Single motherhood and its consequences on children; A case

comparison of Sweden and Germany.

- About how it affects children's health/academic performance.

Ndinge Tahiri Mokake

Institution of social work

Master thesis in social work, 45 hp
Spring 2021
Handledare: Mattias Strandh
 Table of content

Table of content........................................................................................................................... i
Abstract .................................................................................................................................... iii
Keywords:. ............................................................................................................................ iii
Nyckelord. ............................................................................................................................. iv
CHAPTER 1 .............................................................................................................................. 1
1.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Research purpose ................................................................................................................. 1
1.3 Research Questions .............................................................................................................. 2
1.4 Contribution to Social Work ................................................................................................ 2
CHAPTER 2 .............................................................................................................................. 3
2.1 Literature review .................................................................................................................. 3
2.1.1 Knowledge and literature review ................................................................................... 3
2.2 Consequences of single motherhood on children ................................................................ 4
2.2.1 Health outcome .............................................................................................................. 4
2.2.2 Academic performance .................................................................................................. 5
2.3 Mechanisms linking single motherhood with child outcomes ............................................. 6
2.3.1. First mechanism, the economic situation ......................................................................... 6
2.3.2. Second mechanism, Stigmatization .............................................................................. 8
2.3.3 Short discussion on the literature review and mechanisms ........................................... 9
2.4 Why context matters?......................................................................................................... 11
2.5 Theory ................................................................................................................................ 11
2.5.1 Social policy ................................................................................................................ 11
2.5.2 Traditional family values ............................................................................................. 15
2.5.3 The implication of context ........................................................................................... 17
CHAPTER 3 ............................................................................................................................ 18
3.1 Method and design ............................................................................................................. 18
3.2 Data .................................................................................................................................... 18
3.3 Variables ............................................................................................................................. 20
3.3.1 Individual level variables............................................................................................. 20
3.4 A split analysis between Sweden and Germany ................................................................. 21
3.5 Strategy of analysis ............................................................................................................ 22
3.6 Ethics.................................................................................................................................. 24
3.7 Validity and Reliability: ..................................................................................................... 25
CHAPTER 4 ............................................................................................................................ 27
4.1 Data analysis and Results................................................................................................... 27
 4.2 Demographics ................................................................................................................. 27
Table 4.1 Gender distribution ............................................................................................ 28
Table 4.2 Age distribution ................................................................................................. 28
Table 4.3 Family structure ................................................................................................. 28
Figure 4.2.1 The chart below shows the age distribution in percentages .......................... 29
4.3. Single motherhood and health outcome on children ..................................................... 30
Table 4.4 Influence of both parents on the health outcome of children ............................ 30
Table 4.5 Influence of single motherhood on the health outcome of children .................. 30
Interpretation ........................................................................................................................ 31
4.3.2 Single motherhood and academic performance ....................................................... 32
Table 4.6 Influence of both parents on the academic performance of children ................ 32
Table 4.7 Influence of single motherhood on the academic performance of children ...... 32
Interpretation ........................................................................................................................ 33
4.4.1. THE GERMANY AND SWEDEN COMPARISON ................................................. 34
4.4.1.1 Regression analysis of single motherhood and its consequences on health ......... 34
Table 4.8 Influence of single motherhood on the health outcome of children .................. 34
Table 4.9 Influence of single motherhood on the academic performance of children ...... 34
Table 4.10 Influence of single motherhood on the health of children ............................... 35
Table 4.11 Influence of single motherhood on the academic performance ....................... 35
4.4.2 COMPARISON OF GERMANY AND SWEDEN. .................................................... 36
CHAPTER 5 ............................................................................................................................ 38
5.1 Discussion .......................................................................................................................... 38
5.2 Single motherhood and health outcome ......................................................................... 39
5.3 Single motherhood and academic performance.............................................................. 40
5.4 The Germany and Sweden comparison: ......................................................................... 41
5.4.1 Sweden’s economy: .................................................................................................. 41
5.4.2 Germanys economy:................................................................................................. 42
5.5 Comparing magnitude of repercussions based on results and economic realities ............. 43
5.6 Conclusion ......................................................................................................................... 45
REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................ 47
APPENDIX .............................................................................................................................. 50
Abstract

This thesis aims at examining the relationship between single motherhood and the health and
academic performance of children in different countries. It was geared toward understanding
whether single motherhood has an impact or consequences on the health and academic
performance of children. In order to attain this goal, this thesis was sub divided into three
main parts (sections) namely; examining whether single motherhood has consequences on the
health outcome of children, examining whether single motherhood has consequences on the
academic performance of children and finally ascertaining the impact of single motherhood
on children's health and academic performance in different economies (Sweden and
Germany).

Furthermore, this study adopted the quantitative and cross-cultural approach where
quantitative data was obtained across different countries. The Health Behaviour of School
aged Children (HBSC) constituted the main source from which responses, respondents and
data collection instrument was obtained. After thorough statistical analysis, the regression
mode was used to establish that single motherhood reduced the quality of health and
academic outcome of children and thus reflecting a negative impact of single motherhood on
the child's health and academic performance.

A cross comparison approach was used to ascertain the economies of Sweden and Germany
and compared against the impact of single motherhood on the children's health and academic
performance in these two countries. It was then revealed that the impact of single motherhood
on children's health and academic performance was dire and common in Germany than
Sweden. The study finally concluded that single motherhood negatively impacted the health
and academic performance of children with varying impact in different economic context.

Keywords: Single motherhood, Academic performance, Health outcome, Economy, cross

cultural, examine, children.
Abstrakt

Denna uppsats syftar till att undersöka förhållandet mellan ensamstående moderskap och
barns hälsa och akademiska prestationer i olika länder. Det var inriktat på att förstå om
ensamstående moderskap har en inverkan eller konsekvenser för barns hälsa och akademiska
prestationer. För att uppnå detta mål delades denna uppsats upp i tre huvuddelar (avsnitt),
nämligen; undersöka om ensamstående moderskap har konsekvenser för barns hälsoutfall,
undersöka om ensamstående moderskap har konsekvenser för barns akademiska prestationer
och slutligen fastställa effekterna av ensamstående moderskap på barns hälsa och akademiska
resultat i olika ekonomier (Sverige och Tyskland).

Vidare antog denna studie det kvantitativa och tvärkulturella tillvägagångssättet där
kvantitativa data erhölls i olika länder. HBSC (Health Behavior of School Age Children)
utgjorde den huvudsakliga källan från vilken svar, respondenter och
datainsamlingsinstrument erhölls. Efter noggrann statistisk analys användes regressionsläget
för att fastställa att ensamstående moderskap minskade barns hälsa och akademiska resultat
och därmed återspeglade en negativ inverkan av ensamstående moderskap på barnets hälsa
och akademiska prestationer.

En tvärjämförelsestrategi användes för att fastställa ekonomierna i Sverige och Tyskland och
jämfördes mot inverkan av ensamstående moderskap på barnens hälsa och akademiska
prestationer i dessa två länder. Det avslöjades sedan att ensamstående moderskaps inverkan
på barns hälsa och akademiska prestationer var hemskt och vanligt i Tyskland än Sverige.
Undersökningen drog slutligen slutsatsen att ensamstående moderskap påverkade barns hälsa
och akademiska prestationer negativt i olika ekonomiska sammanhang.

Nyckelord: Ensamstående moderskap, akademisk prestation, hälsoutfall, ekonomi,

tvärkulturell, undersöka, barn.
CHAPTER 1

1.1 Introduction

Single parenthood affects women mostly, and 85% of single-parent households in Europe are
headed by women (Nieuwenhuis & Maldonado, 2019). Single parenthood often comes with
social risks like poverty, material deprivation and challenging work-life balance. Single
parenthood also comes with concerns about the next generation suffering possible
disadvantage due to the developmental and well-being challenges for the children
(Nieuwenhuis &Maldonado, 2019). As such, it is no surprise that single parents are often at
the centre of policy debates and can be considered as a “litmus test” of efficient social
protection (Horemans & Marx, 2018).

According to Statistic Sweden, (2016), 158.000 single mothers in Sweden had a low-income
standard in 2011. This within a social policy context where there is financial support such as
availability of child allowance, paid leave when children are sick and child care support etc.,
something that does not exist in many countries.

Another factor that can be of importance for single mothers in many parts of the world is
stigmatization. Stigmatization is often associated with children of single mothers, and at
times exposes these children to a greater risk of being bullied, which may affect their
academic performance (Ajzenstadt, 2009). The level of stigma may vary between different
contexts and can affect children differently depending on the country.

1.2 Research purpose

The aim of this thesis, is to investigate the relationship between single motherhood and the
child’s health and school performance in different countries. An additional aim is to
investigate if this relationship varies depending on contextual factors such as social policy
and traditional family values in Sweden and Germany, because they have many similarities in
a way, but Germany is geared towards to the traditional family values.

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1.3 Research Questions

What consequence does single motherhood has on the health of children?

What consequence does single motherhood has on the academic performance of children?

What role does context play in examining the relationship between single motherhood and
the child's health and academic performance?

1.4 Contribution to Social Work

The relationship between single motherhood and the child’s health outcome as well as the
academic performance is of central importance to social work. There is a large literature
considering disadvantageous effect of single motherhood on children. The relationship
between children’s health and academic performance as well as their material circumstances
has most often been associated with the negative connotation of having a single mother,
(Morris et al., 2018). Thus, social work engages with evidence and with critical reflection
about intervening in the context of poverty and child well-being, to see that these children
have good childhood and have a bright future.

This thesis contributes to these needs in that, social work as known is based on a social
justice agenda which emphasizes the rights, inclusion and respect of its clients. Social
workers are being recognised by their skills, which is good to read and understand the
relevance of their work in respect to the topic. Thus, research on the topic single motherhood
and its consequences on children may help outline some of the consequences and variations
faced by children of single mother families, and a comparative perspective in social work is
here central for understanding the challenges.
Furthermore, (Nieuwenhuis, 2019) says, when it comes to social policies, single mother
families in many countries face the disadvantage with the traditional breadwinner model. It
remains to be seen how the increased emphasis on social work and activation in social policy
plays out for single mothers and their children.

