fathers or mothers are citizens of the Philippines;
(3) Those born before January 17, 1973, of Filipino mothers, who elect Philippine citizenship upon
reaching the age of majority; and
(4) Those who are naturalized in accordance with law.

TYPES OF CITIZENSHIP
1. Citizenship by Birth
a. By birth a.k.a Jus soli. It means you’re an automatic citizen if you were born in the Philippines soil
or territory.
b. By blood a.k.a. Jus sanguinis. You are a citizen if any of your parents is a Filipino citizen on your
birthdate according to the Philippine Nationality Law.
c. that person was born on or after October 15, 1986 and at least one parent was a Philippine citizen
on the birthdate;
d. or that person was born on or after January 17, 1973 and both parents were Philippine citizens on
the birthdate or the person elected Philippine citizenship pursuant to the provisions of the 1935
Constitution;
e. or that person was born on or after May 14, 1935 and the father was a Philippine citizen or, if the
father was not, the mother was a Philippine citizen and the person elected Philippine citizenship
pursuant to the provisions of the 1935 Constitution;
f. or that person was born on or after August 29, 1916 and prior to May 14, 1935 and at least one
parent was an inhabitant and resident of the Philippine Islands and a Spanish subject on April 11,
1899, or that person was an inhabitant and resident of the Philippine Islands and a Spanish subject
on April 11, 1899, except in certain specific cases.
2. Citizenship by Naturalization
 a)This is a judicial act of adopting a foreigner and granting him the privileges of a native-born citizen.
b)He/she must not be less than twenty-one (21) years of age on the day of the hearing of the petition;
c)He/she must have resided in the Philippines for a continuous period of not less than ten (10) years;
d)He/she must be of good moral character and believes in the principles underlying the Philippine
Constitution, and must have conducted himself in a proper and irreproachable manner during the
entire period of his residence in the Philippines in his relation with the constituted government as
well as with the community in which he is living;
e) He/she must own real estate in the Philippines worth not less than five thousand (5000) pesos,
Philippine currency, or must have some known lucrative trade, profession, or lawful occupation;
f) He/she must be able to speak or write English or Spanish or any one of the principal languages;
g) He/she must have enrolled his minor children of school age in any of the public or private schools
recognized by the Bureau of Public Schools of the Philippines where Philippine history, government
and civics are taught or prescribed as part of the school curriculum, during the entire period of the
residence in the Philippines required of him prior to the hearing of the petition for naturalization as
Philippine citizen
3. Citizenship by Marriage (jure matrimonii)
Many countries fast-track naturalization based on the marriage of a person to a citizen. Countries
which are destinations for such immigration often have regulations to try to detect sham marriages,
where a citizen marries a non-citizen typically for payment, without them having the intention of living
together.
MODES OF ACQUIRING CITIZENSHIP.

Modern law recognizes three distinct modes of acquiring citizenship:

1. jus sanguinis – acquisition of citizenship on the basis of blood relationship;
2. jus soli – acquisition of citizenship on the basis of place of birth;
3. naturalization – the legal act of adoption an alien and clothing him with the privilege of a native-born
citizen. Basic Philippine law follows the rule of jus sanguinis and provides for naturalization.

WEEK 16: ARTICLE 4: CITIZENSHIP (PART 2)

TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION

E. THE NATURAL-BORN AND NATURALIZED FILIPINO CITIZENS

SECTION 2. Natural-born citizens are those who are citizens of the Philippines from birth without having
to perform any act to acquire or perfect their Philippine citizenship. Those who elect Philippine citizenship
in accordance with paragraph (3), Section 1 hereof shall be deemed natural-born citizens.

Our Constitution is nationalistic in character. It provides that only natural-born citizens of the Philippines may be
elected President, Vice President, or member of Congress or appointed member of the Supreme Court or judge
of an inferior court, or be a member of any of the Constitutional Commissions.

NATURAL-BORN CITIZENS

A natural-born citizen is a citizen of a given country at the moment of his birth; he need not have to go through any
process of naturalization or election. A Filipino citizen who renounces his Philippine citizenship loses the character
of a natural-born citizen and does not reacquire it even if later he becomes a Philippine citizen again. While
retaining the provisions of the 1973 Constitution on the definition of the natural-born citizens of the Philippines, it
included the Filipino citizens born of Filipino mothers who elect Philippine citizenship at the age of majority.

