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Language Learning Strategies, the Communicative Approach, and

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 Language Learning Strategies,
the Communicative Approach,
and their Classroom Implications

Rebecca L. Oxford
The Pennsylvania State University,
Roberta Z. Lavine
The University of Maryland,
David Crookall
The Pennsylvania State University

AMTRACT Theprinciples of the communicative a p Language Learning Strategies

proach to language learning and teaching foster the
use of appropriate,positive learning stmtegies. Com-
municativeprinciphand Iearningstmtegies, in com-
bination, havepowerful implicationsfor the language
classroom.
Introduction
This article has three main parts: first, a discussion
of the characteristics of good language learners and
the strategiesthey use; second, a synthesis of the four
main principles of the communicative approach, ac-
companied by a discussion of how these principles
foster the use of good language learning strategies; and
third, a discussion of classroom implications and ap-
plications of communicative principles and learning
strategies.
Rebecca L. OMord(Ph.D.,University of North Carolina) is
Director of the Intensive English Communication Program
at the Pennsylvania State University.
Roberta Z. Lavine (Ph.D., Catholic University of America)
is Assistant Professor of Spanish at the University of
Maryland.
David Crookall (Ph.D., candidate, UniversitC de Nancy 11,
France) is tenured Assistant Professor at the UniversitC de
Toulon, France, and Visiting Assistant Professor at the Penn-
sylvania State University.
and Good Language Learners
The communicativeapproach implicitly encourages
learners to take greater responsibility for their own
learning and to use a wide range of language learning
strategies. Language learning strategies are actions,
behaviors, steps, or techniques-such as seeking out
target language conversation partners, or giving
oneself encouragement to tackle a difficult language
task-used by learners to enhance learning. Specifical-
ly, these strategies facilitate the acquisition, storage,
retrieval, and use of information (Oxford, 36,37,38;
Rigney, 45; Wenden and Rubin, 53). Depending on
how they are defined, dozens and perhaps hundreds
of such strategies exist in the language learning area.
These strategies may be used consciously and with ef-
fort, but they can become habitual and automatic with
practice (O’Malley, Chamot and Walker, 35). In this
article we will apply the term learning strategies to both
more formal, classroom-based“learning” and less for-
mal “acquisition” (Krashen, 25). Learning strategies
are useful in both situations(see Oxford and Crookall,
39; Oxford, 37).
Many researchers have described good language
learners and their strategies. Rubin (46) offers the
following profile. Good language learners:

Foreign Language Annals, 22, No. 1, 1989 29

30
1. are willing and accurate guessers;
2. have a strong, persevering drive to
communicate;
3. are often uninhibited and willing to
make mistakes in order to learn or
communicate;
4. focus on form by looking for patterns,
classifying, and analyzing;
5. take advantage of all practice
opportunities;
6. monitor their own speech and the
speech of others; and pay attention to
meaning.
Naiman, Frohlich, and Todesco (33) identify six
strategies used by good language learners:
1. selecting language situations that allow
one’s [learning] preferences to be used;
2. actively involving oneself in language
learning;
3. seeing language as both a rule system
and a communication tool;
4. extending and revising one’s understand-
ing of the language;
5. learning to think in the language;
6. addressing the affective demands of
language learning.
Synthesizing previous work and her own research
on language learning strategies, Oxford (37) has
developed a list of six broad strategy categories:
metacognitive, affective, social, memory, cognitive,
and compensation strategies. Each of these categories
is composed of a number of specific strategies or
behaviors. Successful language learners use a wide
range of these strategies-the ones that are most ap-
propriate for them and the task at hand. For example,
good language learners manage their own learning
process through metacognitive strategies, such as pay-
ing attention, consciously searching for practice op-
portunities, planning for language tasks, self-
evaluating, and self-monitoring.Such learners control
their emotions and attitudes through affective
strategies, such as anxiety reduction and self-
encouragement. They work with others to learn the
language, using social strategies such as asking ques-
tions and becoming culturally aware. They also use
memory strategies, such as grouping, imagery, and
structured reviav, to get information into memory and
to recall it when needed. Successfullanguage learners
employ the new language directly with cognitive
strategies, such as reasoning, analyzing, and sum-
marizing. Finally, they overcome knowledge limita-
tions through compensationstrategies such as guess-
FOREIGN LANGUAGE ANNALS - FEBRUARY 1989
ing meanings intelligently and using synonyms or
other production tricks when the precise expressionis
unknown. Figure 1on the next pages presents a more
detailed listing of strategies in each of the six main
categories.
Cultural and ethnic background, personality, sex,
languagelearning purpose, and other factors influence
the degree to which and the way in which learners use
any single strategy: but allsix broad types of strategies
are important to good language learning.
The CommunicativeApproach
As the communicative approach has been written
about extensively in many books and articles, we will
not go into the subject here in great depth; readers
should consult the vast array of existing sources on this
approach? We offer, rather, a thumbnail sketch of the
background of the communicative approach and
describe four main underlying principles.
Brief Background. The failure of the Audio-
lingualMethod and the Grammar TranslationMethod
to foster real communication skills caused language
instruction specialists to search for more effective ways
to teach. This search led to the development of the
communicative approach in Britain in the 1970s. This
approach, which has since spread to many parts of the
world, focuses on actively developing competence in
understanding and communicating meaning.
A closely related approach is becoming increasingly
popular in the US.It is known as proficiency-oriented
instruction (Omaggio, 34) or the proficiency ap-
proach, which has been described in numerous
ACTFL-related publications (see, e.g., Higgs, 21;
Byrnes and Canale, 4) and in the journals of other ma-
jor professional organizations. The proficiency ap-
proach emphasizes the learner’s reaching a measurable
level of proficiency (ability to use the language com-
municatively) in the four skill areas of listening,
reading, speaking, and writing. It might be said that
the communicativeapproach and the proficiency ap-
proach are actually one and the same, except that the
latter focuses more clearly than the former on
measurement issues-that is, measuring the degree to
which language proficiency or communicative com-
petence is de~eloped.~ No matter which term is used,
the approach stresses the importance of active, com-
municative involvement in language learning. In order
to highlight the essentially communicative nature of
the instruction involved, we will use the term com-
municativeapproach throughout this article, although
the labels-communicative and proficiency-are fair-
ly interchangeable as regards ultimate instructional
goals and practical classroom activity.
FOREIGN LANGUAGE ANNALS - FEBRUARY 1989 31
FIGURE 1
Strategy Classification System
Direct SUataies
(Memory, Cognitive. and Compansation Strategies)

1. Grouping
Creating
A. menial Associatinglelaborating
linkages
Plaang new words into a context

Using imagery

Semantlc mapping

Using Keywords

Representing sounds in memory

Revlewing well - I . Structured reviewing

Emoloving<
action
;: Using physical response

Using mecnanical tricks or sensation

Repeating

Formally practicing with sounds and alohabets

Practicing 3. Recognizing and using formulas and patterns

‘
4. Recombining

5. Practicing naturalisiicaily

1. Getting the dea quickly

8. Receiving &
sending messages 2 Using resources Idictionaries. etc.) tor receiving
and sending messages

II. QQJlWe
strategies 1 Reasoning deductively

2. Analyzing expressions

C. Analyzing & 3. Analyzing convastively (across languages)

reasoning
4. Translating

5 Transferring

1, Taking notes
D. Creating
structure for 2. Summarizing
input 8 OUlDUt
3. Highlighting

/ 2.1. Using
Using linpnstic clues
Guessing
inielligently other clues

1 Swnching to the mother tongue

2 Gening helo

3. Using mime or gesture

Overcoming
limitations 4. Avoding communlcaiion oaqially or totally
in speaking
and wrning 5 Selecting the t o m