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CHAPTER 2

2.1 Literature review

2.1.1 Knowledge and literature review

A knowledge and literature review has been made to compile the current state of knowledge
in this thesis. The literature search has shown both national and international research,
because my presentation is base on (Europe and Asia) which is relevant to my study and the
state of knowledge based on previous studies on single motherhood and the consequences on
children. This material includes different literatures including scientific texts and articles.

The search for literature and scientific articles has been done in Umeå University Library's
database / search service, the Swedish data from the HBSC survey Health Behaviors of
School-aged Children (HBSC), DiVA portal (digital scientific archive) and Google Scholar.
The search service contains books and e-books, dissertations, essays, articles, journals and
databases. Searches have been made with the keyword’s single motherhood, health outcomes
of single mothers’ children, academic performance of single mothers’ children, economy of
Sweden and Germany. The initial search with the keyword "single motherhood" resulted in
3500 and more search results.

A review of the most recent search results was made and the articles selected were "peer-
reviewed", i.e., reviewed and from scientific journals. The criteria were that the articles
should be available in full text, in Swedish or English, the year of the text or article wasn’t
put into considering in as far as it were deemed relevant to my study, that is where applicable
to answering my research questions, the bibliographic entry, title and summary (Friberg (ed.),
2017). A couple of dissertations and other books were also selected and, my thesis is base
mostly on text and article (references) from Europe, and I later narrowed it down to Sweden
and Germany when looking at the single mother’s situation in respect to the economy of the
country.

The other keywords got more limited search results, for example. a search for "single
motherhood and the child’s academic performance only resulted in 8 hits, but "single
motherhood and child’s health" resulted in 20 and more hits each. A search for “single

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motherhood” in research publications in DiVA (digital scientific archive) resulted in 150
search results and, on Google Scholar the search showed more than 10 searches. All headings
were read and in the case of interesting abstracts the essays were read in their entirety. It gave
me a picture of different methods and study designs that have been carried out based on
single motherhood. Here, my focus was on which related issues have been studied in relation
to my purpose and issues

2.2 consequences of single motherhood on children

This section is about literature that forms the basis for the analysis and provides information
about the phenomenon of single motherhood and its consequences on children in different
countries. That is, what is known from earlier research about the consequences of single
motherhood on children’s health and academic performance.

Furthermore, I will focus on answering the research questions by reading previous literature
on single motherhood and how it may impact the child’s well-being, which may be divided
into two parts, i.e., the mental and physical wellbeing as well as the academic well-being.

2.2.1 Health outcome

According to Raymo (2016), there has been several researches carried out that has
consistently demonstrated that, children living with single mothers do not fare as well as their
counterparts in two-parent families on a range of behavioural health related difficulties.
Which can be as a result of the large majority of single mothers working relatively long
hours, but receiving low incomes, limited benefits and having little job security. At times,
these mothers spend little or no time with their children which then leads to or contributes to
stress and poor mental health in the mothers (Raymo, 2016). Because these children get to
spend little or no time with their mothers, they (the children) may face higher risk of
suboptimal mental and physical health, (Raymo, 2016).

According to Berg & Hjern (2016), children of separated parents have an increased risk of ill
health both in adolescence and in young adulthood, and have higher risks of substance abuse
and delinquent behaviour than children living with both parents. Children who live with a
single parent, correspondingly, have the largest need for preventive measures from society,
especially if they experienced parental separation in an early age unlike children from two
parent households. According to (Berg & Hjern, 2016) most children from single parent

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background have consistently experienced lower levels of physical well-being and a higher
level of mental illness, psychosomatic and psychiatric symptoms in comparison to children in
alternative accommodation.

Ayllo´n & Ferreira-Batista (2015), show that, children from single mother families have an
effect on growth, i.e., height -for-age z-score that is lower than that of children of similar
characteristic that cohabits with both parents. Single mothers can also not count on the help
and monitoring of a cohabiting partner. Thus, making it difficult for their children to obtain
care because of a smaller extended family, which may explain the poorer health outcomes for
children raised by single mothers (Ayllo´n & Ferreira-Batista, 2015). They more often show
symptoms of depression, low self-esteem and anxiety and a higher risk of anger issues,
inability to build stable relationship and low career achievements in adulthood, (Skubiejute,
2019).

To help remedy the situation countries should make efforts on providing free health
consultation for both single mothers and their children and ensure these mothers get social
benefits not just from the government but from their former partners, because some single
mothers face the difficulties of getting assistance from former partners (Princeton, 1997).

2.2.2 Academic performance

Among the various forms of assistance for children, parental involvement is the most
essential, as it is important for the mental and physical growth as well as emotional growth
for the children. Living in a single mother family, may in one way or the other affects the
children’s health and academic performance (Sylvestre & Paez, 2015, p. 22).

Sylvestre & Paez (2015, p. 33) “30% of the children experienced a marked decrease in their
academic performance following parental separation and it was evident 3 years later”.
Research has also shown that living in a single mother family, is negatively related with
children’s educational performance (Skubiejute, 2019) and children of separated parents have
an increased risk of school failure and financial vulnerability during school years (Berg &
Hjern, 2016).

The inequalities in children’s life chances are to a large part dependent on the discourses and
framing of policies that determines the amount of attention given to these children. The time

5
spent with parents and parental income are some of the most important factors for a child’s
school performance (Skubiejute, 2019).

One of the general explanations for the relatively poor academic performance is the single
mother’s economic situation, which accounts for as much as one half of the single-mother
“effect” on children’s educational performance and the likelihood of dropping out of high
school for these children (Douglas, 1994).

Different negative consequences connected to having a single parent can also reinforce each
other. Research shows that, deterioration in academic performance and defiant behaviour is
among the most common negative outcomes associated with children aged 10-17 from a
single- parent house hold. These children are more often in unsupervised settings after
school. (Sylvestre & Paez, 2015) talks of an association between the lack of adult supervision
and an increased likelihood of interlocking factors such as risk-taking behaviours,
victimization and poor academic performance on these children. That is, the adults in the
family provides for a child with opportunities to develop into a stable and independent
person, for instance, through enabling the child to attend school. The less the parents are
involved with supervision, the more likely the children become outgoing.

2.3 Mechanisms linking single motherhood with child outcomes

As seen above, previous research shows increased risk of negative outcomes for children to
single mothers, and suggest several different mechanisms that are involved.

In this section, I will look into two main mechanisms that have been raised in the research,
the economic situation and the role of stigmatization for both mechanisms that could vary
depending on contextual characteristics.

2.3.1. First mechanism, the economic situation

The economic mechanism is in previous research a central explanation for the relationship
between single motherhood and child well-being.

According to Rashmita, et al., (2003), the impact of economic hardship on children’s well-
being is connected with family processes. The parent’s psychological distress is here an
important mediator between economic hardship and parenting which influences the child’s

6
emotional and social development, which specifically could explain the effects of poverty on
minority children’s socioemotional wellbeing, (Rashmita, et al., 2003).

Attending school with more children from single-parent families affects the educational
performance of all children negatively, but particularly it harms children from single mother
families (Marloes de Lange et al., 2014). That is, the low academic performance of children
from single mother families, could also be related to the contexts which are available to low-
income households. For low-income parents, which single mothers often are associated with,
may face chronic stressors such as life stress, financial worries and the constant struggle to
make ends meet are proposed to take a toll on their mental health which in turn diminishes
their capacity to be present, sensitive and supportive parents. May have an effect on
economic hardship thus indirectly affects children’s well-being as well. Under conditions of
economic hardship, parenting was likely to be less child centred, nurturing and more parent
centred, rejecting and inconsistent (Rashmita, et al., 2003).

Rashmita, et al., (2003) also points to evidence found for an indirect effect of economic
hardship on adolescents´ depression and loneliness scores through parental nurturance (or the
lack thereof) and inconsistent parental discipline. Inconsistent parental discipline also
mediated the effect of economic hardship on the occurrence of delinquent behaviour and
reported drug use among children of single mother families. Along the same lines, research
has also indicated that warm, supportive and noncoercive parental practices buffer children
from some of the adverse consequences of economic hardship (Rashmita, et al., 2003). Thus,
this is a reasonable explanation for the poorer outcomes of children to single mothers as
research shows the connection between single motherhood and economic hardship.

Öztürk and Boylu (2015) shows that the poverty rate in single-parent families is high,
especially in families headed by women, hence the income in these families is particularly
low. This indicates the prevalence of economic distress in female-headed house-holds due
low salaries, insufficient employment opportunities and limited labour market support for
employment for lone parents (Öztürk & Boylu 2015). Seccombe, (2004) also argues for
economic difficulties to be a common problem faced by single women who live with a child
or children.

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Children are often in practice the mother’s responsibility after a separation, and the mother
undertakes a large part of the responsibility about the economic needs of these children
(Arendell, 1986; Rocha, 1997). Single mothers carry the responsibilities of child care and
home schooling and often receive insufficient assistance from their former husbands, inner
circle, relatives or the states. This is in combination with lack of affordable day care, which
constitute to be one of the most important reasons single mothers face economic difficulties
in many countries (Öztürk & Boylu, 2015).

Furthermore, as previously mentioned above, low income can also affect school performance
through not enabling a child to participate in extracurricular activities, like lessons after
school, special trips, or summer camps. Such activities improve children’s skills directly, but
also indirectly via general intellectual stimulation, which affects subsequent learning,
(Marloes de Lange et al. 2014). In some societies, the lower the income of the mom, the
lower the quality of the school the child attends generally is. Whereas the higher the income
of the parents, the more possibilities they have to live in neighbourhoods with good public
schools or to send their children to a school of their preference. If children of single mothers
more often go to substandard schools, this should affect the academic results negatively. This
is possibly compounded by peer group factors where attendance at low performing schools
lead to all attendees performing lower than otherwise could have been expected. Therefore,
all children attending such schools will perform less well, (Marloes de Lange et al. 2014).

In conclusion, Mclanahan & Percheski (2008) argues that an increase in income of women in
general and an availability of jobs, could in turn decrease the intergenerational economic
mobility by affecting children’s material resources and the parenting they experience.