NATURALIZED FILIPINO CITIZEN

Meaning of naturalization.
Naturalization is the legal act of adopting a foreigner and clothing him with the privileges of a natural-born citizen.
A person may be naturalized either by complying with both the substantive and procedural requirements of a
general naturalization law or he may be naturalized by a special act of the legislature.

The following naturalization laws and procedures have been used in the Philippines.
 1) General law of naturalization applied through a judicial process. (Revised Naturalization Law, C.A. No.
473, June 17, 1939. This is still in effect.);
2) General law of naturalization applied through a combination of administrative process and
presidential legislative process (Letter of Instruction N0. 270, in effect for a limited period from its
promulgation by President Marcos on April 11, 1975.);
3) Special naturalization law, i.e., an act of the legislature making a named individual a citizen of the
Philippines. E.g., the Republic Act which made Father James Moran, S.J., a citizen or the Presidential
Decree which made Mr. Ronnie Nathanielz a citizen.;
4) Mass naturalization law. The Philippine Bill of 1902 made Filipino citizens of “all inhabitants of the
Philippine Islands continuing to reside in them who were Spanish subjects.” On 11 April 1899 “and then
resided in said islands.”

The Procedural requirements which must be satisfied by the applicant.

The applicant must go through the following steps:
1. The declaration of intention;
2. Filing of petition;
3. Hearing and initial judgment; and
4. Period of probation. Upon taking the oath provided by law after satisfactorily passing the period of
probation, the applicant becomes a Filipino citizen.

The effect of the naturalization of a father on legitimate minor children is that, in general, the minor children become
citizens of the Philippines (C.A. N0. 473, Secs. 15, 16). On the other hand, the effect on the wife of the naturalized
husband is that the wife becomes a Filipino citizen, provided she shows, in an administrative procedure for the
cancellation of her alien certificate of registration, that she has none of the disqualifications found in C.A. NO. 473,
Sec. 2.

F. RIGHTS AND PRIVILEGES OF A FILIPINO CITIZEN

As a Filipino citizen, you are entitled to enjoy all the rights and privileges enumerated in Article III Bill of Rights
of the 1987 Philippine Constitution.

CLASSIFICATIONS OF RIGHTS:
(1) Natural Rights. These are the rights inherent to man and given to him by God as a human being.
Examples of these rights are the right to live, love and be happy.
(2) Constitutional Rights. These are the rights guaranteed under the fundamental charter of the
country.
1. Statutory Rights. These are rights provided by the law – making body of a country or by law, such
as the right to receive a minimum wage and the right to preliminary investigation.
2. Civil Rights. These are the rights specified under the Bill of Rights, such as the freedom of speech,
right to information. They are the rights enjoyed by an individual by virtue of his citizenship in a state
or community.
3. Economic Rights. These are rights to property, whether personal, real or intellectual. Some
examples of these rights include the following: right to use and dispose of his property, right to
practice one’s profession, and the right to make a living.
4. Political Rights. These are rights that an individual enjoys as a consequence of being a member
of a body politic. Some examples of political rights are the following: right to vote, right to be voted
into public office.

For those who have reacquired their Philippine Citizenship, these are the Specific Rights and Privileges you may
enjoy:
1. The right to travel with a Philippine passport;
2. The right to own real property in the Philippines;
3. The right to engage in business and commerce as a Filipino; and
4. The right to practice one’s profession
5. The right to vote in Philippine national elections

G. LOSS AND RE-ACQUISITION OF FILIPINO CITIZENSHIP

SECTION 3. Philippine citizenship may be lost or reacquired in the manner provided by law.

The laws governing the loss and reacquisition of Philippine citizenship.

 1. Commonwealth Act No. 63, as amended
2. Republic Acts No. 965 and 2639
3. P.D. No. 75 on repatriation.

Lost citizenship may be reacquired either by Naturalization or Repatriation. Repatriation is the recovery of original
citizenship. Thus, if what was lost was naturalized citizenship, that is what will be reacquired. If what was lost was
natural-born citizenship, that will be reacquired.

REPATRIATION.
There are different ways of accomplishing repatriation depending on how citizenship was lost:
1. For women who lost their citizenship through marriage to aliens
• For natural-born Filipinos, including their minor children, who lost their citizenship on account of economic
or political necessity, and who are not disqualified repatriation is accomplished by taking the oath of
allegiance to the Republic and registering in the proper Civil Registry and in the Bureau of Immigration.
2. Processing of applications is done by the Special Committee on Naturalization consisting of the Solicitor
General as Chairman, an Undersecretary of Foreign Affairs, and the Director of the National Intelligence
Coordinating Agency.

