Assignment 9

7/12/23, 6:50 PM Assignment 9
Assignment 9
Due: 12:00pm on Friday, July 7, 2023
You will receive no credit for items you complete after the assignment is due. Grading Policy
Ranking Task: Exploring the Different Stages of Star Birth
Part A
The following figures show four stages that occur during the formation of a one-solar-mass star. Rank these stages based on the order in which they occur,
from first to last.
Hint 1. What is a molecular cloud fragment?

A molecular cloud fragment is __________.
ANSWER:
the small portion of a molecular cloud that is ejected as collapse starts during star formation
a piece of a larger star-forming cloud in which one or a few stars will form
a piece of an interstellar cloud that is composed only of complex molecules such as water and carbon dioxide
Correct
Gravity acts to make the molecular cloud fragment contract, eventually forming a star.
Hint 2. What causes a cloud to heat up as it contracts?

In general, a contracting cloud will heat up only if __________.
ANSWER:
it is also rotating
it starts out extremely cold
it is dense enough to trap light inside it
Correct
A contracting cloud converts gravitational potential energy into thermal energy, but as long as it can radiate light freely, it will radiate away
the energy as fast as it gains it. It is only when light (usually infrared light) becomes trapped inside it that its temperature begins to rise
substantially. Think about this fact, and the fact that a protostar is already quite hot, and you should be able to correctly rank the stages
that show the contracting cloud and the protostar.
ANSWER:
https://session.masteringastronomy.com/myct/assignmentPrintView?assignmentID=2370232 1/29
Reset Help
First to occur Last to occur
Correct
Continue on to Parts B and C to examine how temperature and rotation rate change as the star formation process progresses.
Part B
The following figures show four stages that occur during the formation of a one-solar-mass star. Rank these stages based on the central temperature, from
highest to lowest.
Hint 1. What happens to the cloud’s gravitational potential energy as it contracts?
A contracting cloud loses gravitational potential energy as it contracts in size. What happens to this energy?
ANSWER:
It causes the cloud to spin more rapidly.
It is converted to light and to heat within the cloud.
It simply disappears.
Correct
The fact that gravitational potential energy is converted to thermal energy explains why contracting objects generally heat up over time.
ANSWER:
Reset Help
Highest temperature Lowest temperature
Correct
Notice that the central temperature increases as the formation process progresses. This is a consequence of the law of conservation of energy:
The cloud loses gravitational potential energy as it shrinks, and some of this energy is converted to thermal energy within the cloud (the rest is
radiated away as light).
Part C
The following figures show four stages that occur during the formation of a one-solar-mass star. Rank these stages based on their rotation rate, from
fastest to slowest. (Assume that the angular momentum of the forming star is conserved throughout the formation process, though in fact it may shed some
angular momentum by ejecting material into interstellar space.)
Hint 1. What happens to the cloud’s rotation rate as it contracts?
Angular momentum must be conserved as a cloud contracts. Therefore, in a contracting cloud, __________.
ANSWER:
the rotation rate must increase as it shrinks in size
the rotation rate must decrease as it shrinks in size
the rotation rate must stay the same at all times
ANSWER:
Reset Help
Fastest rotation Slowest rotation
Correct
Notice that the rotation rate increases as the formation process progresses. This is a consequence of the law of conservation of angular
momentum: The cloud inevitably starts with some small net rotation, so as it contracts (reducing the radius of the rotation) the rotation must
speed up to keep the total angular momentum the same.
Visual Activity: The Life Track of a One-Solar-Mass Protostar
View the video below: Life Stages of Low Mass Stars, Part 1. Then answer the graded follow-up questions on the right. You can watch the video again at any
point.
Part A
As a clump of interstellar gas contracts to become a main-sequence star, its changing position on the H-R diagram tells us __________.
Hint 1. What information does the H-R diagram show directly?
From the H-R diagram we can determine __________.
ANSWER:
an object’s location in our galaxy
when an object existed
an object’s surface temperature and luminosity
Correct
The H-R diagram shows luminosity on its vertical axis and surface temperature on its horizontal axis. Now consider how an object with
changing surface temperature and changing luminosity would be plotted on the H-R diagram.
ANSWER:
how its outward appearance is changing
how it moves through the galaxy
the time during which it existed in the history of the universe
Correct
An object’s position on the H-R diagram tells us its surface temperature and luminosity, which are essentially its outward appearance.
Part B
Watch the red dot representing the protostar in the video. After it reaches its highest point on the diagram, how do the protostar's surface temperature and
luminosity change as it approaches the main sequence?
Hint 1. How is temperature shown on the H-R diagram?
On the H-R diagram, hotter objects are plotted __________ than cooler objects.
ANSWER:
higher up
lower down
farther to the left
farther to the right
Hint 2. How is luminosity shown on the H-R diagram?