2.3.2. Second mechanism, Stigmatization

Stigmatization at its essence, is a challenge to one’s humanity for both the stigmatized person
and the stigmatiser.

According to Crocker and Steele (1998, p. 504), “a person who is stigmatized, is a person
whose social identity, or membership in some social category, calls into question his or her
full humanity. The person is devalued, spoiled or flawed in the eyes of others”.

8
Weiss and Ramakrishna, (2006, p. 536), argues that stigma is “a social process or personal
experience characterized by exclusion, rejection, blame or devaluation that results from
experience or reasonable anticipation of an adverse social judgment about a person or group”.

Stigma connected to single motherhood could be related to single mothers often being
negatively characterized based on many having borne children in the absence of a co-resident
husband (Evans, 2011). These negative perceptions toward single mothers are in some cases
the biggest obstacle for them to play their role effectively within the society (H. M. Rusyda et
al., 2011), which may not be the case in some countries in Europe that is not always seen as
negative because the state provides affordable day care.
Marginalized groups, such as low-income single mothers, typically experience multiple
stigmas and sources of oppression, because single parent families are not considered as a
normal form of family structure. In most countries, single motherhood is not welcomed and
there is a lack of social policy that helps these mothers. Thus, with the stress due to stigma
these mothers often face, this could affect the child’s well-being through the mothers
functioning (Sparks et al., 2005) this in a similar way as economic hardship discussed above.

Heine (2016) argues that children raised by single mothers tend to suffer from lack of
investment from their fathers which may lead them to develop behavioural problems or
trouble at school. In some traditional countries in Asia and Africa, that does not accept single
motherhood as an acceptable family type, that cannot be compensated for by the mothers, can
lead to stigmatization of both the mothers and their children. Nowadays these countries are
changing to be more acceptable towards single mothers.

The social stigma associated with children living with one parent (a single mother), can lead
to great stress, such as lack of social confidence, lower self-esteem and confusion regarding
one’s self-identity, (Skubiejute, 2019). In all, an emotionally or mentally suffering child will
not achieve good grades in school. Also, living in a single parent family in a society where
marriage is the norm and other family types are not recognized, can as well be associated
with stigmatization. Which can affect the child’s educational achievements, a lower
occupational status, poorer health, lower income in adulthood and a higher likelihood to stay
un-married, (Skubiejute, 2019).

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2.3.3 Short discussion on the literature review and mechanisms

The above discussion shows that both the economic hardship of single mothers as well as the
stigmatization that at times may be connected with the acceptance of single motherhood, can
affect the well-being of their children, both academically and health wise.

Single mothers face a lot of socio-economic difficulties as compared to paired couples and
single fathers which constitutes only 15% of single parenthood (Heine, 2016).

The growth in the number of single-parent families implies that many children are confronted
with the negative effects of single-parenthood every year, and their educational achievements
are often affected due to economic deprivation, a decrease in the quality and quantity of
parental contact, and a decline in parental support and effective control (Marloes de Lange et
al., 2014).

Furthermore, income in many cases has affected the school outcomes of children from single
mother families, which can enable a child participate in extracurricular activities, like lessons
after school, special trips, or summer camps. Such activities improve children’s skills
directly, but also indirectly via general intellectual stimulation, which affects subsequent
learning, (Marloes de Lange et al. 2014).

Also, children’s educational achievement is at times affected negatively by parental

separation, (Marloes de Lange et al. 2014) which comes down to the fact that the loss of one
parent from the family, can lead to a decrease in the number of family’s finances, emotional
distress, cultural, and social resources. Which may lead to a mental distress for the mom as
well as the children.

Having both parents has a lot of advantages, as well as disadvantages e.g., having both
parents, one parent can help with the school assignment while the other help out with the
house chores. Not forgetting that for many children it can also be negative to have both
parents, i.e., the father may abuse both the child and the mother and the separation takes place
to improve not least the child's life situation.

Also, in situations where there is only one parent, i.e., the mother playing both roles of being
the father and mother at the same time can be mentally draining. Because first these negative

10
perceptions associated with stigma toward single mothers are in some cases the biggest
obstacle for them to play their role effectively within the society (H. M. Rusyda et al., 2011).

Actually, because there is a lot of things in a household that need to be done, and if you are
alone you have to do them all alone.

This according to Gill & Davidson (2001) is perceived as a constant stressor by most women
when they have difficulties associated with arrangements of childcare. Thus, this argument
fits more with stigma where certain things have been gendered in a way that makes one
assume that the mother cannot implement them and / or may not be able in carrying out all
the responsibilities needed in running a household.

2.4 Why context matters?

The welfare state in general, in the form of social and family policies, as well as the strength
of traditional family, can separately and together act to influence the living conditions of both
single mothers and their children. Economic transfer and services such as availability of high-
quality education and child care might give economic advantages to single mothers in some
countries which may not be found in other countries. Differences between countries in the
value structure around family could likewise affect the level of stigma experienced. In this
section, I will introduce the theory neoinstitutionalism, which answers to why context can
matter for individual outcomes.

2.5 Theory

Neoinstitutionalism, or new institutional theory, emphasizes the role of social norms, rituals
and roles for individual outcomes. In new institutional theory a social institution is a system
of patterns describing accepted behaviour and actions an individual can use to satisfy a
societal need (Vestheim et al., 2010).

This system of pattern describing accepted behaviour and actions need to be recurring or
permanent over time to be described as a social institution, but the amount of time needed is
unclear. This framework could be used to understand the relationship between single
motherhood and the child’s health and school performance in different countries.

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2.5.1 Social policy

As stated above, new institution theory that emphasizes the role of social norms, patterns
describing accepted behaviour and actions an individual can use to satisfy a societal need etc.,
in relation to my research questions, single motherhood since it is often at the centre of policy
debates, and faces a triple bind of inadequate resources, employment and social policy, can
be considered as a ‘litmus test’ of effective social protection. Thus, to help protect single
mothers. As earlier mentioned above, Single parents are most often women, and are often
associated with social risks that include poverty, material deprivation, and challenging work-
life balance. They also experience socio-economic disadvantage which is also linked to
challenges in the development and wellbeing of their children (Nieuwenhuis, 2019).

A prominent approach to describing the complementary role of social policy to increasing

distandardization of life courses is the distinction between traditional ways of protecting
against social risks, which includes poverty, material deprivation, as mentioned above (Zabel
& Hübgen, 2018). In recent decades, social policy in Europe has increasingly emphasized the
importance of employment, the development has been characterized by welfare state
retrenchment and austerity, while at the same time single parenthood has become more
common and poverty risks of single parents increased (Zabel & Hübgen, 2018). By indicating
individuals living in a household with an equivalized disposable income below 60% of the
national median income. Countries varying in the criteria they set in the different policy
areas, welfare-state support for single mothers appears much more multifaceted than what is
typically discussed in previous research. (Zabel & Hübgen, 2018).

Single motherhood is associated with varying degrees of socioemotional stress, care

responsibilities and economic security, all of which are risks relevant to policy making.
However, it is rarely acknowledged that single motherhood goes together with specific social
rights if it is experienced at certain life stages. This means that not all policies are equally
relevant for all single mothers. (Zabel & Hübgen, 2018).

Germany and Sweden represent an important difference in welfare policy and in institutional
settings that largely influence women’s possibilities to gain access to full citizenship rights
(Sundström, 2003). They also represent two specific national and cultural contexts in which
the relationship between gender and social citizenship produces divergent dynamics for value
orientation, individual choices and policy change (Sundström, 2003).

12
As such, Germany and Sweden are used to illustrate processes of social policy, how it varies
in terms of single motherhood. Sweden share a strong social-democratic tradition of universal
welfare provision. They have high levels of social protection expenditures (around one third
of GDP). Social assistance plays a very residual role. The average single mother in these
countries received about 5,000 euros in benefits per year in 2001. (González, 2006).

Germany, on the other hand, embrace an employment-based model, according to which

social benefits are given only to those who have been on the labour market, although social
assistance provides a basic safety net. The average level of benefits received by single
mothers in Germany was about 3,000 euros in 2001. (González, 2006).

2.5.1.1 Employment

Creating employment is one of the key objectives of the European 2020 strategy and is
thought to come with various positive social outcomes – such as avoiding poverty by creating
jobs. This will help improve the living conditions of single mothers as well as their children,
(Nieuwenhuis, 2019). This is because most single mothers without help from their family and
former husband is dependent on childcare to be able to work. Thus, childcare opportunities
benefit comes in handy for some single mothers especially in countries where they have a
good social policy system, (Princeton, 1997).

Nonetheless, the restriction on finances can be solved through childcare, as it then gives the
mother a chance to work and earn money. Which can help her maintain her mental health and
in return will have a positive effect on their children. Similarly, if every society would accept
single motherhood and their children, there will be no stigma and it will have a positive effect
on the children as well (Princeton, 1997).

Furthermore, employment helps to protect against poverty, but employment growth is no

guaranteed remedy against high poverty rates (Nieuwenhuis, 2019). Particularly when you
rely on only one income. Furthermore, other analyses suggest that rates of inadequate
earnings – among the employed – were lower in countries that have stricter job protection
regarding the use of fixed-term contracts. Single parents’ economic position can be heavily
affected by policies that are not specifically designed for single parents or even for families
with children. Thus, not every country in the world has a social system and may have little or
no jobs to aid employment that can support single mothers and their children.

13
2.5.1.2 Two different institutional contexts: social policy and motherhood in Germany
and Sweden;

Family policy in Germany provides strong financial and social support for children. Law and
policy, however, are specifically formulated to encourage child rearing to take place in the
home, with one of the parents focusing extensively on child rearing and family
responsibilities. In contrast to other models of family law and policy within the European
Union, the German model is based on the premise that children are provided the best
opportunities for human development when they are primarily cared for by a parent in their
own home (Trzcinski, 2010).

The German model for providing for the psychological and economic well-being of children
has historically depended both on the high wages of men supplemented by financial supports
for households with children and on the willingness of women with children to accept the
role of mother and wife as their primary identity. Today its success in guaranteeing the
economic well-being of all children also depends on providing supports for children who live
in single-parent households as well as in two-parent households and to households where
neither of the parents have access to high wages and/or employment (Trzcinski, 2010).
Despite the strong incentives that favour two-parent families, where one parent has less
attachment to the labour market than the other, all children, including children of foreigners
with official resident status in Germany are guaranteed a basic economic minimum and have
access to essential health and social services.