For those who lost citizenship by serving in the United States Armed Forces, repatriation is accomplished
simply by taking an oath of allegiance to the Republic and registering the same to the local Civil Registry where he
resides or where he last resided.

LOSS OR REACQUISITION OF PHILIPPINE CITIZENSHIP.

Under the Revised Naturalization Law, a Filipino citizen may lose his citizenship:
a) By naturalization in a foreign country
b) By expressed renunciation of citizenship
c) By subscribing to an oath of allegiance to support the Constitution or laws of foreign country upon attaining
21 years of age or more (A Filipino, however, may not divest himself of Philippine citizenship in any manner
while the Philippines is at war with any country.)
d) By rendering service to, or accepting commission in, the armed forces of foreign country under certain
conditions
e) By cancellation of the certificate of naturalization
f) By having been declared by competent authority, a deserter in the Philippine Armed Forces in time of war,
unless subsequently, a plenary pardon or amnesty has been granted.

Citizenship may be reacquired by:

(a) Naturalization, provided that the applicant possesses all of the qualifications and none of the
disqualifications
(b) Repatriation of deserters in the army, navy or air forces
(c) Direct act of the legislature.

H. THE ROLES OF A CITIZEN: DUTIES AND OBLIGATIONS

1. It is the duty of every Filipino to respect, honor, and give due accord to his Filipino heritage, patrimony, values
and tradition.

2. It is the duty of every Filipino to contribute to the development, welfare, and nation-building of its country.

3. It is the duty of every Filipino to engage in gainful work to assure himself and his family a life worthy of human
dignity.

4. Loyalty to the republic and national consciousness, aspirations, and ideals shall be asked from every Filipino
citizen.

5. Every Filipino citizen is asked to uphold this Constitution, obey the laws of the land, pay taxes and duties, and
to cooperate with the duly constituted authorities in the attainment and preservation of a just and orderly society.

6. Every Filipino citizen must give due honor to the Philippine flag, National Anthem, Philippine President, and
other national symbols and emblems.
7. It is the duty of every Filipino citizen to defend the national territory from aggressive invaders, protect the
sovereignty of its people, and preserve the continuity of a just, humane society and government.

8. It is the duty of every Filipino to report to the proper authorities all plots of terrorism, plans of rebellion, subversion,
or insurrection toward the duly and legally acknowledge government, and other acts that will compromise the union
and sovereignty of the federal republic.

9. It is the obligation of every Filipino, to report corrupt, dishonest, or fraudulent government officials to the proper
forum, courts and agencies. A Filipino shall not tempt or bribe government officials, steal from the coffers of the
government, or escape or abandon his lawful responsibilities.

10. It is the responsibility of every Filipino to elect officials of government as a means of demonstrating his personal
ideals and aspirations for the motherland.

WEEK 17: LESSON XII: CIVIL SOCIETY AND SOCIAL MOVEMENTS

TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION

A. MEANING OF CIVIL SOCIETY

WHAT DEFINES A CIVIL SOCIETY?

Think about the country that you live in - what does it take to make that country operate smoothly? The government
takes care of law and order and businesses offer goods and services in exchange for money, which both help to
keep a society moving. But what about other groups, like churches or the PTA, how do they contribute to your
society? These other groups actually play a very big part in how your country operates, and they fall into a category
known as civil society.

What Is Civil Society?

Initially, Civil Society used to be defined as a political community i.e., a society governed by the government, law
and authority. In contemporary times, however, Civil Society is distinguished from the state and political community.
It means non-governmental, private, voluntarily organized associations or institutions of the people, through which
they try to secure their needs, desires and objectives.

Such associations and organizations work independently of the government. Civil Society even opposes the wrong
politics, decisions and projects of the government. In doing so the civil society depends upon constitutional,
peaceful and legal method of action.
The term Civil Society is used to collectively refer to the voluntary organizations’ corporate bodies, socially active
groups, and firms working in each society.
Civil Society is the set of intermediate associations which is neither the state nor the family, but which plays an
active and positive role in social, economic, and cultural activities.