On the H-R diagram, more luminous objects are plotted __________ on the graph than less luminous objects.
ANSWER:
higher up
lower down
farther to the left
ANSWER:
Its surface temperature decreases, but its luminosity increases.
Its surface temperature and luminosity both decrease.
Its surface temperature and luminosity both increase.
Its surface temperature increases, but its luminosity decreases.
Correct
Notice that the red dot in the video moves left and down after it passes its highest point and begins to approach the main sequence. Left means
increasing surface temperature, and down means decreasing luminosity.
Part C
When does a newly forming star have the greatest luminosity?
Hint 1. How does an object’s maximum luminosity value appear on the H-R diagram?
In the video, the red dot represents an object at its maximum luminosity when the dot appears __________.
ANSWER:
at its point farthest to the left on the H-R diagram
at its point farthest to the right on the H-R diagram
at its highest point on the H-R diagram
at its lowest point on the H-R diagram
Correct
Luminosity increases upward, so maximum luminosity occurs when the dot is highest on the H-R diagram. Now watch for the time when
the forming star has the greatest luminosity.
ANSWER:
when its internal temperature becomes high enough for nuclear fusion
when its surface temperature is the highest
when it is a shrinking protostar with no internal fusion
when it first becomes a main-sequence star
Correct
If you watch the position of the red dot on the H-R diagram as the video plays, you will see that the dot is highest — meaning the object is most
luminous— when it is a protostar and therefore does not yet have internal fusion. This fact can be a little surprising, but do not forget that
luminosity depends on both surface temperature and size. Protostars are always much larger than the main-sequence stars they will eventually
become, which is why they can be so luminous even though they are still cool.
Part D
When a newly forming star is at its greatest luminosity, what is its energy source?
Hint 1. What is the energy source for a protostar?

Protostars shine with energy generated by ____________.
ANSWER:
gravitational contraction
radioactive decay
nuclear fusion
ANSWER:
A newly forming star has no energy source because it does not shine at all until it becomes a true main-sequence star.
radioactive decay of unstable isotopes
nuclear fusion of hydrogen into helium
Correct
From Part C, you know that a newly forming star is most luminous during its protostar stage. The source of energy for protostars is the energy
released by gravitational contraction.
Process of Science: Pre-Main-Sequence Stellar Life Tracks on the H-R Diagram
Learning Goal:
To understand how to read, interpret, and make inferences from the life tracks of protostars on an H-R diagram, and to consider how these tracks are known.
Introduction. The diagram shows life tracks (also called "evolutionary tracks")
of five protostars on the H-R diagram. Each track is labeled with the time it
takes the star to go from the beginning of its protostar stage to the start of its
main-sequence stage.
Part A
The five colored curves on the diagram have arrows pointing to the left. Each of these five curves represents a star of a different __________.
Hint 1. What is a protostar?

A protostar is a __________.
ANSWER:
star that is very low in mass
star that is still in the process of forming
very massive star
Hint 2. What is the main sequence?

Recall that a main-sequence star is what we usually think of as a "normal" star, meaning one that generates energy through hydrogen fusion in its
core. On the H-R diagram shown in this activity, main-sequence stars can be found __________.
ANSWER:
along one of the five colored track along the right side of the diagram
only near the lower right of the diagram
along the well-defined curve running from the upper left to the lower right
Hint 3. What determines a star’s position on the main sequence?

The position of a star along the main sequence is determined by the star’s __________.
ANSWER:
age
mass
distance from Earth
ANSWER:
age
surface temperature
distance from Earth
mass
Correct
Notice that each star’s mass is indicated by the purple numbers to the left of where each curve touches the main sequence.
Part B
The arrows on each protostar’s curve on the diagram’s indicate that __________.
Hint 1. What does a star’s (or protostar’s) position on the H-R diagram mean?
The position of a star (or protostar) on the H-R diagram tell us its __________.
ANSWER:
location relative to the Sun
surface temperature and luminosity
velocity and age
ANSWER:
protostars move through space and come to rest only when they become main-sequence stars
protostars change in surface temperature and luminosity as they develop
protostars change in mass as they age
Correct
Each curve is a life track (or evolutionary track) showing how the luminosity and temperature of a single protostar changes as it gradually
develops into a main-sequence star.
Part C
Which protostars maintain nearly the same luminosity throughout the time that they are protostars?
Hint 1. How do you recognize constant luminosity on the H-R diagram?

A group of stars with the same luminosity would form a _____ line on the H-R diagram.
ANSWER:
vertical
horizontal
diagonal
ANSWER:
protostars with masses about 10 or more times that of the Sun
red protostars
protostars that eventually become main-sequence stars
protostars with masses about that of the Sun or less
Correct
Notice that the life tracks for the 9- and 15-solar-mass protostars are nearly horizontal, indicating that these high-mass stars maintain nearly
constant luminosity throughout their protostar stages.
By this point you should understand how to read the diagram. The remaining questions check to see whether you can extend this understanding to make
inferences from the information shown on the diagram.
Part D
Based on the protostar tracks on the diagram, which statement must be true about the Sun?
Hint 1. What is the meaning of vertical position on the H-R diagram?

