SOUTH EAST ASIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, INC.

COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE

National Highway, Crossing Rubber, Tupi, South Cotabato

LEARNING MODULE FOR

CROP PRO 211

APPROACHES AND PRACTICES IN PEST MANAGEMENT

WEEK 7

1|Page CROP PRO 211

 TOPIC 7
GENETIC MANIPULATION OF CROPS: HOST PLANT RESISTANCE

Plant breeding

• The science, art and business of crop improvement for human benefit.

• Resistance is the rule.

Most plants are resistant to pests and diseases.

All plants have multi-layered and complex defense mechanisms either preformed or

formed in response to invasion.

When defensive barriers are breached, the plant becomes susceptible to the pest or

pathogen.

Plant defenses

Physical

Preformed/ Constitutive/ Continuous: Thick, waxy cuticle; Long, dense trichomes;

Sticky trichomes; Suberized (corky) cells; Silicated cells

Formed/ Induced: Abscission layers (Leaf drop, shot holing); Suberized (corky) layers;

Gumming; Tyloses; Chemical barriers

Chemical

Preformed: secondary metabolites (evolved in response to pest or pathogen attacks);

terpenoids, phenolics, and alkaloids

Formed/ Induced: phytoalexins; SAR (systemic acquired resistance)-related

chemicals;

Pathogens have developed countermeasures that are able to suppress basal resistance in

certain plant species. If a pathogen is capable of suppressing basal defense, plants may

respond with another line of defense: the hypersensitive response (HR). The HR is

characterized by deliberate plant cell suicide at the site of infection. Although drastic compared

to basal resistance, the HR may limit pathogen access to water and nutrients by sacrificing a

few cells in order to save the rest of the plant. Once the hypersensitive response has been

triggered, plant tissues may become highly resistant to a broad range of pathogens for an

extended period of time. This phenomenon is called systemic acquired resistance (SAR) and

2|Page CROP PRO 211

represents a heightened state of readiness in which plant resources are mobilized in case of

further attack.

Steps in the evolution of genes for virulence, resistance and avirulence

Race 1 pathogens (P1) can still infect hosts carrying only the original resistance or R2

resistance; They cannot infect plants with R1 resistance. Also, plants with R1 resistance are

only resistant to P1 pathogens that carry the V1 (avr1) gene.

Genetic Manipulation of the crop

Includes traditional plant breeding to genetic engineering and gene deployment

When it comes to breeding for pest and disease resistance, we look at not only the

host’s genetics but also the pest or pathogen of concern.

Types of Plant Resistance

 Nonhost resistance: the plant is outside the host range of the pest/pathogen

 True, race-specific, cultivar-specific, gene-for-gene or horizontal resistance: the

plant possesses genes (R genes) for resistance

 Apparent resistance or Tolerance: the plant escape or tolerate infection/infestation;

plants are able to produce a good crop even when infected/infested

 True resistance:

3|Page CROP PRO 211

  Polygenic or multigene or partial or horizontal resistance: controlled by several

genes; include minor gene resistance (controlled by genes with minor role in the total

horizontal resistance and may be ineffective if used alone)

 Race specific or vertical or strong or major or qualitative or differential resistance:

resistance to one pathogen race but susceptible to another; always controlled by one or

few genes (R genes)

Gene-for-gene concept

“For each gene that confers virulence to the pathogen (pest), there is a corresponding

gene in the host that confers resistance.”

Stepwise evolution of virulence and resistance

Gene combinations and disease reaction in a host-pathogen system

A compatible reaction (+) results to development of infection.

Incompatible reaction (-) results to no infection.

Sources of genes for resistance

 Wild species: can be from another genus in the same family

 Primitive cultivars (land races): coevolved with the pests/pathogens, thus, contain many

desirable resistance genes

4|Page CROP PRO 211

  Feral populations: wild populations that have escaped from cultivation; generally easily

crossed with the crop plant

 Germplasm collections (plant breeding nurseries): available instantly for incorporation

into new cultivars

 Germplasm banks (seed storage): temperature and humidity controlled facilities

 Induced mutations: any gene can be mutated using mutagens such as x-rays, gamma

rays and chemical

 Transgenes: genes from unrelated organisms (genetic engineering)

Goals and objectives of plant breeding

higher yields,

improved quality,

disease and insect resistance,

change in maturity duration,

agronomic characteristics,

photoinsensitivity,

synchronous maturity,

non-shattering characterisitics,

determinate growth,

dormancy, and

abiotic stress tolerance

Priorities (Phenotype) of plant breeding

1. Yield

2. Quality

3. Maturity

4. Pest/ pathogen resistance

5. Standability

6. Nutrient utilization efficiency

7. Stress tolerance

5|Page CROP PRO 211

Producing improved varieties takes time. It is a slow process, requiring careful selection and

recombination through many crop generations.