Germany practices a corporatist welfare state regime, that emphasis results in social
insurance that typically excludes women who are not labour market participants and in the
principle of “subsidiarity,” which emphasizes that “the state will only interfere when the
family’s capacity to service its members is exhausted”. These policies provide differentiated
access to economic security and to economic resources based on marital status. For women
with children, married women have on average the best access, followed by divorced women,
with unmarried mothers in the least favourable position (Trzcinski, 2010).

Income splitting (Ehegattensplitting), represents a major aspect of German family policy.

That is a policy that most highly rewards a two-parent household with a single earner. Under
this policy, the earnings of the low-income and the high-income spouse are subject to the
same marginal tax – a result that usually substantially raises the marginal tax rate for the

14
lower-earner spouse while lowering the tax rate for the higher-earner. The benefits from
income splitting only accrue to couples where one spouse earns substantially more than the
other. In cases where the earnings are similar, marriage will usually result in higher as
opposed to lower taxes for the household, (Trzcinski, 2010).

Not forgetting that the eastern part of Germany had a completely different family policy
model and, a lot has change in last 10 years in the direction towards a more Scandinavian
model.

Fleckenstein & Lee (2014) says, Sweden’s socioeconomic situation takes a more and better
direction with a review of Sweden’s policies reflecting a more favourable economic grounds
for both genders particularly women by having a good social system that provides jobs and
affordable day care. Unlike Germany, Sweden is not only an archetype of the social
democratic welfare state but also a pioneer in employment-oriented family policies with
which the country began to depart from its male breadwinner trajectory in the early 1970s.

Sweden has taken a new turn and initiated a trend of providing a more balanced economic
welfare system for both men and women, this move has ultimately relieved women in
Sweden off economic pressure and promoted some level of economic stability and
independence on the part of women (Fleckenstein & lee, 2014). Thus, making Sweden’s
social system one of the best in the world in comparison to Germany, especially when
comparing Sweden to Germanys social policy back in the days, in relation to how single
mothers and women as a whole is (were) being treated.

2.5.2 Traditional family values

Traditional family values can be related to stigmatization. Values around families and
parenthood look different in different countries. The second main mechanism discussed
above, stigma, has its base in the value structure where the rise in single motherhood is seen
as due to a problematic abandonment of traditional family values (Heine, 2016).

The realization of individualism, is from the perspective of traditional family values looked
upon as selfishness leading to the loss of traditional values and beliefs in religion, marriage
and the institution of the family. This has caused the destruction of the family unit, and has

15
led to an increase in the rate of single motherhood. Which may not be accepted in every
country (Heine, 2016).

In line with new institutional theory, these structures form normative institutions through
political processes. Such normative institutions could also matter on how single mothers are
being treated and how it affects the children, which can be seen through perceived normative
constraints.

Traditional values stress traditional family values (like the nuclear family with two
heterosexual parents), the significance of religion, authoritarian parent-child ties and respect
for authority. Examples of values that are commonly rejected are abortion, suicide, divorce
and euthanasia (Inglehart, et al., 2014). Adherence to traditional gender roles and similar
attitudes can become ⁠an obstacle to many women. This is because traditional view of gender
roles expects women to be defined and define themselves through their potential or effective
status as mothers rather than as individuals (Heine, 2016). Nonetheless, with the
modernization and its changes, it has led to the weakening of traditional family values, but
the social norms on gender have still not disappeared. Mothers are often expected to bear the
biggest burden of parenthood, whether in a relationship or after a separation.

In general, these expectations also push mothers to sacrifice many of their own needs for their
children, like staying in bad relationships in order to avoid disrupting their children’s lives by
growing up with just a mother, or accepting part-time work even if they love their career,
renounce passions and hobbies to remain at home all because of the fear of stigmatization and
a wish to maintain the family values of being called a wife and a good mother. At times they
do not apply for jobs befitting their qualifications, so as to be able to dedicate more time to
their family. Thus, if the traditional couple and family are much less dominant in practice,
some of the norms associated to these models are still prevailing, particularly concerning
motherhood. (Heine, 2016).

Princeton (1997), argues that, family values regarding children tend to differ from country to
country. Men and women in the same however have similar attitudes to have children out of
wedlock. The women and their children are in that case stigmatized and looked upon as
unworthy (Princeton, 1997). The United States appears to be the country that is most morally

16
contradictory on the issue, with 47% of Americans saying it is wrong and 50% saying it is not
wrong.

Adults in Western Europe, especially in Sweden and Germany, appears to be the most liberal,
or non-traditional, in their view of children, but according to (Trzcinski, 2010), he makes it
clear that, in Germany women who have children are willing to accept the role of mothers
and wife’s as their primary identity. Thus, not going against the traditional values of the
woman’s place is in the house. Whereas Sweden makes it possible for single mother to live a
comfortable live, without the option of making them feel their place should be in the house.

2.5.3 The implication of context

After looking at both the mechanisms and the contextual differences I outlined above, given
that there is a great deal of contextual variations, there is good reasons to believe firstly that
there are negative effects of single motherhood and secondly that the negative effect of single
motherhood on child outcomes could differ between countries. This is based on social policy
and family policy differences as well as how strong traditional family values can be.
Nonetheless, I am examining the Swedish and German social policies and Germany’s
traditional family values to show how they differ from each other in regards to single mothers
and their children.

17
CHAPTER 3

3.1 Method and design

This thesis is based on a quantitative study. In this chapter, I describe my approach on how
and where I got my data from and, it concludes with a description of the concepts of validity,
reliability, participation of relevant quantitative studies, as well as a description of ethical
considerations.

The aim of this thesis, is to investigate the relationship between single motherhood and the
child’s health and school performance in different countries. Additionally, the aim is to
investigate if this relationship varies depending on contextual factors such as social policy
and traditional family values in Sweden and Germany.

In order to investigate this there is a need for comparative data that allows for the statistical
comparison of the relative situation of children to single mothers in different countries. This
is in the study made possible with access to HBSC data. The HBSC data stands for (the
Health Behaviours of School-aged Children). Which allows data for both the comparison
between children in two parent families and children in single mother families, at the same
time it allows for the comparative analysis of the situation in my two chosen contexts,
Germany and Sweden.

3.2 Data

I use Swedish data from the Health Behaviours of School-aged Children (HBSC) survey.
HBSC is conducted every four years in 50 countries and regions across Europe and North
America. With children and young people accounting for 42% of the world's population,
HBSC uses its findings to inform policy and practice to improve the lives of millions of
young people. I use the surveys from 2005/2006, 2013/2014 and 2017/2018 respectively, but
I use the year 2013/2014 as the year in focus because the indicator of health status and
academic performance with available data on the family structure household composition of

18
children is more recent and reflective of the present situation in the various countries. The
total sample size, for the years 2013/2014 is around 12,199 respondents.

Note: I am not analysing all the countries presented in the data set from HBSC. As earlier
mentioned, HBSC is conducted every four years in over 50 countries, so therefore I picked
and selected the countries relevant to my study which were Sweden and Germany, and I used
surveys of the years mentioned above but focused more on 2013/2014 because it had more
relevant questionnaires to my topic and that’s why I mentioned “around 12,199 respondents”
which applies only to the years 2013/2014.

Swedish HBSC data go back to 1985/1986, and it is a repeated cross-sectional survey,

conducted in selected countries in collaboration with the World Health Organization (WHO).
The Swedish HBSC data set is collected by Statistics Sweden, via a two-stage cluster design,
with schools as the primary sampling unit.

In the first stage, three random samples of Swedish schools are selected, one for each school
grade (grades 5, 7, and 9, when pupils are between 10 and 17 years old). In stage two, one
school class is selected at random from each school, and all pupils in that class may
participate in the survey if they choose. The survey is then completed in the classroom, under
the supervision of the teacher.

HBSC uses its findings to inform policy and practice to improve the lives of millions of
young people. The HBSC questionnaire is a self-reported survey conducted among school
aged children between the ages 10- 13- and 15-17-year-old boys' and girls' health and well-
being, social environments and health behaviours. These years from 10-17 in a child’s life,
marks a period of increased autonomy that can influence how their health and health-related
behaviours develop. Behaviours established during adolescence can continue into adulthood,
affecting issues such as mental health, the development of health complaints etc.

All children across all age categories (10-17) as presented in the HBSC data were used as
respondents for this study without any sampling out: this is because the entire age range in
the HBSC data falls within the confines of the definition of children.

19
3.3 Variables

3.3.1 Individual level variables

The individual level variables in this study comprises of both the independent and dependent
variables. Independent variables are variables whose outcomes are not influenced by other
variables but rather influences the outcome of other variables known as the “dependent
variables” My independent variable is, single motherhood and my first dependent variable is
the health outcomes of children in a single mother family. All individual level variables in
this study were obtained from the set of questionnaires used by the HBSC in collecting data.
This dependent variable was measured by asking the question " how would you describe your
health". The response to this question somewhat reflects a scale ranging from one (1)
excellent to four (4) poor; where respondents rate their average health status. Thus, as the
scores increase on the scale, the self-rated health becomes poorer.

The second individual level dependent variable the academic performance of children in a
single mother family was measured by asking the question “in your view how does your
teacher rate your academic performance in relation to other students” were asked.

The available response to this question was scaled between one (1) and five (5) indicating a
range from very low to very high. In some surveys, scores ranging between zero and hundred
are used in measuring academic outcome. This current research used the "very low to very
high scale" to reflect a more standard basis for measuring academic output across board. That
is to say, as the score increases, perceived performance also increases.

The health outcomes and academic performance of children belonging to single mothers are
of great importance, that is why the study considered the composition of the family and thus
family structure as an independent variable against which the dependent variables were
paired and analysed.