6 Adiusiing or aporoximating the message

7 Coinlrg words
8 Using a arcumlocutlon or synonvrn
 -
32 FOREIGN LANGUAGE ANNALS - FEBRUARY 1989

FIGURE 1 (Continued)

(M~tacognlllva, AffacliVa, nnd Soda1 Strataglas)

1. 0V.nnewingAinking with already known material

A. Centering
2. Paying attenttan
learning
3. Delaying speech production lo tocus on listening

1. Finding ovt about language learning

4
2. Organmng
3. Setting goals and oblecrives
Arranging 8
planning 4. Identifying the purpose of a language task
your learning (purposeful Iisteninglreadingrspeakingrwming)

5. Planning tor a language task

6. Seeking practice opponunities

Evaluating
your learning
<:: Sen-rnonnoring

Selt-evaluating

Lowering
your
anxiety
:: Using progressive relaxation

Using music. deep breathing. or meditation

3. Using laughter

Making posftive Statements

Encouraging
yourself Taking risks wisely

Rewarding yourself

, 1. Listening !o your body

Taking your 2. Using a checklist

emotional
temperature 3. Writing a language learning diary

\4. Discussing your feelings with someone else

Asming
questions
< 1. Asking tor clardication or verification

2. Asking for correction

1. Cooperating wnh peers

Cooperatiq/
wlth others 2. Cooperating wlth proficient users
of the new language

Empathizing
with others
/ 2. 1. DeveloDing cultural understanding

Becoming aware of others' thougnts and feelings

Scurco: Orford (37)