According to Andrew Heywood, "Civil society refers to "a realm of associations, business, interest groups, classes’
families and so on."

Civil Society includes all private organizations of the people. Press, professional associations of the people, Human
Right groups and organizations, voluntary social service organizations, and in fact, all NGOs working in society.

In other words, Civil Society refers to the effective presence of non- governmental autonomous groups and
associations, business groups, interest groups, trade unions, voluntary social service organizations, in fact, all non-
governmental organizations, and groups working for securing public interests and welfare by their self-efforts.

A civil society is comprised of groups or organizations working in the interest of the citizens but operating outside
of the governmental and for-profit sectors. Organizations and institutions that make up civil society include labor
unions, non-profit organizations, churches, and other service agencies that provide an important service to society
but generally ask for very little in return.

Civil society is sometimes referred to as the civil sector, a term that is used to differentiate it from other sectors
that comprise a functioning society. For example, the United States is made up of three sectors: the public sector,
which is the government and its branches; the private sector, which includes businesses and corporations; and
the civil sector, which includes the organizations that act in the public's interest but are not motivated by profit or
government.
Features of Civil Society:
a. Civil Society consists of non-governmental, voluntarily organized associations, organizations and institutions
of the people.
b. Civil Society is different from both the State and Society.
c. Civil Society is, however, neither opposed to state nor to society. On the contrary it works as a
supplementary to each of the two. It, however, works in an organized and autonomous way.
d. A healthy and efficient democratic system needs and integrates civil society, society and state.
e. Civil Society is constituted by the well-organized and active presence of a number of social, economic and
cultural associations and groups of the people.
f. Both Liberalism and Marxism accept and advocate the role of Civil Society but each conceptualizes it in a
different way.

B. ROLES OF THE CIVIL SOCIETY

1. Civil Society as an instrument for securing rights and interests of the people:
Civil Society works for discharging several economic, social, cultural, moral and other responsibilities which fall in
the domain of private activities. It is not a part of government and yet it serves the purpose of securing the rights,
general welfare and development of all the people of the state.

2. Growing Strength and Role of Civil Society in our Country:

In our country the Civil Society has been becoming more and more aware, alert and active. The continuous
presence and successful working of Indian liberal democratic political system, the spread of literacy, the freedom
of mass media, the existence of a very broad based decentralized local self-government system, the presence of
a direct, homogeneous and democratic process of Political Socialization and people's full commitment to liberal
democracy have been together helping the Civil Society to become increasingly active and strong.

The Right to Information and the implementation of the Right to Information Act has given an additional strength
to the Civil Society. It now uses this Act for securing its objectives; It has now come to be a powerful actor in the
process of Indian democratic polity, economy and society. Anna Hazare's anti-corruption movement and the
movement for the creation of a strong Lokpal as the watchdog against corruption have shown the increasing
strength and role Civil Society in our country.

3. Need of Civil Society in Undemocratic States:

Civil Society is needed even in an authoritarian system because it can help the process of overthrow of the
authoritarian regime and replace it with a democratic system. The Civil Society, particularly the Bar Association of
Pakistan, played a key role in 2008 to compel General Parvez Musharraf to accept the demand for holding
democratic and free elections for constituting a democratic government capable of developing Pakistan as a
democratic state and society.

Since March 2008, Pakistan has been living with a democratic government and this development has been helping
the Civil Society in Pakistan to become better organized and more active and efficient in playing its role in Pakistani
society, economy and polity. It alone can help the Pakistani government in controlling the menace of terrorism.

In February 2011 several states of Africa, particularly Tunisia, Egypt, Yemen and some others have experienced
the increasing strengths of their civil societies. Strong opposition to authoritarian and dictatorial regimes was
demonstrated by the civil society in Egypt.

The civil society of Tunisia successfully secured its objective of overthrowing the forces of authoritarianism in their
country and on 11th February 2011, the Egyptian Civil Society also successfully secured its objective of eliminating
the authoritarian regime of Hosni Mubarak in their country. It is expected that it will now ensure the installation of
a democratic regime in the country.

In fact, the civil society of each state has been trying to become more active and assertive in its society, polity and
economy. It is indeed a very healthy development which is destined to give more strength to the movements for
the restoration of democratic regimes in all authoritarian states of the world.
The current drive for the protection of Human Rights of all the people living in all parts of the globe and the
environment protection movements will get more and more support and efforts from the civil society of each
member of the international community.