Suppose one star is directly above another on the H-R diagram. What can you conclude about the two stars?
ANSWER:
Both stars have the same luminosity, but the one located higher up (vertically) on the diagram has a higher surface temperature.
Both stars have the same mass.
Both stars have the same surface temperature, but the one higher up is more luminous.
ANSWER:
The Sun was much hotter when it was a protostar than it is today.
The Sun was cooler and dimmer when it was a protostar than it is today.
The Sun was much more luminous when it was a protostar than it is today.
The Sun is 30 million years old.
Correct
You can see this fact by looking at the life track for the Sun’s protostar stage. Note that it starts (at the right) much higher up at than it ends
(where it reaches the main sequence), and higher on the H-R diagram means more luminous.
Part E
Suppose two protostars form at the same time, one with a mass of 0.5MSun and the other with a mass of 15MSun . Which of the following statements are
true?
Check all that apply.
Hint 1. Lifetime of a 15-solar-mass star
The main-sequence lifetime of a 15-solar-mass star is about 10 million years. Now, compare this main-sequence lifetime to the lengths of the
protostar stages that are shown on the diagram.
ANSWER:
The 15MSun protostar will orbit the Milky Way Galaxy at much higher speed than the 0.5MSun protostar.
The 15MSun star will end its main-sequence life before the 0.5MSun star even completes its protostar stage.
The 15MSun protostar will be much more luminous than the 0.5MSun protostar.
Correct
High-mass stars proceed through all stages of their lives much faster than low-mass stars—so much faster that when a star cluster forms, the
high-mass stars can live and die before the low-mass stars are "born" at the ends of their protostar stages.
Part F
The life tracks shown on the diagram for different mass protostars are based on computer models. Observationally, how can astronomers test whether
these models are correct?
Hint 1. The role of star clusters in astronomy

Star clusters are extremely useful to astronomers for two key reasons:
1. All the stars in a cluster lie at about the same distance from Earth.
2. All the stars in the cluster formed from the same interstellar cloud and therefore began to form at about the same time.
Astronomers can therefore use star clusters as laboratories for comparing the properties of stars at about the same distance or of about the same
age.
ANSWER:
By observing and comparing protostars and stars of different masses within a single star cluster.
By observing and comparing protostars and stars of different masses at different distances from the center of the Milky Way Galaxy.
By monitoring protostars of different mass over many years and comparing the changes during those years to the predictions of the computer
models.
Correct
A star cluster forms from a large molecular cloud, so all the stars in a cluster begin to form at nearly the same time. We can therefore learn about
how stars progress through their lives by comparing different stars within a cluster.
Ranking Task: How Star Properties Affect Star Formation
Part A
The following figures show the spectral types of four main-sequence stars. Rank them based on the time each takes, from longest to shortest, to go from a
protostar to a main-sequence star during the formation process.
Hint 1. What is the relationship between spectral type and mass for main-sequence stars?
For main-sequence stars, which of the following lists the spectral types in order of decreasing mass?
ANSWER:
OBAFGKM
BOGKMFA
MKGFABO
ANSWER:
Reset Help
Longest time Shortest time
Correct
Notice that the correct ranking has the stars in order from lowest to highest mass (remember that for main-sequence stars, mass follows the
spectral sequence order OBAFGKM). Less massive stars take longer to go through all stages of life than do more massive stars, so they also
take longer to reach the main sequence.
Part B
Provided following are the spectral types of four different main-sequence stars. Rank the stars based on the strength of the radiation pressure that pushes
outward as they are forming, from highest pressure to lowest pressure.
Hint 1. What causes radiation pressure?
ANSWER:
high-speed particles of gas
Radiation pressure is produced by __________. photons
neutrinos
Correct
Radiation pressure is pressure due to photons, so it should be higher among more luminous stars. If you now remember how the
luminosities of main-sequence stars depend on spectral type (open the second hint if you need a review), you will be able to complete
Part B.
Hint 2. What is the relationship between spectral type and luminosity for main-sequence stars?
For main-sequence stars, which of the following lists the spectral types in order of decreasing luminosity?
ANSWER:
OBAFGKM
BOGKMFA
MKGFABO
Correct
The more massive stars are the most luminous. Now, combine this fact with the origin of radiation pressure (open the first hint if you need
a review) and you will be able to complete Part A.
ANSWER:
Reset Help
Highest radiation pressure Lowest radiation pressure
Correct
Notice that the correct ranking has the stars in order from highest to lowest mass (remember that for main-sequence stars, mass follows the
spectral sequence order OBAFGKM), because radiation pressure is stronger in more massive stars. In fact, it is so strong for very massive stars
that it prevents stars with masses above about 150 solar masses from forming at all.
Part C
Provided following are four different ranges of stellar masses. Rank the stellar mass ranges based on how many stars in each range you would expect to
be born in a star cluster, from highest number to lowest number.
Hint 1. What masses of stars are most common in the Sun’s neighborhood?
Among stars within about 50 light-years of our solar system, __________.
ANSWER:
very low-mass stars are the most common, and higher-mass stars are increasingly rare
very high-mass stars are the most common, and lower-mass stars are increasingly rare
stars of all masses are equally common
ANSWER:
Reset Help
Highest number Lowest number
between 1 and 10 between 10 and 30 solar masse between 30 and 60 solar masse
less than 1 solar mass
solar masses s s
Correct
Low-mass stars are born in far greater numbers than higher-mass stars, so clusters almost inevitably contain mostly low-mass stars and fewer
and fewer stars of higher masses.
Vocabulary in Context: Star Birth
Part A
Match the words in the left-hand column to the appropriate blank in the sentences in the right-hand column. Use each word only once.
Hint 1. Definition of a molecular cloud
A molecular cloud is a cool, dense interstellar cloud in which the low temperatures allow hydrogen atoms to pair up into hydrogen molecules (H2 ).
Hint 2. Definition of thermal pressure