Note: Oxfords svstem is based in pan on earher classifcation work

by nsoarchan such as OMalley. Chemct. Rumn, Tarone. Dansereau,
Wainstain. ana othara.
FOREIGN LANGUAGE ANNALS - FEBRUARY 1989
~ ~~~~
Four Main Principles. There are many ways of
discussing the “ingredients” of a communicative ap-
proach which covers myriad forms and processes. In
this article we will focus on four main underlying and
interrelated principles, which are:
I. the attainment of communicative com-
petence as the main goal;
2. dealing communicatively with forms and
errors;
3 . an orientation which integrates the four
language skills; and
4. a focus on meaning, context, and authentic
language.
Each of the principles of the communicative ap-
proach implicitly encourages learners to take greater
responsibilityfor their own learning and to use a wide
range of language learning strategies. Why this should
be so is examined in the next section.
How the Four Communicative Principles Foster
Good Language Learning Strategies
We will consider how each of the main principles
named above implicitly encourages students to use
more appropriate language learning strategies.
Communicative Competence as the Main Goal.
The fundamental goal of the communicative ap-
proach is communicative competence. Language is a
key form of communication. Therefore, language
learning means learning to communicate, i.e., learn-
ing to use the language appropriately for the com-
munication of meaning in social contexts. In the com-
municative approach, all activities are designed and
implemented for the purpose of developing the
learner’s communicativecompetence. Communicative
competence, according to Canale ( 5 ) and Canale and
Swain (6), includes at least four elements:
I. grammatical accuracy (competence in the
forms of the language);
2. sociolinguistic competence (ability to use
the language appropriately in different
social contexts);
3. discourse competence (coherence and
cohesion of expression above the level of
the single sentence); and
4. strategic competence (ability to use tech-
niques or strategies like gestures or “talking
around” an unknown word in order to over-
come limitations in language knowledge).
All appropriate language learning strategies are
oriented toward the goal of communicative com-
petence. Some language learning strategies are useful
33
for communicative competence in geneml. For instance,
metacognitive strategies such as paying attention and
self-monitoring enable learners to focus, plan, and
evaluate their progress as they move toward com-
municative competence Affective strategies develop the
self-confidenceand persevemce needed for learners to
involve themselves actively in language learning, a re-
quirement for attaining communicative competence.
Social strategies provide increased interaction and more
empathic understanding, two qualities necessary to
reach communicativecompetence The strategygroups
just named serve to develop communicative com-
petence on all fronts.
In addition, some strategies or strategy groups clearly
facilitate the development of speci3c aspects of com-
municative competence: grammatical, socio-
linguistic, discourse, and strategic elements. For in-
stance, memory strategies, such as using imagery and
structured review, and cognitive strategies, such as
analysis, deductive reasoning and contrastive analysis,
strengthen grammatical accuracy. Social strategies-
asking questions, cooperating with native speakers,
cooperating with peers, and becoming culturally
aware-powerfully aid sociolinguistic competence.
Compensation strategies, including using contextual
clues for guessing, and social strategies, such as
cooperating and asking questions, encourage greater
amounts of authentic communication and thus
enhance discourse competence. Compensation
strategies-guessing when the meaning is not known or
using synonyms or gestures to express the meaning of
an unknown word or expression-are the heart of
strategic competence,
Dealing Communicativelywith Forms and Errors.
In communicativeactivities the learner must usually be
the immediatejudge of the appropriatenessof language
forms. In some situations, certain forms are clearly
more acceptable than others; but in many cases there
may be several equally appropriate forms from which
to choose. Certain cognitivestrategies, such as analyz-
ing expressions and contrastive analysis, encourage
greater understanding of suitable forms, while social
strategies often help learners deal with questions of ap-
propriateness in the given social context.
The communicative approach, while stressing the
need for coherence and cohesion of discourse, is
tolerant of errors in form. Errors are not, as in the
Audiolingual Method, avoided at all costs or, if they oc-
cur, immediately corrected. On the contrary, in the
communicative approach errors are accepted because
they represent natural, predictable stages in the learn-
ing process. In fact, in the communicativeapproach er-
rors are often used by teachers (and even learners) to
34
_ _ _ ~
gauge the stage of learning that has been reached and
to assess the learning styles and strategies that are
operating at a particular time Self-monitoring and self-
evaluating are two kinds of metacognitive strategies
which help students learn from their errors. Affective