C. MEANING OF SOCIAL MOVEMENTS

Social Movements
Concept of Social Movements: Social movements are a type of group action. They are large, sometimes informal,
groupings of individuals or organizations which focus on specific political or social issues. In other words, they
carry out, resist, or undo a social change.

The Meaning of Social Movements:

In the society a large number of changes have been brought about by efforts exerted by people individually and
collectively. Such efforts have been called social movements. A social movement may, therefore, be defined as “a
collectively acting with some continuity to promote or resist a change in the society or group of which it is a part”.

According to Anderson and Parker, social movement is “a form of dynamic pluralistic behavior which progressively
develops structure through time and aims at partial or complete modification of the social order.” Lundberg and
others define social movement as, “a voluntary association of people engaged in concerted efforts to change
attitudes, behavior and social relationships in a larger society.”

Thus, social movement is the effort by an association to bring about a change in the society. A social movement
may also be directed to resist a change. Some movements are directed to modify certain aspects of the existing
social order whereas others may aim to change it completely. The former are called reform movements and the
latter are known as revolutionary movements.

Social movements may be of numerous kinds, such as religious movements, reform movements, or revolutionary
movements.
Social movements may be distinguished from institutions:

Firstly, Social institutions are relatively permanent and stable elements of a culture, whereas social movements
have an uncertain life. Marriage is a permanent social institution but the life of family planning movement is not
certain. Secondly, institutions hold institutional status. They are regarded as necessary and valuable aspects of
the culture. A social movement lacks institutional status. Some people are indifferent or even hostile to it.
Social movements may also be distinguished from association. Firstly, an association is an organized group, while
some social movements may be totally unorganized. Secondly, an association carries the customary behavior of
the society, while the social movement is concerned with some change in behavior norms.

D. FEATURES OF THE SOCIAL MOVEMENT:

a. It is an effort by a group
b. Its aim is to bring or resist a change in society
c. It may be organized or unorganized
d. It may be peaceful or violent
e. Its life is not certain. It may continue for a long period or it may die out soon.

Causes of Social Movements:

Social movements do not just happen. It is social unrest which gives rise to a social movement.

Factors Causing Social Unrest among Societies:

1. Cultural Drifts:
The society is undergoing constant changes. The values and behavior are changing in all civilized societies. In the
course of cultural drift most of the people develop new ideas. To get these ideas operative in society they organize
a movement. The development of a democratic society, the emancipation of women, the spread of mass education,
the removal of untouchability, equality of opportunity for both the sexes, growth of secularism are the examples of
cultural drift.

2. Social Disorganization:
A changing society is to some extent disorganized because changes in different parts of society do not take place
simultaneously. One-part changes more rapidly than the other producing thereby numerous lags. Industrialization
has brought urbanization which has in its turn caused numerous social problems.

Social disorganization brings confusion and uncertainty because the old traditions no longer form a dependable
guide to behavior. The individuals become rootless. They feel isolated from the society. A feeling develops that
the community leaders are indifferent to their needs. The individuals feel insecure, confused and frustrated.
Confusion and frustration produce social movements.

3. Social Injustice:
When a group of people feel that injustice has been done to it they become frustrated and alienated. Such feeling
of injustice provides fertile soil for social movements. The feeling of social injustice is not limited to the miserable
poor. Any group, at any status level may come to feel itself the victim of social injustice. A wealthy class may feel
a sense of injustice when faced with urban property ceiling Act or high taxes intended to benefit the poor. Social
injustice is a subjective value judgment. A social system is unjust when it is so perceived by its members.

Thus, social movements arise wherever social conditions are favorable. It may be noted that in a stable, well
integrated society there are few social movements. In such a society there are very few social tensions or alienated
groups.

The people are contented. But in a changing and continuously disorganized society the people suffer from tensions.
They are not fully contented. In such a society they perceive social injustice and become dissatisfied. It is the
dissatisfied who build social movements. The modern society is more afflicted by social movements.

The People More Susceptible to Social Movements:

a. Mobile and have little chance to become integrated into the life of the community
b. Not fully accepted and integrated into the group and are termed marginal
c. Isolated from the community
d. Threatened by economic insecurity and loss of social status
e. Free from family responsibilities or are estranged from their families
f. Maladjusted.