Measuring this variable, respondents were presented with different relatives (mother, father,
stepmother, stepfather, grandfather, grandmother etc) to choose with whom they lived. The
respondents were however at liberty to choose as many relatives as they lived with. To aid in
the analysis, ticking both father and mother was labelled as one (1) while ticking just mother
was labelled as two (2), though all other possible options (those living with only fathers, and

20
other multi-generational household) were considered, they were dropped from the analysis to
simplify comparisons. Eventually these two constitute the response to the variable "family
structure" which the dependent variables were measured against. This was done to ascertain a
clear distinction between health and academic performance of children with single mothers
and that of children living with both parents.
The linear regression mode actually allows the researcher to examine the causal relationship
between an independent variable and dependent variable and also the direction of the
relationship either positive or negative. So, in the case of this study, since I aimed at
understanding what consequence single motherhood has on child's health and academic
performance, it was appropriate that linear regression was used to examine whether single
motherhood (represented by 2 in the independent variable "family structure") influenced the
health and academic performance (dependent variables) of children.

The analysis does not emphasize on single fathers and any other household because the ideal
standards for ideal parenting is dual parenthood and hence accounting for the keen focus on
single mothers with reference to dual or both parents. Therefore, to understand the clear
impact of single motherhood on child's health and academic outcome, the linear regression
equation obtained for children of single mothers were measured against that of children with
both parents.

3.4 A split analysis between Sweden and Germany

Within new institutional theory, institutional factors are known to evolve and change, exactly
how change happens is unclear. The social institution “composite measure reflecting
inequality in achievements between women and men in three dimensions, reproductive health
empowerments and the labour market.” A highly level of equality measured by one
measurement is not a guarantee for every part of a society to be equal, attitudes, norms and
social values could be viewed as another aspect of social institutions offering a chance to
observe movements within the context.

Different countries have different socio-economic policies that is more likely to favour some
countries and negatively affect other countries, that shows how some countries have
economic and social policies that limits the economic progress of certain groups including

21
women with employment while some other countries also have socio-economic policies that
relieves certain group of people of their economic burden (Nieuwenhuis, 2019).

In line with this reality, this study categorised two of the participating countries; namely
Sweden and Germany based on the supportive nature of their socio-economic policies as
being favourable to all or inhibiting the economic emancipation of the citizens.

The two countries Sweden and Germany are reflective of the favourable and non-favourable
socioeconomic policies that could affect single mothers. Strongly connected to the socio-
economic policies enacted by various countries is the economic status of parents or care
givers. These policies, many asserts go a long way to affect how much income is available to
parents, how much they save and how well they are able to provide to the needs of their
children.

This study then paired "Economic status of parent” as dependent on the socio-economic
policy and a cross cultural comparisons made between Sweden and Germany. As previously
mentioned above, according to Fleckenstein & Lee (2014) Sweden’s socioeconomic situation
takes a preferable direction with a review of Sweden’s policies reflecting a more favourable
economic grounds for both genders particularly women, while Germanys socioeconomic
situation reflects on its success in guaranteeing the economic well-being of all children who
lives in single-parent households as well as in two-parent households and to households
where neither of the parents have access to high wages and/or employment (Trzcinski, 2010).

3.5 Strategy of analysis

The nature of the study is purely quantitative and as such adopts a quantitative approach to
analysing the collected data. The data used for this analysis were taken from HBSC-dataset,
which involves many countries but was narrowed down to just Sweden and German, by
filtering the other countries through excel and later analysed on SPSS (Statistical Packages
for the Social Sciences). The results of the study are analysed under three different sections.

The first section of the analysis focuses on giving descriptive details of the gender and age of
the respondents. Descriptive statistics is used for providing details on how many respondents
were males and females as well as their percentages and means. The same descriptive

22
approach is used in presenting results of the age distribution of respondents. The results in
this section are presented in tables with their corresponding percentages and means. The
second section is clearly linked to the research question of this study i.e., investigate the
relationship between single motherhood and the consequences on the child’s health and
school performance in different countries. Two different sets of analyses were made using the
linear regression analysis.

As earlier mentioned, the first analysis uses linear regression to ascertain if single
motherhood has impact on the health outcome of children. The second part uses the same
mode of analysis to ascertain if single motherhood has an impact on the academic
performance of children. In both cases, linear regression tables and deductions are used to
provide results on the research questions one (1) and two (2). The tables are explained in
details and are used to provide evidence-based discussion as to whether single motherhood
has consequences or an impact on either the academic outcome or the health outcome on
children.

The third section, uses a relatively different approach to examine the reality of single
motherhood and its impact on the health outcome and academic performance of children by
using a cross cultural base, tables and chart in presenting the analysis. Two different countries
were used as real case evidence for the analysis, which are, Sweden and Germany. In respect
of this a cross-comparison approach of analysis was deployed to measure the proportion of
single mothers who were economically well off and those who were not. Thus, I compared
the Swedish economy to the German economy through a review, compared the economic
status (ratings by children) of single mothers in Sweden to those in Germany. Again, a
regression was run to determine the impact of single motherhood on child's health and
academic outcome in Sweden and also in Germany. Having gone through these comparisons
the regression results in both Sweden and Germany were analysed in relation to the economic
situations in both countries and the corresponding economic status of single mothers in the
two countries. This approach helped to reveal the role context plays in explaining the
relationship between single motherhood and the child's health and academic outcome.

23
3.6 Ethics

There are four basic requirements for research in humanities, these are the consent
requirement, information requirement, utilization requirement and the confidentiality
requirement (Swedish Research Council, 2002).

The consent requirement means that the informant must consent to and have the right to
influence his or her participation in the survey. If the person is a minor, consent may need to
be obtained from a guardian (Swedish Research Council, 2002). During the work on this
thesis, one main data source was used; the HBSC. The HBSC Data-set that was used in this
study were publicly available online, and informed consent was ensured by the agencies
responsible for the studies, but one needs consent of use by contacting the coordinator,
lodging the purpose of the study and getting registered in order to be able to access and
download the data.

By gaining access to the HBSC data site which enables one to download data means the
following: the participants agree to provide their information to any one registered to the site,
the participants also agree that third parties use the data (Swedish Research Council, 2002).

The utilization requirement means that the information gotten from participants or from a site
may only be use for the purposed of the research (Swedish Research Council, 2002). This is
something that is emphasized on the websites where used data is available. I make the
assessment that this requirement has been met as this study will only be used for my specified
research purpose. The confidentiality requirement means that the informant must be offered
the greatest possible confidentiality and personal data stored so that unauthorized persons do
not have access to these and I attest to these (Swedish Research Council, 2002). This also
means that no individual participant should not be able to identify themselves or others when
the result is reported. This is fulfilled as all data has been deidentified by the organizations
responsible for the data. In addition, by using statistical analyses in this study means that only
categories are presented and the number of individuals to whom each answer could belong to
is broad. Thus, making it impossible for readers to track who may have answered what.

24
3.7 Validity and Reliability:

Validity is the term used to investigate whether a researcher measures what he/she intends to
measure (Andersson, 2006). Examples of this can be whether the questionnaire used contains
aiming errors, whether calculations have been made correctly or whether the right people
have been included in the study. Earlier on, it was a strategic choice to only use sources that
have proven reliable over time. HBSC has collected several waves of data and reviewed on
several occasions during all waves, HBSC is a well-used tool for examining various aspects
of young people's health and behaviour around the world and is also considered a reliable
instrument. In the result section I have chosen variables health outcomes, and academic
performance of children in single mother families.

Reliability is a term used to express the precision of a study and assumes that the random
errors are small so that if the study was repeated, it would give the same result (Andersson,
2006). All data sources use several steps to check that the random errors in the data collection
are small. As for my processing and calculation of data, there are several things that speak for
a high reliability. When sensitivity tests were performed (i.e., a sensitivity test is carried out
to measure how often a test correctly generates a positive result) the results were basically
unchanged when different countries were excluded for different reason. That is, when
carrying out the economic comparison on Sweden and Germany on SPSS, there were many
countries that I filtered out on Excel in order to pick just Sweden and Germany, that is why I
made the above statement, “When sensitivity tests were performed, the results were basically
unchanged when different countries were excluded for different reason” thus, the filtering of
other countries didn’t affect the result. Furthermore, HBSC data and procedures are well
documented, which increases replicability.

Reliability and validity of research generally ensures that the process, and instruments of a
research measures accurately the intended focus of the research. For the purpose of accuracy
and genuineness of the data instruments and it corresponding results, it is important that the
questionnaire (data instrument) for this study is subjected to a reliability and validity test.
There is no doubt as to the validity and reliability of questionnaire used by the HBSC in
obtaining its data. I was aiming to use SPSS for the subject for data collection, however
because of the lack of total control over the questionnaire, the normal procedure could not be

25
duly applied. Nonetheless, the reliability of the instrument used strongly lies in the credibility
of the HBSC from whom the instrument was obtained.

All the processes needed to ensure the internal consistency of the instrument had been
formerly checked by the HBSC. On the case of validity, the very questions selected for this
study were derived from HBSC; whose main research focus is to measure and ascertain the
health behaviours of school aged children. The reason why health outcomes and academic
performance are reliable variables, is because of the close relation to the purpose of the study.
It is therefore known that questions asked clearly significantly reflects the goals and
measurement this study sought to obtain.

Furthermore, careful notes were kept at each step of the processing and if a variable needed
to be redone, a new variable was created. This variable was then compared with the old one
to make sure the information was the same. To be sure that the calculations made were
correct, different measures were used to measure errors. Some calculations were also made
several times with the same result. Accurate notes were kept throughout the process and all
data files were saved for each day, which meant that all steps in the process could be traced
back day by day. All calculations and outputs from SPSS were also discussed with my
supervisor. The strengths of this study were that I was able to obtain rich data from HBSC.
While, some difficulties or limitations will be that, because of the pandemic, I couldn’t go
outside to carry out interviews so all questions and responses were gotten from the HBSC
data-set, which in itself it’s a limitation because the presentation that they made on the data
gathered was what I used, thus, there wasn’t responses for those who choose step fathers, step
mothers, grandmothers etc., also, the HBSC data-set didn’t allow me to analyse the data
according to my own objectives because of so many missing data’s, the SPSS, as well had so
many missing data.
Another limitation was, because I couldn’t go out to carrying out interviews, all my facts
were gotten online, so I couldn’t cover most countries and couldn’t cover all the economic
aspects of the countries Sweden and Germany. So, I recommend that in subsequent studies
this should be looked into.