strategies involving anxiety reduction and self-
encouragement help learners accept the inevitability of
errors and give them the courage to take risks, even if
errors sometimes result.
Four Skills Many mistakenly confuse the term “com-
munication” with “speech? In fact, even experts on
language learning have used the term “communication
strategies” to refer only to certain types of speaking
strategies, thus unwittingly giving the impression that
the skills of reading, listening, and writing are not equal
partners in communication. “Communication
strategies” should be defined much more broadly,
however, because they are, in fact, related to all four
language skills.
In the communicative approach, all four skills are ex-
plicitly recognized as contributors to communication
in highly meaningful ways. Communicationtakes place
not just between listeners and speakersbut also between
readers and writers. The communicative approach calls
on learners to develop all these skills. The best way to
do this is through active learning, which necessitates the
use of learning strategies.
For example, listening and reading in a new language
are often difficult,because learners do not know all the
words they encounter. Instead of helplessly throwing up
their hands, or immediately resorting to the dictionary
to look up each new word, skillful language learners
employ guessing, an important compensationstmtegy.
To develop communicativecompetence in speaking, a
wide range of social strategies (such as asking questions
and cooperating) and compensation strategies (such as
gesturing and “talking around” the unknown word) is
necessary. Competence in the skill of writing requires
the use of metacognitive strategies such as planning and
self-evaluating. These are just a few examples of how
the four-skill orientation of the communicative ap-
proach generates the real need for language learning
strategies; for each skill, many more examples of lear-
ning strategies could be given.
Meaning, Context,and Authenticbnguage. Mean-
ing is of utmost importance in the communicative ap-
proach. Many advocates of this approach have studied
the nature and appropriateness of meanings in given
contacts. For example, Wilkins (55) proposed that com-
municative meanings fall into two categories: notions
(concepts such as time, sequence, quantity, location, fre-
quency) and functions (requests, denials, offers,
FOREIGN LANGUAGE ANNALS - FEBRUARY 1989
complaints, persuasions). The concept of a notional-
functional syllabus springs from this system of mean-
ings. One well known notional-functionalsyllabus is the
Threshold Level foreign language syllabus developed by
the Council of Europe (Van Ek and Alexander, 52). This
syllabus includes six basic functions (imparting and
seeking factual information, expressing and fmding out
attitudes, getting things done, and socializing);seven
general notions such as temporal, qualitative,and rela-
tional; and a variety of specific notions related to home,
weather, people, and so on. Other communicative
syllabi, known as task-based syllabi, are related to tasks
rather than to notions and functions. Although there
are various ways to organize syllabi in the com-
municative approach, meaning and context are always
central to the learning experience.
Meaning can be expressed via authentic, or nearly
authentic, language Authentic language is the real vehi-
cle of everyday communication in conversation,
newspapers, books, articles, radio broadcasts, telecasts,
menus, schedules, posters, billboards, and so on.
Depending on the learners’ level of competence or pro-
ficiency, it is sometimes necessary for teachers to slow
down or simplify their speech, resulting in a kind of
modified authentic language or “teacher talk!’ This is
especially common at the beginning stages of language
learning; such languageis much more realistic and con-
textualized than traditional pattern drills.
The emphasis on authentic language involves com-
municating at the discourselevel (i.e, above the level of
single words or isolated sentences). Authentic language
is always contextualized, that is, part of a larger com-
municative context. Krashen (25)has demonstrated the
importance of learners receiving large amounts of such
meaningful, authentic input, often just a notch above
the learners’ current level of complete comprehension.
A key strategy sometimeslisted among the cognitive
strategiesis practicing naturalistically,that is, practic-
ing the target language with large amounts of mean-
ingful, real-life input. AU the other cognitive strategies
also aid learners in understanding and producing mean-
ingful messages in the new language Memory strategies
help language learners both to remember what they
hear and read and to recall this information at will in
order to communicate. Compensation strategies help
learners guess meanings of authenticlanguage input or
express themselves meaningfully, even when they do not
have complete linguistic knowledge.
In authentic, face-to-face conversations promoted by
the communicative approach, learners receive plenty of
natural feedback from conversational partners, ena-
bling them to judge whether communicationhas been
successful. Such feedback takes the form of both ver-
bal and body language and includes many kinds of
FOREIGN LANGUAGE ANNALS - FEBRUARY 1989 35