Thermal pressure is the ordinary pressure in a gas, arising from motions of particles, that can be attributed to the object's temperature.
Hint 3. Definition of a protostellar disk

A protostellar disk is a disk of material surrounding a forming star that has not yet reached the point where sustained fusion can occur in its core; it
is essentially the same as a proto-planetary disk, but may not necessarily lead to planet formation.
Hint 4. Definition of a protostellar wind

A protostellar wind is the relatively strong wind from a forming star that has not yet reached the point where sustained fusion can occur in its core.
Hint 5. Definition of a jet
A jet is a high-speed stream of gas ejected from an object into space.
Hint 6. Definition of a close binary

A close binary is a binary star system in which the two stars are very close together.
Hint 7. Definition of degeneracy pressure

Degeneracy pressure is a type of pressure unrelated to an object's temperature, which arises when electrons (electron degeneracy pressure) or
neutrons (neutron degeneracy pressure) are packed so tightly that the exclusion and uncertainty principles come into play.
Hint 8. Definition of a brown dwarf

A brown dwarf is an object too small to become an ordinary star because electron degeneracy pressure halts its gravitational collapse before fusion
becomes self-sustaining; brown dwarfs have mass less than 0.08 MSun
ANSWER:
Reset Help
1. The Sun formed, probably along with other stars, within a large molecular cloud .
2. A close binary consists of two stars that orbit each other every few days.
3. A brown dwarf is a "star" so small in mass that its core never gets hot enough to sustain nuclear
fusion reactions.
4. Most of the gas remaining from the process of star formation is swept into interstellar space by a
protostellar wind .
5. As a protostar's internal temperature increases, its growing thermal pressure helps slow its
contraction due to gravity.
6. Planets may form within the protostellar disk that surrounds a forming star.
7. Mass can be lost through a jet of material ejected along a protostar's axis of rotation.
8. A "star" with mass below 0.08 solar mass has its gravitational contraction halted by
degeneracy pressure .
Correct
Sorting Task: Protostar or Main-Sequence Star
Part A
Each item following is a characteristic of a one-solar-mass star either during its protostar phase or during its main-sequence phase. Match the items to the
appropriate phase.
Hint 1. What you learn about the protostar and main-sequence phases on an H-R diagram
The figure shows the progression of a one-solar-mass star -- the same mass as our Sun -- from the time it begins to collapse from an interstellar
cloud until it becomes a main-sequence star. Studying this diagram should allow you to sort most of the preceding items. If you are having difficulty
interpreting the diagram, open the next two hints.
Hint 2. How do you determine luminosity during the protostar stage, from the diagram in Hint 1?
The following figure is the same as the figure in Hint 1; it shows the progression of a one-solar-mass star from the beginning of its formation until it
reaches the main sequence. The star has its greatest luminosity just to the right of the stage labeled _____.
In the following box, type in one of the numbers 1 through 4, based on the numbered stages shown in the figure.
ANSWER:
Hint 3. How do you determine surface temperature during the protostar stage, from the diagram in Hint 1?
reaches the main sequence. At which stage has the star’s surface temperature stopped increasing?
In the following box, type in one of the numbers 1 through 4, based on the numbered stages shown in the figure.
ANSWER:
Hint 4. How do you determine the energy source of a protostar, from the diagram in Hint 1?
reaches the main sequence. During Stage 2 on the figure, the protostar shrinks and heats as gravitational potential energy is converted into thermal
energy. This represents a source of energy for the star that we call _____.
ANSWER:
nuclear fusion
luminosity
ANSWER:
Reset Help
protostar phase main-sequence phase

luminosity much greater than the Sun
energy generated by gravitational

lasts about 10 billion years energy generated by nuclear fusion
contraction
surface radiates energy at same rate

radius much larger than the Sun
that core generates energy
pressure and gravity are not precisely

balanced
Correct
Ranking Task: The Life of a High-Mass Main Sequence Star
Part A
Provided following are various stages during the life of a high-mass star. Rank the stages based on when they occur, from first to last.
Hint 1. How do the life stages of a high-mass star compare to those of a low-mass star?
High-mass stars live much shorter lives than low-mass stars and differ in the details of many of the life stages. Nevertheless, low- and high-mass
stars share some things in common. Which of the following statements is true?
ANSWER:
Both low- and high-mass stars end their lives in supernovas and leave behind neutron stars or black holes.
Both low- and high-mass stars are protostars until they can fuse hydrogen in their cores, then become hydrogen-burning main-sequence
stars, and near the ends of their lives expand to become giants or supergiants.
Both low- and high-mass stars start lives as huge giant or supergiant stars, then become protostars before they reach their main-
sequence lives.
Hint 2. What is a protostar?