26
CHAPTER 4

4.1 Data analysis and Results

The chapter contains the presentation of results, the interpretation and the analysis of results
obtained. This chapter is subdivided into three main sections. The first section presents
results using percentages, means and frequencies to analyse demographic variables that are
relevant to the theme of the current study. The second section discusses the results that
provide an explanation and response to the research questions of the study which includes
"what consequences does single motherhood has on the health of children?” and “what
consequences does single motherhood has on the academic performance of children?". This
section is a pooled analysis where all countries from the dataset was included, and the results
under this section is presented using a linear regression model. The third section provides
analysis of whether the various social and economic policies in different countries (Sweden
and Germany) affects the economic status of single mothers and thus their ability to provide
adequately for their children. However, in terms of interpretation, percentages (percentage
increase) were used in describing and interpreting the regression results for academic
performance. On the other hand, the health status of the children was described and
interpreted based on the frequency (number of times) at which their health was better off on a
scale of one to hundred. The charts, tables and equations presented are produced by SPSS.
The tables are strictly based on the response of children on the HBSC data. The HBSC data
on 2013/2014 was used as the reference year for all analysis.

Also, the number of observations kept dropping due to missing data from the SPSS
(Statistical Packages for the Social Sciences).

4.2 Demographics
This section presents statistics on the features of the set of individuals that constitutes a major
source of respondents for the study. For the purpose of the study, the gender distribution and
age of respondents were considered. Below are tables that shows the percentage distribution
of gender of respondents whose response were used for analysis, and age of the population
share with single parents.

27
Table 4.1 Gender distribution

Gender Frequency
Boy 105,414
Girl 108,666
Total 214,080.00

Table 4.2 Age distribution

Age range Frequency

10.5 - 11.5 29564
11.58 -12.5 39449
12.58 - 14 68751
14.08 - 15 12016
15.08 - 16.5 64300
Total 214,080.00

NB: Demographic presentation relate to all children (belonging to all category of parents) from
the HBSC dataset (2013/2014)

Table 4.3 Family structure

Types of parenting Frequency
Single mothers 32,274
Dual/Both parents 154,381
Total 186,655
NB: 27,425 missing data in HBSC dataset (2013/2014)

28
The chart below shows the age distribution in percentages

Age distribution of children

13.81

30.04

18.43

5.61

32.11

10.5 - 11.5 11.58 -12.5 12.58 - 14 14.08 - 15 15.08 - 16.5

From the above distribution, it is shown that more females than males participated in the
study with the female constituting 50.76% whiles male constituted 49.24%, and the age
distribution shows the percentage of children who responded to the questions in the HBSC
survey. A greater percentage (32.11%) of children who responded to the questions lies with
12years 5months and 8 days old to 14 years. The smallest percentage of children (5.61%)
who responded to the HBSC questions lies within 14 years 8 days old to 15 years.

29
 4.3.1 Single motherhood and health outcome on children
Regression Analysis

Table 4.4 Influence of both parents on the health outcome of children

Model Unstandardized Standardized t Sig. 95.0%

Coefficients Coefficients Confidence
Interval for B
B Std. Beta Lower Upper
Error Bound Bound
Constant 1.344 .032 41.773 0.000 1.281 1.407
Both .202 .016 .032 12.479 .000 .170 .233
Parents

Model R R Adjusted R Std. Error Change Statistics

Square Square of the
Estimate R Square F df1 df2 Sig. F
Change Change Chang
e

1 .032a .001 .001 .6907 .001 155.72 1 15128 .000

4 3

Health = 0.202 Both Parent + 1.344

Table 4.5 Influence of single motherhood on the health outcome of children

Health Coefficient Std. Error t P> |t| 95 % Confidence

Interval
Single motherhood 0.1480589 0.0070438 21.02 0.000 0.1342532 - 0.1618646
const. 1.632736 0.0075805 215.38 0.000 1.617878 - 1.647594

Number of F(1, 201,5 Prob > R-square Adj. R-Squar Root MSE
observations 00) F d ed
201,502 441.83 0.000 0.0022 0.0022 0.70669

30
Interpretation
The dependent variable (health) regressed on the independent variable (motherhome1) is
declared to be significant at a probability level of 0.05. The P-value (P = 0.000) for the
regression equation is less than 0.05 alpha-level. For this reason, we can confidently conclude
that single motherhood significantly affected the health of the children.

Hence the regression equation;

Health = 0.1480589 Single motherhood + 1.632736.

The presentation above is a statistical representation of the relationship between single

motherhood and the health outcome of children and that of children from both parent
families. The models explain that in both cases, there is a positive relationship between the
two-family structure (single motherhood and both parent families) and the health outcome on
children.

However, in the case of having both parents, the model illustrates that the health of the child
on a scale of 1 to 100, is 20 times better. While in the case of single mothers, the child's
health on a scale of 1 to 100 is 14 times better. This implies that, all things being equal, some
other relevant factors like child's biological make up, living environment of the child, among
other relevant factors may have impact on the child's health; by virtue of belonging to having
both parents, results in the child having a health status that is 20 times better. Meanwhile, as
there is a shift from both parent families to single motherhood, the quality of the child's
health status drops from being 20 times better to just 14 times better. Although there is
positive relationship between the two-family structures and the child's health status, there is a
clear indication from this study that single motherhood would cause the quality of a child's
health outcome to reduce by 6 percent per the standard of both parenthoods. This represents
nothing but a clear decline in the health of the child. Thus, single motherhood significantly
affects the health outcome of the child/children.

31
 4.3.2 Single motherhood and academic performance
Table 4.6 Influence of both parents on the academic performance of children

Model Unstandardized Standardized t Sig. 95.0%

Coefficients Coefficients Confidence
Interval for B
B Std. Beta Lower Upper
Error Bound Bound
Constant 1.119 0.038 29.492 .000 1.044 1.193
Both 0.481 0.019 0.065 25.226 .000 .443 .518
Parents

Model R R Adjusted Std. Error of Change Statistics

Square R the Estimate
Square R F Change df1 df2 Sig. F
Square Change
Change

1 .065a .004 .004 .816 .004 636.369 1 151504 .000

Academic performance = 0.481 Both Parents + 1.119

Table 4.7 Influence of single motherhood on the academic performance of children

Academic Coefficient Std. t P> 95 % Confidence

performance Error |t| Interval
Single motherhood 0.154472 0.008414 18.36 0 0.1379808 - 0.1709629
const. 1.969228 0.009068 217.16 0 1.951455 - 1.987001

Number of F(1, 193,855) Prob > F R-square Adj. R-Square Root MSE
observations d d
193,855 337.06 0.000 0.0161 0.0161 0.8213

32
Interpretation
The dependent variable (the relationship between having a single mother and academic
achievement) which is regressed on the independent variable (motherhome1) is declared to be
statistically significant at a probability level of 0.05. The P-value (P = 0.001) for the
regression equation that is less than 0.05 alpha-level. For this reason, we can confidently
conclude that single motherhood significantly affects the academic performance of the
children. This regression analysis absorbed one of the independent variables (fatherhome1)
and was treated as a dummy variable (i.e., as a dormant variable). While I test single mothers
and having both parents.

Hence the regression equation;

Academic performance = 0.1544719 Single motherhood + 1.969228

The model above represents the statistical explanation of the relationship between single
motherhood and academic performance of children and that of the relationship between
having both parents and the academic performance of their children. In both cases, there is a
positive relationship between the family structures (both parents and single motherhood) and
the academic performance of children. However, in the case of children from both parents,
the model explains that their academic performance increase by about forty-eight percent
(48%) while in the case of children from single mothers, their academic performance increase
by (15%). This implies that, all things being equal, the child could excel academically based
on other relevant factors such as inherited intelligence, constant learning, among others
however, by virtue of coming from a both parent household or family, there is an increase in
the child's academic performance by forty-eight percent (48%). Meanwhile as the family shift
from both parent to single mothers, the child's academic performs drops from 48% to 15%.
Although the equation illustrates a positive relationship in both cases (i.e., for both parent
families and single mother families), there is a clear indication from this research that single
motherhood would cause the child's academic performance to drop by 33%. Which in effect
reflect a negative impact of single motherhood on academic performance of children. Thus,
single motherhood significantly affects the academic performance of the child/children.

33
4.4.1. THE GERMANY AND SWEDEN COMPARISON
SWEDEN: SINGLE MOTHERHOOD, HEALTH AND ACADEMIC OUTCOME

4.4.1.1 Regression analysis of single motherhood and its consequences on health and
academic performance of children in Sweden

Table 4.8 Influence of single motherhood on the health outcome of children in Sweden

Health Coefficient Std.Erro Adj. R squa P> |t| 95 % Confidence Int

r red erval
Single motherhood 0.096947 0.038453 0.0011 0.012 0.0215642 - 0.172329
8
const. 1.676893 0.041782 0 1.594985 - 1.7588
NB: Total number of single mothers is 1,194
Total number of dual parents is 4,404

Hence the regression equation; health = 0.10 Single motherhood + 1.68.

Table 4.9 Influence of single motherhood on the academic performance of children in

Sweden
Academic performanc Coefficient Std. Adj. R P> |t| 95 % Confidence
e Error squared Interval
Single motherhood 0.111588 0.040965 0.0013 0.006 0.031282 - 0.1918931
const. 2.338972 0.044501 0 2.251733 - 2.426211

Hence the regression equation; Academic performance = 0.11 single motherhood + 2.34.

The equations and models above reflect findings from the data extracted from the pool on
Sweden alone. The results here interpret that in both situations, there is a positive relationship
thus between single motherhood and academic performance and health outcome. In the case
of academic achievements, the academic performance of children increased by eleven
percent. In terms of their health status, on a scale of 1 to 100, the children's health status were
10 times better.