expressions-confusion, comprehension, pleasure, ticipate more because communicative classroom roles

doubt, skepticism, anger. Social language learning implicitly demand these self-directed behaviors.
strategies help learners to understand and respond to
More Realistic Communication. Many com-
such feedback. In addition, affective strategies help
municative classroom activities are based on “informa-
learners to cope with fast-moving,sometimes anxiety-
tion gaps” or “opinion gaps’,’which allow more realistic
provoking, authentic conversations.
communicationpatterns and processes than are found
in traditional classrooms. For instance, the learner must
Implications for the Classroom
find out what time his or her plane leaves, how to get
We have discussed four interrelatedprincipleswhich
to a friend’s house by the shortest route, why the others
permeate communicativelanguage instruction. These
in the group believe in unilateral disarmament. By the
principles, taken together, lead to the following four
frequent use of information gaps or opinion gaps, the
classroom implications:
communicative approach stimulatesthe need to com-
municate. Such gaps mimic or simulate the real-world
change of classroom organization;
use of language by setting up a situation in which one
use of more realistic communication pat-
person seeks specific information from another, or
terns and processes;
possesses information needed by another. In the
use of active learning modes; and
classroom, as in other aspects of life, an individual seeks
need for strategy training.
or gives information or opinions for a variety of reasons
(eg., to complete a task, make a decision, or convince
Classroom Organization.With the communicative
someone). The existenceof an information gap or opin-
approach the traditionalroles of students and teachers
ion gap in the classroom fosters communication and
are altered. This approach, as its name implies,
implies that the learner must be a problem-solver to
transforms the traditional, noncommunicative, teacher-
either get or give the needed inf~rmation.~
centered classroom into an innovative, communicative,
The communication needs mentioned up to now
student-centered classroom. In this approach students
concern facts and opinions and are brought about by
are viewed as communicators, that is, negotiators of
specific, teacher-instigatedcommunicativetasks in the
meaning. In the communicatively-orientedclassroom
classroom. Other kinds of communication re-
the teacher’s role is enriched as he or she becomes less
quirements exist that are neither fact- nor opinion-based
of an expert-instructor and becomes more of an ad-
nor directly generated by a specific classroomtask. For
visor, manager, resource person, facilitator, and co-
instance, in normal conversations-in the native
communicator. The teacher thus creates a rich variety
languageas well as in the new language-partners need
of communication opportunities and fosters an en-
to be sensitive to each other’s feelings and unspoken
vironment which naturally encouxages studentsto com-
meanings.
municate among themselves.
Learning strategies help language learners participate
In classes which implement the communicative ap-
actively in the realistic communication found in the
proach, the traditional paradigm of communication-
communicative classroom. Various metacognitive
that is, students speaking to or through the teacher-
strategies-especiallypaying attention and considering
is less often found. Studentsare encouraged to do much
the requirements of the task-are instrumental in situa-
more pairwork and small group activity (see, eg., Gaia,
tions where information must be obtained or shared.
18) than in the old-fashioned classroom. Desks and
Other strategies are useful as well. For example, all com-
chairs are no longer in straight rows; they are moved
pensation strategies help learners overcome inadequate
around as requid by classroom activities and students’
linguistic knowledge by either guessing intelligently via
needs. The classroom organization has changed, and
context or by finding ways to express themselves in the
students and teachers feel greater freedom. This
absence of the perfect expression. Certain cognitive
freedom does not necessarily mean lack of structure,
strategies, such as reasoning deductively and analyzing,
but the structure is visibly different and more flexible.
aid learners in using logic to understand and produce
Such changes in classroom roles and structure force
language Social strategies, such as asking questions and
learners to take a larger degree of responsibility for their
cooperating, help elicit information and encourage
own learning. As learners become more responsible,
communication. Affective strategies such as positive
they use a greater variety of strategiesto enhance their
self-talk give learners the courage and determination to
learning. For instance, learners naturally start
cope with and overcome barriers to communication.
using more social strategies and compensationstrategies
as they find themselves in situationswhich require com- Active Learning Modes. The communicative ap-
munication. They begin to plan, evaluate, and par- proach takes advantage of a variety of active learning
36 FOREIGN LANGUAGE ANNALS - FEBRUARY 1989