Protostar is the name we give to __________.
ANSWER:
a very high-mass star with a strong stellar wind
a star that has recently died
a star that has not quite reached its “birth,” meaning its core is not yet hot enough to sustain nuclear fusion
Hint 3. What makes a supergiant shine?
A supergiant shines with energy released by __________.
ANSWER:
nuclear fusion of elements heavier than hydrogen (as well as of hydrogen in the shell)
the explosion of the entire star
Correct
You should now be able to rank the red supergiant stage correctly.
ANSWER:
Reset Help
First stage Last stage
Correct
Remember also that high-mass stars progress through all these stages at a much faster rate than lower-mass stars. The highest-mass stars may
be born, live, and die in only a few million years. Note also that while this particular high-mass star leaves behind a neutron star after its
supernova, an even higher-mass star may instead leave behind a black hole.
Part B
Provided following are various elements that can be produced during fusion in the core of a high mass main sequence star. Rank these elements based on
when they are produced, from first to last.
Hint 1. How heavy are these elements?
Which of the following lists the elements in order of increasing atomic mass?
ANSWER:
helium, carbon, oxygen, iron
helium, oxygen, carbon, iron
helium, iron, carbon, oxygen
Correct
Now, remember that fusion produces heavier elements from lighter elements.
ANSWER:
Reset Help
First produced Last produced
Correct
During their main-sequence lives, all stars fuse hydrogen into helium in their cores. During the late stages of their lives, massive stars fuse helium
into carbon, and ongoing reactions create successively heavier elements, including oxygen. Iron is the last product of fusion in a massive star’s
core; iron fusion does not release energy, so the production of iron is the event that provokes the stellar crisis that ends (within seconds) in a
supernova.
Vocabulary in Context: High-Mass Stars
Part A
Match the words in the left-hand column to the appropriate blank in the sentences in the right-hand column. Use each word only once.
Hint 1. Description of a supernova
A supernova is the complete explosion of a star.
Hint 2. Description of a neutron star
A neutron star is the compact corpse of a high-mass star left over after a supernova. It typically contains a mass comparable to the mass of the Sun
in a volume just a few kilometers in radius.
Hint 3. Description of a supernova remnant

A supernova remnant is a glowing, expanding cloud of debris from the explosion of a star.
Hint 4. Description of a high-mass star
A high-mass star is a star born with a mass above about 8 MSun , which will end its life by exploding as a supernova.
Hint 5. Description of the CNO cycle

The CNO cycle is the cycle of reactions by which intermediate- and high-mass stars fuse hydrogen into helium.
Hint 6. Description of a helium-capture reaction

A helium-capture reaction is a fusion reaction that fuses a helium nucleus into some other nucleus. Such reactions can fuse carbon into oxygen,
oxygen into neon, neon into magnesium, and so on.
Hint 7. Description of Supernova 1987A

Supernova 1987A was a supernova witnessed on Earth in 1987. It was the nearest supernova seen in nearly 400 years and helped astronomers
reﬁne their theories of supernovae.
ANSWER:
Reset Help
1. The Crab Nebula is the result of a supernova that was witnessed on Earth in the year 1054.
2. Betelgeuse is a supergiant star that will eventually supernova, which means that by mass it is
classified as a high-mass star .
3. The debris from the death of a high-mass star forms a supernova remnant several light years
across.
4. A neutron star has a density higher than the density of a white dwarf.
5. Supernova 1987A actually occurred about 150,000 years ago in the Large Magellanic Cloud.
6. The CNO cycle is the process by which hydrogen fusion proceeds in high-mass stars.
7. Carbon can be converted into oxygen in the cores of high-mass stars if carbon nuclei undergo a
helium-capture reaction .
Correct
Process of Science: Evidence for How the Elements Were Created
Learning Goal:
To read and interpret a graph that provides important evidence in favor of current models of element creation by stars and supernovae.
Introduction. The diagram shows the measured relative abundances
of elements compared to the abundance of hydrogen in the Milky Way
Galaxy. Note that the relative abundance compares the numbers of
atoms of each element. For example, the graph shows that the
abundance of nitrogen is about 10−4 , which means there are about
−4
10 = 0.0001 times as many nitrogen atoms in the galaxy as there
are hydrogen atoms.
Part A
The diagram indicates that the third most abundant element in the Milky Way Galaxy is _____.
Hint 1. Interpreting the powers of 10 on the vertical axis

Notice that the numbers on the vertical axis (relative abundance) are written as powers of 10. Recall that, for negative powers of 10, the exponent
tells us the number of decimal places to the right of the decimal point. For example, 10−2 = 0.01 = 1/100, 10−4 = 0.0001 = 1/10, 000 ,
−6
10 = 0.000001 = 1/1, 000, 000 , and so on. You should also interpret values in between the labeled points as powers of 10; for example, a
point on the vertical axis halfway between 10−6 and 10−4 represents an abundance of 10−5 .
Hint 2. Understanding why the horizontal axis shows atomic number
The horizontal axis shows atomic number, which is defined as the number of protons in an atom’s nucleus. Each different chemical element has a
different atomic number. Therefore, by showing atomic number, the graph allows us to compare the abundances different chemical elements.
Hint 3. Which direction on this graph represents greater relative abundance?