Thus, the people who are homeless and misfits of society become the supporters of mass movements. It may also
be noted that some people join the social movements for reasons unrelated to the movement’s objectives. Some
may join it first to fill their leisure Ume, or they may be personally attracted to some of its members.

The Sequence Pattern of Social Movements:

1. First, there is unrest and discontent in some part of the population. A small group of individuals becomes
conscious of the need for a change, voices its feelings and opinions, and sets out to influence the opinions
and emotions of others and prepare them for a reform.
2. Then, thereafter, there is a period of growth in following. A preliminary organization is affected and the
program is restated in more popular and appealing terms.
3. Then follows a more systematic effort to gain supporters. There is a formal campaign. Backed by the
enlarged following and increased propaganda the leaders eventually exert pressure on those in authority.
4. The program is either accepted or rejected, or partly accepted and partly rejected. If accepted, necessary
institutional changes are made; if rejected the movement either collapses or reorganizes for a new trial of
strength at a later date.
Thus, most completed movements pass through four stages of unrest, excitement, formalization and
institutionalization.

TYPES OF SOCIAL MOVEMENTS:

1. Migratory Movement:
Migratory movement takes place when a large number of people leave one country and settle at some other place.
The reason for mass migration may be discontent with present circumstances or the allurement of a bright future.
Mere migration of people does not mean migratory movement.

There is a migratory social- movement only when there is a common focus of discontent, a shared purpose or
hope for the future and a widely shared decision to move to a new location. The Zionist movement, the movement
of Jews to Israel was a migratory social movement. Similarly, the movement of people from East Germany to West
Germany can be called migratory social movement.

2. Expressive Movement:
When people are faced with a social system from which they cannot flee and which they feel powerless to change,
the result is an expressive social movement. In an expressive social movement, the individual comes to terms with
an unpleasant external reality by modifying his reactions to that reality. He somehow makes life bearable. He tries
to ignore the miserable present and fixes his gaze upon a glorious future. The Hippie movement is an expressive
social movement.

3. Utopian Movement:
A Utopian movement is one which seeks to create an ideal social system or a perfect society which can be found
only in man’s imagination and not in reality. There have been a number of Utopian socialist in the nineteenth
century such as Robert Owen and Charles Fourier. Such movements are based on a conception of man as
basically good, cooperative and altruistic. The Sarvodaya movement can be called a Utopian movement.

4. Reform Movement:
The reform movement is an attempt to modify some parts of the society without completely transforming it. Reform
movements can operate only in a democratic society where people have freedom to criticize the existing institutions
and may secure changes. The movements to abolish untouchability, dowry system, preserve wild life, control
population growth are reform movements. The total revolution movement led by J. P. Narayan was a reform
movement. The movement led by J. P. Narayan was a reform movement.

5. Revolutionary Movement:

The revolutionary movement seeks to overthrow the existing social system and replace it with a greatly different
one. The reform movement wants to correct some imperfections in the existing social system but a revolutionary
movement wants to root out the system itself. Revolutionary movement’s flourish where reform is blocked so that
revolution remains the people’s only alternative to their present misery. The communist movements in Soviet
Russia and China were revolutionary movements.

6. Resistance Movements:
The resistance movement is an effort to block a proposed change or to uproot a change already achieved. The
revolutionary movement arises because people are dissatisfied with the slow rate of social change whereas
resistance movement arises because people consider social change too fast. The D. M. K. movement against
Hindi can be termed resistance movement.

7. Revolutionary Movements:
As said above, revolutionary movements or revolutions seek to over throw the existing social system itself and
replace it with a greatly different one. The communist revolution in Soviet Russia overthrew the Czarist regime and
replaced it with the communist system of production and distribution of goods.

According to MacIver, “at a time when a political regime is overthrown by force in order to impose a new form of
government or a government which proclaims a new policy on some crucial issue, we may call it a revolution.” He
further says, ‘The assassination of a king or President or Premier would not constitute a revolution if it was inspired
by personal motives or were the act of a small group of desperados who could not hope to establish an alternative
government.

A revolution implies a deep schism within the state. It reveals a pathological condition of the individual which shows
by contrast the physical nature of the political authority.” Revolutions flourish where reform is blocked so that
revolution remains the only alternative left with the people. It is accompanied by violence, mass-scale killings, use
of underground methods and untold sufferings, yet the people resort to it because they see no hope.