modes, which are not restricted to traditional language of students learning a foreign or second language do
exercises but are designed, rather, to foster creativity, not inherently sharethe cognitive, strategy-related,and
problem-solving skills, and interpersonalcooperation. personality characteristicsof good language learners
Communicative instruction frequently uses task- outlined in this article. They are not necessarily aware
oriented activities,which require students to carry out of the power of language learning strategies for
specific tasks cooperatively, such as creating a facilitating their learning. Many students know little
newspaper or a news broadcast in the target language. about language learning as a process; they think it is
Popular problem-solving activities include working similar to other school subjects and therefore frequently
together to unscramble a message, pooling information have unrealistic expectations. Even though the com-
from different parts of a story, and obtaining informa- municative approach implicitly encourages the use of
tion from multiple sources to make a decision. Target improved language learning strategies, not every student
language debates and discussions, as well as cultural will automatidy “catch on” to these strategies without
events like celebrationsand festivals, are often found in additional help and guidance.
communicative classrooms. For these reasons, it is essential that the teacher
One of the most effective ways of encouragingboth develop the learners’ awareness and use of learning
communication and the use of language learning strat- strategies by offering training in which the strategies are
egies is simulatiodgaming. We will describe its features, made very explicit. In this way, the teacher takes on yet
because simulation/gaming is perhaps the clearest ex- another role, that of strategy trainer.
ample of active learning in communicativeclassrooms. Strategy training can and should be linked with
simulatiodgaming provides an effective framework for regular language learning activities, and can be effec-
communication to take place and returns the element tively conducted through simulations,games, and other
of play to the language classroom. It includes a varie- active exercises. Strategy training must be presented so
ty of activities ranging from “homemade” role-plays, that learners explicitly understand why particular
simple games, and dramatic activities, through more strategies are important, how these strategies can be
sophisticated,commercially-producedgames, to com- used, how to evaluate their usefulness, and how to
plex simulated negotiation sessions. transfer them to new situations and tasks. As part of the
Simulation/gaming naturally encourages needed training, honest discussions of feelings are needed to ad-
changes in teacher and student roles and introduces dress the frequently poor attitudes that language
more natural communicationpatterns and processes in- learners exhibit about language learning in general, as
to the classroom. In a simulation, language learners well as the resistence they often show toward taking
replicate external reality to a large extent, and also responsibility for their own learning. A complete, eight-
discover an internal social reality within the activity step model for strategytraining, starting with assessing
itself. In both games and simulations, learners parti- strategy needs and ending with evaluation of the train-
cipate in situationsin which they want to communicate; ing, is found in Oxford (37).
they forget they ~ I Clearning a language as they become With the introduction of strategy training, students
involved in the activity. Because simulations and games learn much more than a particular content area or set
offer a safe learning environment where errors are ac- of gimmicks. It is accurate to state that as a strategy
cepted, learners’ inhibitions and anxieties are often trainer, the teacher becomes instrumental in helping
reduced, and therefore fluency is frequently increased. each student to develop the self-awarenessof how he or
Additional details on simulation/gaming as a tool for she learns, as well as the knowledge and means to max-
communicative language teaching are offered by imize all learning experiences, even outside of the
Crookall and Oxford (10): language learning area. Perhaps the greatest benefit
In communicative language classrooms any and all derived from training in language learning strategiesis
active learning modes, such as simulation/gaming, em- that such training helps to provide a framework which
body the concept which also underlies language learn- can successfullybe utilized in any learning situation.
ing strategies:the need for learners to become actively Strategy training has a great impact on teachers as
and responsibly involved in their own learning. Active well as on their students. In training their studentsto use
learning modes call for active language learning various learning strategies, it is natural that teachers
strategies which engage students totally in the learn- focus, at least at fist, on those learning strategies which
ing process-intellectually, emotionally, socially, and (in are compatible with their own individual teaching
certain simulatiodgames and movement exercises)even strategiesand with their basic styles, i.e., general orien-
physically. tations to the environment or broad approaches to
teaching/learning (eg., global vs. analytic, reflective vs.
Strategy Training. Unfortunately, the majority impulsive). Through the presentation of strategies,