On this graph, the points representing elements that are more abundant are located __________.
ANSWER:
lower
farther to the left
higher
ANSWER:
lithium
helium
boron
oxygen
hydrogen
Correct
The vertical axis represents relative abundance, so the fact that oxygen has the third-highest point on the diagram (after hydrogen and helium)
means that it is the third most abundant element.
Part B
According to the diagram, the approximate abundance of oxygen atoms in the galaxy is __________.
Hint 1. Interpreting the powers of 10 on the vertical axis
Notice that the numbers on the vertical axis (relative abundance) are written as powers of 10. Recall that, for negative powers of 10, the exponent
tells us the number of decimal places to the right of the decimal point. For example, 10−2 = 0.01 = 1/100, 10−4 = 0.0001 = 1/10, 000 ,
−6
10 = 0.000001 = 1/1, 000, 000 , and so on. You should also interpret values in between the labeled points as powers of 10; for example, a
point on the vertical axis halfway between 10−6 and 10−4 represents an abundance of 10−5 .
ANSWER:
1/10 that of hydrogen
1/10,000 that of hydrogen
Correct
Looking along the vertical axis, you can see that the point for oxygen lies about halfway between the points labeled 10−4 and 10−2 , which
means about 10−3 , which is 0.001 or 1/1000. Therefore, the abundance of oxygen atoms is about 1/1000 that of hydrogen.
Part C
According to the diagram, what is the most abundant element with an atomic number greater than or equal to 20?
Hint 1. Where on the graph are the elements with atomic number greater than 20?
On the given graph, the points representing elements that have atomic number greater than 20 are located __________.
ANSWER:
to the right of the number 20 along the horizontal axis
to the left of the number 20 along the horizontal axis
directly above the number 20 along the horizontal axis
ANSWER:
hydrogen
nickel
oxygen
iron
calcium
Correct
In this question you were asked to consider only data points at or to the right of atomic number 20 along the horizontal axis. In this region, the
data point for iron is the highest on the graph, which means it has the greatest relative abundance. Note that the iron abundance is only a little
more than 10−6 = 1/1, 000, 000 that of hydrogen. In other words, for every atom of iron in the Milky Way Galaxy, there are nearly 1 million
atoms of hydrogen.
Part D
Based on the diagram, which of the following statements best describes the observed pattern of abundances for elements with an atomic number between
6 and 20?
Hint 1. Identifying elements with even atomic numbers

The graph has a data point for each atomic number along the horizontal axis, so you can find the even atomic numbers (2, 4, 6, etc.) just by
counting. For example, you’ll find that carbon has atomic number 6, oxygen has atomic number 8, neon has atomic number 10, and so on.
ANSWER:
These abundances decrease smoothly from atomic number of 6 to atomic number of 20.
There is a general trend of increasing abundance with increasing atomic number, but elements with odd atomic numbers tend to be more
abundant than those with even atomic numbers.
These abundances fluctuate randomly.
All of the abundances are about the same.
There is a general trend of decreasing abundance with increasing atomic number, but elements with even atomic numbers tend to be more
abundant than those with odd atomic numbers.
Correct
The even-numbered peaks are higher than their neighboring points, for reasons that we will explore in the remaining questions.
Parts A through D have tested your ability to read the data on the graph. The remaining questions explore the interpretation of these data. You may wish to refer
to your textbook to review how elements are created by nuclear fusion in stars.
Part E
According to current understanding, the two most abundant elements in the universe were made __________.
Hint 1. What are the two most abundant elements?
The graph shows that the two most abundant elements in the galaxy are __________.
ANSWER:
hydrogen and helium
lithium and beryllium
the two points farthest to the right on the graph
Correct
Note that these two elements are far more abundant than any others. Oxygen, the third most abundant element, is only about 1/1000 as
abundant as hydrogen.
ANSWER:
by nuclear reactions on interstellar dust grains
in the Big Bang
by nuclear fusion in the cores of stars
during supernova explosions
Correct
Hydrogen and most of the helium in the universe formed during the first 5 minutes of the universe’s birth in the Big Bang.
Part F
In Part D, you saw that elements with even atomic numbers tend to be more abundant than neighboring elements with odd atomic numbers. What nuclear
process explains why this is the case?
Hint 1. What element has an atomic number of 2?

The element with two protons, or having an atomic number of 2, is _____.
ANSWER:
deuterium
helium
hydrogen
Correct
Therefore, fusing a helium nucleus to another element means adding two protons, which increases the atomic number of the original
nucleus by two.
Hint 2. Does adding a neutron to a nucleus change its atomic number?
Adding a neutron __________ the atomic number of a nucleus.