Although an Oligarchy state ruled by an oligarch or a class is most prone to revolution, however, a democracy also
is not free from it. In an oligarchy, the people have no power, their rights are suppressed, there is coercion and
oppression which take the people to revolution. In a democracy, religious, social or economic issues may cause
revolution. The earlier writers like John of Salisbury and Mace Gold held that contract with God is superior to
contract with men and hence paramount over the demands of the state.
Religion is a big emotive issue which can flare up in a revolution. Among the social issues the most important is
the feeling by a particular group or race that it is not getting its just share in the political set up of the country and
that the only alternative is to achieve autonomy or to be separated from the state to which it is coercively bound.

If such a group or race occupies a determinate territory, such feeling acquires greater force. In the economic
sphere, the present division between capital and labor, the owners of the means of production and workers, has
fostered much bitterness and revolutionary feeling. The capitalists control the government and, therefore, the only
way of abolishing the capitalism is to get control over the government.

However, in contrast to oligarchies, the democracies are less prone to revolutions, in the words of MacIver, “A truly
democratic state is vastly more secure than an oligarchy against the threat of /evolution. Doubtless, the general
will is still most imperfect and undeveloped, but at least it is sufficiently real to give it a new character to political
authority. The formal basis of this authority is no more the division of master and servant but the unity of agent and
principal.”

MacIver also holds that when authority ceases to exist in its own right and becomes derivative, when it becomes
authority over action as distinct from authority over thought and opinion, when it becomes authority according to
prescribed norms instead of personal command, when it becomes reciprocal instead of unilateral and when it
learns to appreciate its relation to that inner control which all personality seeks for itself, the conditions for revolution
are abolished.

Role of Leadership:
Social movements in order to succeed must have effective organization and strong leader. The members or
supporters must be recruited in greater number, financial support must be procured and various tasks connected
with the movement must be properly allocated. There must also be proper coordination among personnel assigned
to more or less specific roles. In social movements the role of the leader is very important.

Many a movement fails due to lack of leadership. The leader is the spokesman of the group. He is the coordinator
and the important participator in the decisions as to the goals and methods. He is an example to others. He enjoys
great authority and power. He also enjoys great prestige. He excels others in personal qualities. The leader has
great responsibilities. He is expected to fulfill them.

He is expected to keep his word, to stick by the members and to uphold the group norms and values. If he does
not live up to the level expected, he suffers a loss of prestige and even of position in the group. He can be thrown
out of leadership. If he betrays the confidence reposed in him by the supporters, he may even be killed. Thus, the
leader plays a crucial role in a social movement. The success or failure of the movement depends largely on him.

The Leadership Functions Are Related to the:

a. goal achievement
b. strengthening of the social movement

Functions of Leadership in Achieving Goals:

1. Make suggestions for action
2. Evaluate the movement towards the goal
3. Prevent activities irrelevant to the goal
4. Offer effective solutions for goal achievement

Functions in the Second Category Maintain and Strengthen the Movement.

1. Encourage the members
2. Release tension that builds up
3. Give everyone a chance to express himself
4. Stimulate coordinated action

The leader has the basic responsibility for seeing that the social movement achieves its goals. The followers follow
the leader because they recognize that he can lead them to the goal. The leader should select his technique with
great forethought. It should be “reality-oriented.” The leader should know that in case of failure of the movement
he may have to suffer rebuffs, loss of status and blame. He should, therefore, be very cautious in assuming the
leadership, and having assumed should be careful in handling it successfully. A leader can channelize the mass
enthusiasm into constructive social reforms or he can eventually destroy the social system. (Source:
www.sociologydiscussion.com › Social Movements)

Common features between Civil Society and Social movement

Social movements and civil society have structures like organizations a well identified leadership and ideology.
Civil society initiatives and social movements are social processes which undergo several stages of progression
from mobilization to intensive collective action.

Social movements and civil societies pledge for change in the established order of society. However, some of them
also work to resist change in society. They both occupy civil space in society. The creation of new collective identity
is an essential part of both social movements and civil society. They are based on identified ideological choices.
They are initiated by enterprising people for the maximization of specific interests. Here both processes can be
taken over by the state. Social movements are broader categories or agencies. At times it even looks for radical
change by attacking the existing structure of the society. Civil society looks for gradual change within the existing
arrangement. Civil society at times asks political questions and political solutions through developmental activities.
(Source: http://www.sociologyguide.com/civil-society/common-features.php)