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IV. References
How To:
Here are actions you can take to begin using contrastive analysis with your students 4:
• Identify trends or patterns that reflect a student’s home language and variety when they speak and write (Wheeler, 2006;
Wheeler & Swords, 2006).
• Talk with students about how language use changes depending on setting. 5 Here are questions that can help guide this
conversation:
o Have you ever changed the way you speak or write based on the people you’re with or the audience you’re
addressing?
o Do you speak or write more “formally” in some situations than in others? What are they?
o Do you ever use words from other languages when speaking or writing?
o What could be a problem with telling someone that the way they speak or write is “wrong”?
• Ask students to share examples of how they would say or write a phrase, word, or expression in their home language.
• Guide students to identify patterns in their home language.
• Create a chart that contrasts features of students’ home language to those of Standard English and discuss the rules for
each. Have students share multiple examples for both languages. Post the chart where students can reference it.
• Engage students in contrastive analysis when opportunities arise to examine and discuss language use (e.g. writing
activities, reading multicultural texts, etc.).
1
(González, 2008)
2
(Godley, Carpenter, & Werner, 2007; Wheeler & Swords, 2004)
3
(Wheeler & Swords, 2006)
4
For lessons on Code-Switching, check out: Wheeler, R. S., & Swords, R. (2010). Code-switching lessons: Grammar strategies for linguistically diverse
writers. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Common grammar patterns for speakers of African American Vernacular English (Wheeler & Swords, 2010).
6
In this instance, the AAVE and English patterns for any other subjects would be the same. For example: We work quickly.
7
In this instance, the AAVE and English patterns for singular subjects would be the same. For example: I was at home.
/ch/ and /sh/ You are my favorite teasher. You are my favorite teacher.
digraphs I bought a new wash yesterday. I bought a new watch yesterday.
Videos:
Click the link to see part of a TED Radio Hour called Playing With Perceptions. Jamila Lyiscott is unpacks three varieties
of English she uses in different situations, via poetry: http://www.npr.org/2014/11/14/362372282/what-does-it-mean-to-be-
articulate
Click the link to see a blog from NPR called How Code-Switching Explains the World.
Books:
Below is a list of books that include different varieties of English. You can use these books to help validate the varieties of
English that students bring with them to the classroom as well as to demonstrate how to use language effectively.
Brown, M., & Palacios, S. (2011). Marisol McDonald Doesn’t Match/Marisol McDonald No Combina. New York, NY:
Cisneros, S. (1984). The House on Mango Street. New York, NY: Bloomsbury.
Compton, J., & Compton, L. (1994). Ashpet: An Appalachian Tale. New York, NY: Holiday House.
Flournoy, V., & Pinkney, J. (1985). The Patchwork Quilt. New York, NY: Dial.
Greenfield, E., & Gilchrist, J. S. (1993). William and the Good Old Days. New York, NY: Harper Collins
Herron, C., & Cepeda, J. (1998). Nappy Hair. New York, NY: Dragonfly Books.
Lowell, S., & Manning, J. (2001). Cindy Ellen: A Wild Western Cinderella. New York, NY: Harper Collins
McKissack, P., & Isadora, R. (1986). Flossie and the Fox. New York, NY: Scholastic.
McKissack, P., & Pinkney, J. (1988). Mirandy and Brother Wind. New York, NY: Knopf.
McKissack, P., & Pinkney, J. (1989). Nettie Jo’s Friends. New York, NY: Knopf.
Rawls, W. (1961). Where the Red Fern Grows. New York, NY: Random House Children’s Books.
Schachner, J. (2005). Skippyjon Jones. New York, NY: Dutton Children’s Books.
Swados, E. & Cepeda, J. (2002). Hey You! C’mere! A Poetry Slam. New York, NY: Arthur A. Levine.
Williams, S. A., & Byard, C. (1992). Working Cotton. San Diego, CA: Harcourt.
Allen, A. Scott, L. M., & Lewis, C. W. (2013). Racial microaggressions and African American and Hispanic students in
urban schools: A call for culturally affirming education. Interdisciplinary Journal of Teaching and Learning 3(2),
117-129.
August, D. & Shanahan, T. (2006). Developing literacy in second-language learners: Report of the National Literacy
Panel on language-minority children and youth. Retrieved from:
http://www.cal.org/content/download/2243/29073/version/3/file/developing-literacy-in-second-language-learners-
executive-summary.pdf
Barrón, C. C. & San Román, J. (n.d.). Teachers guide to supporting Mexican American Standard English learners:
Understanding the characteristic linguistic features of Mexican American language as contrasted with Standard
English structure. Retrieved from:
http://achieve.lausd.net/cms/lib08/CA01000043/Centricity/Domain/217/MEXICAN%20AMERICAN_TEACHER%2
0GUIDE.PDF
Baird, A. S., Palacios, N., & Kibler, A. (2016). The cognate and false cognate knowledge of young emergent bilinguals.
Language and Learning, 66(2), 448-470.
Brown, D. W. (2009). In other words: Lessons on grammar, code-switching, and academic writing. Portsmouth, NH:
Heinemann.
Godley, A. J, Carpenter, B. D., & Werner, C. A. (2007). “I’ll speak in proper slang”: Language ideologies in a daily editing
activity. Reading Research Quarterly, 42(1), 100-131.
González, J. M. (Ed.) (2008). Encyclopedia of bilingual education (Vols. 1-2). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications
Ltd.
National Center for Education Statistics, (2015). School composition and the black-white achievement gap. Retrieved
from:
https://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/subject/studies/pdf/school_composition_and_the_bw_achievement_gap_2
015.pdf
Fashola, O. S., Drum, P. A., Mayer, R. E., & Kang, S.J. (1996). A cognitive theory of orthographic transitioning:
Predictable erros in how Spanish-speaking children spell English words. American Educational Research Journal
33(4), 825-843.
Paris, D. (2015). The right to culturally sustaining language education for the new American mainstream: An introduction.
Multilingual Research Journal, (9)4, 221-226.
Rickford, J. R., Sweetland, J, & Rickford, A. E. (2004). African American English and other vernaculars in education: A
topic-coded bibliography. Journal of English Linguistics, 32(3), 230-320.
Rickford, J.R. (n.d.). Using the vernacular to teach the standard. Retrieved from:
https://web.stanford.edu/~rickford/papers/VernacularToTeachStandard.html
Wheeler, R. S. (2006). “What do we do about student grammar – all those missing –ed’s and –s’s?” Using comparison
and contrast to teach Standard English in dialectally diverse classrooms. English Teaching: Practice and Critique
5(1), 16-33.
Wheeler, R. S., & Swords, R. (2004). Codeswitching: Tools of language and culture transform the dialectally diverse
classroom. Language Arts, 81(6), 470-480.
Wheeler, R. S., & Swords, R. (2010). Code-switching lessons: Grammar strategies for linguistically diverse writers.
Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.