ANSWER:
does not change
adds 1 to
subtracts 1 from
Correct
The atomic number depends only on the number of protons, not on the number of neutrons.
ANSWER:
Starting from lithium (atomic number is 3), the most common nuclear reactions involve the fusion of an additional hydrogen nucleus.
Starting from carbon (atomic number is 6), the most common nuclear reactions involve the fusion of an additional hydrogen nucleus.
Nuclei with odd numbers of protons tend to be unstable and undergo radioactive decay.
Starting from carbon (atomic number is 6), the most common nuclear reactions involve the fusion of an additional helium nucleus.
Correct
Helium nuclei have two protons—which means it has an atomic number of 2—so fusing a helium nucleus into some other element increases the
atomic number by two. Carbon is formed by the fusion of three helium nuclei, which is why carbon has an atomic number of 6. Fusing another
helium nucleus to carbon makes oxygen, with an atomic number of 8; fusing a helium nucleus to oxygen makes neon, with an atomic number of
10; and so on. That is why even-numbered elements tend to be more common.
Part G
The observational data for the element abundances agree quite well with what we expect based on our current understanding of nuclear fusion and stellar
evolution. But imagine the data had turned out to be different. Which of the following differences, if it had actually been observed, would have forced us to
rethink our entire picture of stellar evolution?
Hint 1. The formation of elements heavier than iron

As discussed in your textbook, iron is the heaviest element that is formed by a major fusion pathway in high-mass stars, and the formation of iron
leads to a supernova explosion. Elements heavier than iron are formed primarily by nuclear reactions associated with supernova explosions, and as
a result these elements are quite rare compared to iron.
ANSWER:
The abundances of elements heavier than iron turned out to be much smaller than we’ve actually observed.
All the abundances after hydrogen and helium turned out to be smaller by a factor of 2 than what we’ve actually observed.
The abundance of elements heavier than uranium turned out to be greater than the abundance of carbon.
Correct
We expect carbon to be relatively common because it is formed by the fusion of three helium nuclei, and helium is the second most abundant
element. We expect uranium and heavier elements to be quite rare because they form only in rare reactions associated with supernova
explosions. Therefore, if elements heavier than uranium turned out to be more common than carbon, we would be forced to conclude that our
model of element creation is incorrect.
Sorting Task: High- and Low-Mass Stars
Part A
Listed following are characteristics that describe either high-mass or low-mass stars. Match these characteristics to the appropriate category.
Hint 1. A strategy for completing this task
The only way to complete this sorting task successfully is to know the different ways in which low-mass and high-mass stars live their lives. To get
started on this task, first remember that high-mass stars proceed through all their life stages in a much shorter time than low-mass stars. Second,
remember that most of the elements of which we and Earth are made were produced by fusion in high-mass stars. Beyond that, you’ll need to
review the life stages of low- and high-mass stars as discussed in your textbook.
ANSWER:
Reset Help
High-Mass Stars (>8 Msun) Low-Mass Stars (<2 Msun)
late in life fuse carbon into heavier

end life as a supernova
elements the Sun is an example have longer lifetimes
have higher fusion rate during main final corpse is a white dwarf end life as a planetary nebula
sequence life
Correct
A long-lived star such as the Sun eventually ejects its outer layers as a planetary nebula, leaving behind a white dwarf.
Problem 16.53
Dark interstellar gas clouds contain so many dust grains that starlight cannot pass through, even though the dust grains are tiny and the spaces between them
are quite large by earthly standards. A typical dust grain has a radius of about 1.00 × 10−7 meter and a mass of about 1.00 × 10−14 gram.
Part A
Estimate how many dust particles there are in a cloud containing 1300MSun of dusty gas, if 1.2 % of the cloud's mass is in the form of dust grains.
ANSWER:
N = 3.1×1048 dust particles
Correct
Part B
Estimate the total surface area these grains would cover if you could put them side by side. You can assume that the grains are approximately spherical so
that each grain covers an area πr2 where r is the grain's radius. State your answer in square light-years.
Express your answer in square light-years.
ANSWER:
2
A = 1100 ly
Correct
Part C
3
Estimate the total surface area the cloud covers, assuming that its matter density is like that of a typical molecular cloud, about 10−21 g/cm . (Hint: First
calculate the cloud’s volume from its mass and density, then determine the cloud’s radius using the formula for the radius of a sphere
1/3
R = (3 × volume/4π) . Then calculate the total surface area that cloud covers using the formula for the area of circle.) State your answer in square
light-years.
Express your answer in square light-years.
ANSWER:
2
A cloud surf ace = 260 ly
Correct
Part D
Based on your answers to parts B and C, what do you think the chances are that a photon passing through the cloud will hit a dust grain?
ANSWER:
Photon entering the cloud will probably collide with at least one grain.
Photon entering the cloud will probably pass it without collision with dust grains.
Correct
Since the cloud cross section area is several times less than the total cross section area of the grains, collision with a dust particle is very much
possible.
Problem 16.54
Isolated molecular clouds can have a temperature as low as 10 K and a particle density as great as 110,000 particles per cubic centimeter.
Part A
What is the minimum mass that a cloud with these properties needs in order to form a star?
Express your answer in solar masses.
ANSWER:
Mmin = 1.7 MSun
Correct
Problem 16.55
Models of the first star-forming clouds indicate that they had a temperature of roughly 200 K and a particle density of roughly 270,000 particles per cubic
centimeter at the time they started trapping their internal thermal energy.
Part A
Estimate the mass at which thermal pressure balances gravity for these values of pressure and temperature.
Express your answer in kilograms.