34
4.4.1.2 Regression analysis of single motherhood and its consequences on health and
academic performance of children in Germany

Table 4.10 Influence of single motherhood on the health of children in Germany

health Coefficient Std.Error Adj. P> |t| 95 % Confidence

Rsquared Interval
Single motherhood 0.056 0.024 0.0006 0.019 0.0093584 -
0.1034021
const. 1.681 0.027 0 1.6277015 - 1.734561
NB: Total number of single mothers is 1,679
Total number of dual parents is 5,209
The total number of respondents = 6,888 Hence the regression equation; health = 0.056 m
otherhome1 + 1.681.

Table 4.11 Influence of single motherhood on the academic performance of children in

Germany
Academic perfor Coefficient Std. Adj. P> |t| 95 % Confidence
mance Error Rsquared Interval
Single motherhood 0.099 0.029 0.0016 0.001 0.0432964 -
0.1554155
const. 2.16 0.033 0 2.100315 - 2.228604

Hence the regression equation; Academic performance = 0.099 Single motherhood + 2.16.

The two different presentation represents the relationship between single motherhood and
academic outcome as well as health outcome of their children. The presentations however
reflect the realities in the case of Germany just as was done for Sweden. From the above,
there is still a positive relationship between single motherhood and child's health and
academic outcome. From the equations, it is evident that the academic performance of the
child increases by nine percent thus one percent less than their Swedish counterparts. In the
case of health status, the model explains that the health status of the child belonging to single
mothers on a scale of 1 to 100 is 5 times better; this outcome is 5 times less than the health
status of their Swedish counterparts.

35
4.4.2 COMPARISON OF GERMANY AND SWEDEN.
(CHART AND PERCENTAGES ON ECONOMIC SITUATIONS)

4.4.2.1 Economic situation: Germany

Responses of the state of the economic

status of single mothers in Germany

22.9

40.6

31.7

0.9
3.9

Average Not at all well off Not very well off

Quite well off Very well off

Total number of respondents= 5,598

The above graphical presentation illustrates the economic wellbeing of single mothers in
Germany. In the substantial discussion session, more light will be thrown on the economic
situation in Germany and the general wellbeing of the different citizenry across diverse social
categories with a deeper focus on gender. However, the focus in this section is on the
economic wellbeing of single mothers in Germany. From the Diagram, the highest sector
with forty-point six percent represent those with average wellbeing. The lowest sector with
zero-point nine percent. The sector for those with strong economic wellbeing (very well off)
is not as big and stone as that of averagely well off and quite well off. For the purpose of
quality academic performance and health outcome, the ideal economic state for single
mothers would preferably being "very well off". However, the reality presented here is that
only twenty-two percent of single mothers are very well off economically. If the percentage
of quite well off and very well off are combined, (given that the two are enough to live
conductively in an economy), only a little over fifty percent of single mothers live
comfortably in the German economy. The over forty-seven percent representing those single
mothers with relatively unfavourable economic wellbeing is more alarming, particularly

36
juxtaposing this reality against the already existing reality that children from single mothers
do not fare well academically and health wise in a more relative sense.

4.4.2.2 Economic situation: Sweden

Responses of the state of the economic

status of single mothers in Sweden

15.0 0.7
2.7

39.9

41.7

Average Not at all well off Not very well off

Quite well off Very well off

Total number of respondents= 7507

The pie chart above represents the results reflecting the economic wellbeing and welfare of
single mothers in Sweden. From the chart, the highest sector with forty-one-point seven
percent of the total number of single mothers in Sweden are quite well off. The lowest sector
with zero-point seven percent represent single mothers who are not at all well of. Those who
are very well off represent thirty-nine-point nine percent of single mothers in Sweden. In the
same analysis as in the case of Germany, given that "quite well off" and "very well off" are
needed to conductively live in an economy; it implies that over eighty percent of single
mothers in Sweden have the economic strength to live conductively in the Swedish economy.
The statistics presented here is without doubt very impressive and favourable particularly for
single mothers in Sweden. It is important therefore to note that per the statistics available, the
Swedish economy is very much conducive and favourable to single mothers. The given
figures are strong enough to suggest that single mothers in Sweden can provide for the
academic and health needs of children.

37
CHAPTER 5

5.1 Discussion

This thesis has investigated the relationship between single motherhood and the child’s health
and school performance, and if this relationship varies depending on contextual factors such
as social policy and traditional family values in Sweden and Germany. After reading previous
literature on this topic, and taking the data set from HBSC which aid in analysing the results,
shows the influence single motherhood has on both the health outcome and academic
performance on children as compared to children who have both parents.

5.2 Single motherhood and health outcome

The results of this study reflect the findings of (Raymo, 2016) which indicates that children in
the care of single mothers may likely face both mental and physical health problems. Which
as seen in the analysis above, children living with a single in comparison with children living
with both parents, the child’s health outcome drops, indicating that single motherhood affects
the health of the child

Raymo (2016) further mentions that children living with single mothers do not fare as well as
their counterparts in two parents’ families on a range of behavioural outcomes. These health
challenges of children living with single mothers display and manifest in several ways, which
may show in terms of anxiety and anger issues, poor physical state, unhealthy sexual life
among others etc. The financial and care giving challenge of single mothers eventually
exposes the children to inappropriate ways of life and this end up giving them several health
problems. Issues can be about custody, for example one week the child stays with mom and
one week with dad.

These shortcomings on the health of children of single mothers can be explained in terms of
the financial burden that confronts single mothers. These health problems faced by children in
single mother families goes a long way to impact the larger society and its economy. The health
concerns imply more resources and financial investment are made into the expansion and
improvement of health facilities to allay the consequences of health problems. It may be safe
to say the prevalence of broken homes and more specifically single motherhood increases the
expenditure of government on health-related infrastructure. In discussing the adverse
consequences of single motherhood on the society with respect to children's health, it is

38
important to acknowledge that, not every child living in a single mother family’s health may
be impacted negatively. Beyond the implications explained above, it is even much important
to acknowledge the reality that the health of all individuals across all age groups, among other
social classifications needs serious attention and proper assessment to ensure that the health of
citizens is stable and of quality nature. It is unrealistic to see a mother or guardian deliberately
neglect or show little sensitivity to the health needs of their children. The main problem centers
around the financial resource and time available to guardians especially single mothers; in
relation to the health needs of their children. It can be ideally satisfying for governments,
institutions and other international development agencies to make a critical assessment of the
realities encountered by single mothers in their attention to respond to the health needs of their
children.

5.3 Single motherhood and academic performance

This thesis has investigated the relationship between single motherhood and the child’s health
and school outcomes in different contexts. As well as, it has investigated if the relationship
varies depending on contextual factors such as social policy and traditional family values in
Sweden and Germany.

Marloes de Lange et al., (2014), as previously stated, says the academic achievement has a
likelihood of negatively affected by parental divorce and the educational achievement of
children raised by single mother families are particularly harmed. Thus, both single mothers
and single fathers face challenges in meeting the academic needs of their children.

However, it can be much tougher of a burden for single mothers in meeting the academic
needs of their children, which can be seen in the regression equation above.

In addition, according to (Heine, 2016) children raised by single mothers are likely to suffer
from lack of investment from their fathers and can lead to behavioural problems and trouble
in school. Following the challenges and difficulties associated with single parenting, mothers
face a direr condition of hardship affecting their finance, time, responsibility and care hence
compromising their ability to provide adequate attention and responsiveness to the academic
needs of their children.

In the face of these challenges of single motherhood, it is worthy of note that the resulting
consequences of these challenges may affect the society at large. Particularly for developing

39
economies, and the consequences of single motherhood can be devastating. (Douglas, 1994)
for instance points out that one of the leading explanations for relatively poor school
performance is the single mother’s economic situation, which accounts for as much as one
half of the single mother effect on educational performance and the likelihood of dropping
out of school for these children.

Given the fact that single parenthood affects women mostly and 85% of single parent
household headed by women (Nieuwenhuis & Maldondo 2019) it is equally important that
countries in their efforts to reduce the numerous socially undesirable acts pay particular
attention to single motherhood (women in general) when formulating social and economic
policies. The way forward for a society that desires fewer social misfits, social problems, and
social crisis is to expand and enhance the education of children through developing structures
and policies to empower women to lessen and mitigate the social problems that usually arise
from the challenges of motherhood.

5.4 The Germany and Sweden comparison

From the charts presented above, Sweden has a better off economy as compare to that of
Germany which may be seen in how Single mothers are live in Sweden to that of Germany.

5.4.1 Sweden’s economy

Across the globe, the economy is an important determining factor of several things. In
discussing the economy, employment, work per hour, income earned and conditions of
services are very critical in determining the strength of the economy. Some studies including
those of (Fleckenstein & Lee, 2014), emphasize the relatively stable and balanced nature of
the Swedish economy. Sweden had an employment rate of 67.8% and 67.2% in 2017 and
2020 respectively however, the Swedish economy many believe is fair and well balanced
across gender, and social race.

According to the (Nordic Council, 2020) Sweden part of four Nordic countries have a high
gender balance with an employment rate of between seventy percent (70% and 83%) for
women. This outcome, the study emphasizes did not arise out of luck but rather strategic
approach by government which include among others;

• Taxation that encourages both parents (both gender) to work.

• Parental benefits for parents with young children (applies to both).

40
This balanced economic treatment for each gender provides a somewhat strong economic
foundation for either gender whether in marriages or in times of broken homes. In respect of
the focus of this study, the sort of economic atmosphere provided by Sweden gives women
particularly single mothers the economic freedom and strength to continue provide necessary
financial attention for their children.

The economic strength and wellbeing of women in Sweden is evidenced in the report of
Nordic Council, 2020; stating that the increase in women employment in Sweden (a Nordic
country) accounts for an equivalent of ten to twenty percent (10%-20%) average GDP per
capita growth over the past forty to fifty years. These figures represent the wholesomeness
and relevance of women in the Swedish economy. In such an atmosphere, it is easy for
women to survive and live economically independent. The highlight of the nature of the
Swedish economy points out how well women, mothers, and all other gender are able to live
conductively providing for themselves and their families relative to the economic atmosphere
in other countries.