FOREIGN LANGUAGE ANNALS - FEBRUARY 1989
many teachers begin to examine their own teaching
strategies, as well as their underlying style preferences.
Our own observation and experience show that student
performance is linked to the compatibility of the in-
dividual strategies and styles of teachers and students.6
Many times the teacher’s learning/teaching style and
the strategies he or she prefers may be in direct conflict
with the styles and strategies of the students. Just as
students should take responsibility for their own learn-
ing, teachers should be actively prepared to accom-
modate learning styles and strategies that are distinct
from their own.
Conclusions
We have discussed the characteristics of good
language learners and the strategiesthey employ, and
we have shown how the communicative approach
facilitates the implementation of these strategies. We
have also discussed some important classroom implica-
tions of strategiesin the context of the communicative
approach.
We can visualize our foregoingdiscussionas a circle.
In this circle the four principles of the communicative
approach imply and actively encourage good language
learning strategies. In combination, these principles and
their associated strategies imply and foster certain
communication-oriented organizationalstructuresand
classroom activities. These in turn lead to greater com-
municative competence, the primary goal of the com-
municative approach.
Despite the variability with which the communicative
approach might be applied, the principles described
h e 4 along with myriad language learning stmtegies, are
clearly embodied in communicative classroom struc-
tures and activities. The communicative approach,
which involves a clear need to develop and use ap-
propriate language learning strategies, presents the
learner with the challenge of achieving a greater degree
of selfiliredon in his or her learning and exponentially
increases the variety of opportunities available for
developing communicative competence.
NOTES
See Oxford (37, 38); Oxford and Nyikos (42); Oxford,
Nyikos, and Ehrman (43); Politzer (44).
2 This information is synthesized from many contributors,
such as Brumfit (3), Brumfit and Johnson (3), Candlin (7),
Finocchiaro and Brumfit (17), Johnson (22). Johnson and
Morrow (23), Littlewood (28). Munby (32), Savignon (48),
Savignonand Berns (49), Widdowson (54), Wilkins ( 5 9 , and
many others. There is not room here to explain all of their im-
portant individual contributions,so we present a perhaps overly
simplified interpretationand synthesis of the communicative
approach.
Note also that many communicatively-orientedapproaches,
37
methods, and techniquesalso &st which might not be viewed
as directly arising from the so-called communicativeapproach
but which share at least some elements of the same
philosophical and pedagogical heritage For instance, the
Natuml A p p m h of W h e n and Tm~ll(26)focuses on com-
munication of meaningful messages, overcoming of affective
barriers to learning, and producing an ‘’aacqUisiti0n”situation
rather than a “learning” situation (see Ellis, 15, and Omaggio,
34, for a critique). Emotional or affective aspects of language
learning are a special focus of two other methods Community
LanguageLearning, which is based on psychological counsel-
ing principles (Curran, 14; LaForge, 27) and Suggatopedia,
which uses music, breathing exercises, and special classroom
arrangements in order to help students relax (Bancroft, 2;
Lozanov, 29). Some Canadian and American foreign language
immersionpmgmms have allowed young children to learn all
their school subjects in the new language and have been par-
ticularly successful in developing oral skills and positive at-
titudes (seeCurtain and Rhodes, 13; Cohen, 8; Gardner, 19;
Tucker d al., 51). The Silent Way forces studentsto takecharge
of their ownlaming, as well as their owncommunication,in
a “discovery” format with minimal interference from the
teacher (Gattegm, 20). Asher’s Total PhysicalResponse tech-
nique addresses the listening side of communicative com-
petence through gamelike commands and physical responses;
and although freeCommunicationis constrained,studentsleam
to pay attention and respond in a way that allows them to en-
joy learning(Asher, 1). For more details on these and other ap-
proaches, methods, and techniques, see Crookall et al. (11).
We will not discussthe distinctionsamong performance,
proficiency, skill, and competence as debated in the applied
linguisticsand language learning fields. Suffice it to say that
performance is often viewed as the aspect of proficiency, skill,
or competence which is measurable or observable
* Though information gaps generally involve two people,
it is possibleto consider alllanguage learning (and perhaps all
learning in general) as dealing with information gaps. There
is a great deal that the learner does not know; just reading the
newspaper in the target language involves overcomingmany
information gaps.
5 see also Coleman (9); crookall et al. (11); cunningsworth
and Homer (12); Morgenstem (31); Oxford and Crookall (40,
41); Emery (16); Matheidesz (30); Jones (24);Saunders and
Crookall (47); Scarcella and Crookall (50).
Lavine found that she was made aware of this through the
field test of Oxford‘s (37) book on language learning strategies
at the University of Maryland. Lavine‘s attempt to address
styles different from her own caused consciouschanges in her
teaching approach.
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