ANSWER:
Mcloud = 2.0×1032 kg
Correct
Part B
How does that mass compare with the Sun's mass?
Express your answer in solar masses.
ANSWER:
Mcloud = 98 MSun
Correct
Part C
What is the estimated lifetime of a star with that mass?
ANSWER:
Less than 1000 years
Greater than 10 million years
Greater than 1 billion years
Less than 10 million years
Correct
Problem 16.29
Choose the best answer.
Part A
What happens to a cloud's thermal pressure if its temperature falls while its density rises?
ANSWER:
Thermal pressure goes up.
Thermal pressure goes down.
More information is needed to determine what thermal pressure does.
Correct
Problem 17.49
Part A
What is the escape velocity from a red giant with a mass of 1 MSun and a radius of 130 R Sun ?
Express your answer in kilometers per second.
ANSWER:
v escape giant = 54 km/s
Correct
Part B
How does that velocity compare with the escape velocity from the Sun?
Express your answer to two significant figures.
ANSWER:
vescape Sun
= 11
vescape giant
Correct
Part C
Describe how your results help account for the fact that red giants have strong stellar winds.
ANSWER:
3462 Character(s) remaining
Having a significant difference between the escape velocities,

we can conclude that red giants have smaller escape velocity
because their gravitational pull is weaker (same mass but
increased radius). Due to this, it is easier for stellar winds to
Submitted, grade pending
Problem 17.16
Part A
Choose the correct explanation, why can the lives of close binary stars differ from those of single stars.
ANSWER:
Mass exchange occurs between two stars in a close binary system causes, altering the stars' life tracks.
Mutual heating of the surfaces by the companion's radiation occurs in a close binary systems, shortening life expectancies of both stars.
Mutual heating of the surfaces by the companion's radiation occurs in a close binary systems, altering the stars' life tracks.
Mass exchange occurs between two stars in a close binary system causes, shortening life expectancies of both stars.
Correct
Part B
Describe the Algol paradox and its resolution.
Drag the terms on the left to the appropriate blanks on the right to complete the sentences.
ANSWER:
Reset Help
expanded In the binary system Algol, the stars should have
less massive the same age, and the more massive Algol A
star is on the main sequence and the less

Algol A
massive Algol B is in the subgiant phase .
on the main
sequence
Stellar evolution models say that the
same more massive star should leave the main
slower sequence faster than its companion, yet the
reverse appears to be occurred.

in the subgiant
phase
The resolution to this paradox is that Algol B was
shrinked once more massive and left the main
Algol B sequence faster than Algol A
faster
After leaving the main sequence, Algol B
different expanded . Outer layers of Algol B were
more massive gravitationally attracted to the Algol A . Such
process is called mass exchange.
Answer Requested
Score Summary:
Your score on this assignment is 121%.
You received 24.7 out of a possible total of 27 points, plus 8 points of extra credit.

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7/12/23, 6:50 PM Assignment 9

Ranking Task: Exploring the Different Stages of Star Birth

Hint 1. What is a molecular cloud fragment?

Hint 2. What causes a cloud to heat up as it contracts?

it starts out extremely cold

it is dense enough to trap light inside it

First to occur Last to occur

Hint 1. What happens to the cloud’s gravitational potential energy as it contracts?

It causes the cloud to spin more rapidly.

It is converted to light and to heat within the cloud.

Highest temperature Lowest temperature

Hint 1. What happens to the cloud’s rotation rate as it contracts?

the rotation rate must increase as it shrinks in size

the rotation rate must decrease as it shrinks in size

the rotation rate must stay the same at all times

Fastest rotation Slowest rotation

Visual Activity: The Life Track of a One-Solar-Mass Protostar

Hint 1. What information does the H-R diagram show directly?

From the H-R diagram we can determine __________.

an object’s location in our galaxy

when an object existed

an object’s surface temperature and luminosity

how its outward appearance is changing

how it moves through the galaxy

the time during which it existed in the history of the universe

Hint 1. How is temperature shown on the H-R diagram?

farther to the left

farther to the right

Hint 2. How is luminosity shown on the H-R diagram?

farther to the right

farther to the left

Its surface temperature decreases, but its luminosity increases.

Its surface temperature and luminosity both decrease.

Its surface temperature and luminosity both increase.

Its surface temperature increases, but its luminosity decreases.

at its point farthest to the left on the H-R diagram

at its point farthest to the right on the H-R diagram

at its highest point on the H-R diagram

at its lowest point on the H-R diagram

when its surface temperature is the highest

when it is a shrinking protostar with no internal fusion

when it first becomes a main-sequence star

Hint 1. What is the energy source for a protostar?

radioactive decay of unstable isotopes

nuclear fusion of hydrogen into helium

Process of Science: Pre-Main-Sequence Stellar Life Tracks on the H-R Diagram

Hint 1. What is a protostar?

star that is very low in mass

star that is still in the process of forming

very massive star

Hint 2. What is the main sequence?

only near the lower right of the diagram

Hint 3. What determines a star’s position on the main sequence?

distance from Earth

distance from Earth

location relative to the Sun

surface temperature and luminosity

velocity and age