5.4.2 Germanys economy

Germany is one of the elite economies in the world. It is found in western Europe and is
known for the economic opportunities it provides for citizens and foreigners. Germany has an
employment rate of 78% according to the European Institute of Gender equality (2017),
already surpassing the national Europe strategy 2020 target of 77%. However, to understand
better the realities of the German economy in relation to the focus of the study, it is relevant
to look beyond its elite status and focus on economic equality, work rate, work conditions
and taxation among others. This will bring to bear whether the life and wellbeing of all
individuals reflects the true nature of the German economy. The economy in Germany can be
said, is slightly skewed in favour of Men. Fleckenstein and Lee (2014) acknowledge this
reality and asserts that the German economy discourages the employment of mothers with
young children.

The European Institute of Gender equality (2017) reveals that in Germany women earn
twenty-two percent (22%) less than men. Whiles for the foreign nationals of Germany, men
earn twice as much as women earn. In terms of work rate, about half the working women
population 47% work on part time base as compared to the 11% of working men population
working on a part time base; and this according to the European Institute of Gender equality

41
is as a result of care responsibilities. In the midst of this reality, the taxation of married
couple as highlighted by (Fleckenstein & Lee, 2014) will clearly imply a huge burden on
women. As explained above, the German economy has its strength and weaknesses and the
discussion is not to put the German economy in a negative light. However, the focus of the
study is to ascertain how the ripple effect of single motherhood on child 's health and
academic outcome could differ based on the varying economic realities in different countries.

A clear highlight has been given on the economic atmosphere in both Sweden and Germany.
No economy is devoid of gaps and weaknesses. The review of the economic state of both
countries is not to put out any biased judgment. Sweden and Germany both have significant
socio-economic policies that favour their citizens. In the same vein not all the policies in
either countries favour all those that matter. The point of the economic comparison is to
ascertain the magnitude of repercussions that single motherhood has on the health and
academic outcome of children based on the economic realities faced essentially by single
mothers. This then account for the stronger emphasis on the economy in terms of gender
balance.

5.5 Comparing magnitude of repercussions based on results and economic realities. (To
what extent these negative influences will manifest in both Sweden and Germany)

Having clearly understood the economic atmosphere in both countries it is important to

understand how the diverse economies manifest and impact upon the single mothers and their
children. Two different set of analysis using different models and statistical tools were used
to assess and relate the cases in both countries. The two countries offered diverse results and
realities and in cases where there were similarities, the intensity and magnitude of both cases
were ascertained. From the interpretations of the economic situations in both countries, it was
revealed that Sweden has a stronger economic environment that favours and strengthen the
economic wellbeing of single mothers in Sweden, with over eighty percent (80%) of single
mothers being well off economically (quite well off and very well off) in Sweden.

Germany's case provided a rather contrasting reality with only about fifty-three percent
(53%) of single mothers being economically well off. The sharp contrast confirms the
assertion of (Fleckenstein &Lee, 2014) that Sweden is not only an archetype of the socio

42
democratic welfare state but also a pioneer in employment-oriented family policies with
which the country began to depart from its male breadwinner trajectory in the early nineties.

Further, it is imperative that single mothers in Sweden stand a greater chance of alleviating
and reducing the poor academic performance and health status suffered by their children than
single mothers in Germany. The inference is reflected in the regression analysis explaining
the relationship between single mothers and academic and health outcomes of children. As
revealed by the model and equation, the additional burden carried by children of single
mothers in responding to health and academic needs is less for children of single mothers in
Sweden (5% for health and 9% for academic) than children of single mothers in Germany
(10% for health and 11 percent for academic). That is to say, in terms of care, attention and
financial support, single mothers in Sweden are able to provide relatively better than single
mothers in Germany based on the assertion that lack of investment accounts for the hardships
faced by children of single mothers in their academics (Heine, 2016).

Economic policies always matter in issues that pertains to wellbeing, quality of living, and
reduction of undesirable financial conditions. This explains the fact that although single
motherhood affects the health and academic performance of children; the Extent to which this
effect is manifested is basically dependent on the economic capacity of single mothers in a
given economy.

Per the assertion of (Fleckenstein & Lee, 2014) Sweden has taken a new turn and initiated a
trend of providing a more balanced economic welfare system for both men and women. This
move has ultimately relieved women in Sweden off economic pressure and promoted some
level of economic stability and independence on the part of women. This has accounted for
the relatively minimal negative of single motherhood on the health and academic outcome of
children in Sweden.

It is therefore important to acknowledge that the economic policies and the general economic
atmosphere created by countries influence the magnitude and extent of the effect of a general
mishap. The German-Sweden case has therefore thrown much light on how some of the
recent call for gender equality, fair economic distribution and social balance really matter in
making the world a better place for all. There however seem to be significant improvement in
how governments across the globe factor gender balance in their design of economic, social,
and developmental policies. Some countries have been able to minimize the wide economic

43
gaps between male and female, which per the findings of this study will go a long way to
minimize the impact of some negative outcomes of single motherhood on children.

5.6 Conclusion

This thesis focuses on examining the relationship between single motherhood and the health
Outcome as well as the academic performance of children and thus assessing whether indeed
single motherhood has a negative impact on the health and academic performance of their
children. Previous studies have suggested that single motherhood may come with challenges
like financial, social and psychological which end up affecting the quality of health outcome
and academic performance of their children.

furthermore, this thesis has three main objectives which attempts to attain the main focus of
the study.

These three objectives include:

• To examine what consequence single motherhood has on the health outcome of

children
• To examine what consequence single motherhood has on the academic performance
of children.
• To assess the different economies and how these relationships are manifested in these
countries.

Having gone through various statistical processes and calculations, it was established that
single motherhood places some burden which previous study reveal as (economic, social and
psychological) which in effect compromises the quality of health and academic performance
of their children.

This thesis then concludes that there is a relationship between single motherhood and health
outcomes, as well as the academic performance of their children and that single motherhood
negatively impacts health and academic performance of children.

In the case of the comparison between Sweden and Germanys economy, where the goal was
to ascertain how single motherhood may affect the health/academic performance of their
children, it was revealed that the impact of single motherhood on children's health and
academic performance was dire and common in Germany than in Sweden given the relatively
economic balance in Sweden compared to Germany.

44
By the establishment of the findings of the current study, it is concluded that single
motherhood negatively affects the health and academic performance of their children with
varying severity in different economic contexts.

Nonetheless, the thesis is non gratifying as it does not fulfil and reveal all that there is about
single motherhood and the health/academic performance of their children. Thus, there are still
gaps that needs to be filled perhaps in a subsequent study to be carried out on this topic.

From this study, Only Sweden and Germany was used as a case to ascertain the impact of
single motherhood on children's health and academic performance. Also, the Source of data
for this study which is (HBSC) did not provide any economic categorization for the various
countries hence this study could not expand the analysis to include a detailed statistical
relationship between different economies and the health and academic performance of
children raised by single mothers. It is hereby recommended that, in future studies it would
be good to gather data on other variables, for example on the economies of different countries
from different continent and compare that to the academic and health outcome of children of
single mothers in those countries.

Aside this research gap, it is recommended again that various countries, in drafting up
policies economic and social, should focus on striking a balance between gender, cultural
race, and social groups. So as to ensure that policies are not skewed in favour of one group
against the wellbeing of the other group. This could go a long way to minimize some of the
very obvious problems suffered by certain groups. In specific terms, economic and social
policies should focus on alleviating burden on both men and women so that in times of
broken homes, one group does not suffer severely.

45
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 APPENDIX
Appendix I
Gender

Variable name: sex

Are you a boy or a girl?

Boy
Girl

Age

Variable names: monthbirth

yearbirth

What month were you born?

Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec

What year were you born?

1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996

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APPENDIX II

Health
Description: A measure of perceived health status.

Variable name: health

Would you say your health is……?

1 Excellent

2 Good
3 Fair
4 Poor
SOURCE: Idler, E. L. & Benyamini, Y. (1997). Self-rated health and mortality: A review
of twenty-seven community studies. Journal of Health And Social Behavior, 38, 21-37.
HBSC 2002

APPENDIX III
Family
Family structure
Description: A measure of family structure and household composition.

Variable names: motherhome1

fatherhome1
stepmohome1
stepfahome1
grandmohome1
grandfahome1
fosterhome1 elsehome1
brothershome1
sistershome1

All families are different (for example, not everyone lives with both their parents, sometimes
people live with just one parent, or they have two homes or live with two families) and we

50
would like to know about yours. Please answer this first question for the home where you live
all or most of the time and tick the people who live there.
Adults Children

1 Mother Please say how many brothers and sisters live here
(including half, step or foster brothers and sisters).
2 Father
Please write in the number or write 0 (zero) if there
3 Stepmother (or father’s girlfriend) are none.
4 Stepfather (or mother’s boyfriend) How many brothers? _____
How many sisters? _____
5 Grandmother

6
Grandfather

7 I live in a foster home or children’s home

8
Someone or somewhere else: please write it down …………………………………………

APPENDIX IV
Academic achievement
Description: This item is a measure of the student's perception of how the teacher
evaluates their academic performance.

Variable name: acachieve

In your opinion, what does your class teacher(s) think about your school performance
compared to your classmates?

1
Very good
Good
2
3 Average
4 Below average
SOURCE: HBSC 1986, 1990, 1994,1998, 2002.

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 APPENDIX V
ECONOMIC SITUATION OF COUNTRIES
Description: A measure young people's perceptions of their own family's socio-
economic position.

Variable name: welloff

How well off do you think your family is?

1 Very well off

2 Quite well off

3 Average
4 Not very well off
5 Not at all well off
SOURCE: HBSC 1994,1998, 2002

APPENDIX VI
Countries involved in HBSC survey
Variable name: Country no
1. Albania 16. Malta
2. Armenia 17. Netherlands
3. Austria 18. Norway
4. Belgium (French) 19. Denmark
5. Belgium (Flemish) 20. England
6. Bulgaria 21. Estonia

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7. Canada 22. Finland
8. Croatia 23. France
9. Czech Republic 24. Germany
10. Ireland 25. Greece
11. Israel 26. Greenland
12. Italy 27. Hungary
13. Latvia 28. Iceland
14. Luxembourg 29. Poland
15. Macedonia 30. Portugal
31. Republic of Moldova
32. Romania
33. Russia
34. Slovakia
35. Slovenia
36. Spain
37. Sweden
38. Switzerland
39. Ukraine
40. Wales

53