Approaches of breeding

1. Selection

Domestication: process of bringing wild species under human management;

Domestication altered modern crop lines from its progenitor; e.g. Teosinte (Zea mays ssp.

mexicana); inflorescence has no cob allowing the seed to separate and dispersed easily when

they mature, compared with modern corn with types that retain seed on the ear leading to

development of the cob.

Germplasm collection: collection of a large number of genotypes of a crop species

and its wild relatives

Introduction: taking a genotype or a group of genotypes of plants into new

environments where they were not being grown before

2. Hybridization: crossing genetically dissimilar individuals

Breeding

Four most common mating systems used in crop improvement: (1) Topcross; (2)

Polycross; (3) Backcross; (4) Single and three-way cross hybrid cross; and (5) Double cross

hybrid cross

6|Page CROP PRO 211

Characteristics of resistance

In plant breeding programs, a plant’s resistance to pests/ pathogens is:

 Heritable

 Relative

 Measurable

 Variable

Types of inherited resistance

 Monogenic resistance: determined by a single gene

 Oligogenic resistance: determined by a small number of genes, usually countable

 Polygenic resistance: determined by a large, usually known number of genes

Resistance is dominant. Some recessive resistance genes often occur in plants with high

degree of selfing.

Deployment of resistance genes

1. Sequential deployment: sequential utilization of a single, strong, selective resistance gene

until it is no longer effective; Its goal is that new resistant cultivar replaces old, “failed” one when

necessary

Advantage: flexibility

Disadvantage: high risk of losses when one resistance gene has been overcomed by the pest

and the new gene is still not yet available (e.g. southern corn leaf blight pandemic)

7|Page CROP PRO 211

2. Non-selective resistance (horizontal resistance): little variability in the pest population’s

response to the resistance; weak or quantitative resistance; polygenical inheritance. e.g.

crucifer’s resistance to cabbage yellows (Fusarium oxysporun f. sp. conglutinans)

Advantage: durable and imposes low selection pressure on the pest population

Disadvantage: hard to identify and select in a breeding program (weak); difficult to isolate and

transfer (“masked” by strong resistance genes)

3. Regional deployment: strong, selective, single genes are used; useful for continental or

migratory or occasional pests

Advantage: relies on strong genes that are available and not readily defeated by target strain or

race

Disadvantage: requires strict regulation of seed distribution and breeding programs to prevent a

given gene for resistance from being deployed outside its assigned region

4. Pyramiding: combining several different strong, selective, single (vertical) genes into a single

cultivar

Advantage: very low probability that the pest overcomes the resistance gene

Disadvantage: necessary to test crop lines against pest under all possible factors; marker

assisted selection is an option to exposing crop lines to different pest pressures

5. Multi-line, synthetic hybrids and cultivar combinations: combining resistance genes in a mixed

population to reduce selection pressure

Advantage: synthesized from existing resistance genes; include simple physical mixing of seeds

from lines with different genes for resistance; blend of the genes can be manipulated

Disadvantage: considerable breeding effort required to create them

Breeding methods

1. Self-pollinated crops

Inbreeding: mating of individuals related by ancestry; leads to production of homozygous

individuals (Inbreds)

8|Page CROP PRO 211

 Selfing: mating with oneself; most intense form of inbreeding hence approach to

homozygosity is fastest

full sibbing: crossing between members of selected pairs of plants; full sibs have both

parents in common

half sibbing: crossing one individual with several identified ones; half sibs have one common

parent or pollen source

2. Cross-pollinated crops

Topcross: cross between an inbred and an open-pollinated variety

Backcross: a cross between a hybrid and one of its parents; also repeated backcrossing of

the F1 (first generation offspring of a cross) and the subsequent generations to the recurrent

parent usually to transfer a major trait controlled by one or a few genes from the donor and the

recipient parents

Polycross: open pollination in isolation among a number of selected genotypes arranged in a

manner that promotes random mating

Reciprocal cross: mating of two individuals in which each is used as the male parent in one

cross and the female parent on the other

 Intraspecific cross: crossing individuals belonging to the same species, ex. Variety x

variety cross

Wide or distant cross: crossing distantly-related individuals

Interspecific: crossing individuals belonging to different species

Intergeneric: crossing individuals belonging to different genera

• Introgressive hybridization: repeatedly backcrossing interspecific hybrids to one of the parental

species leading to the transfer of some genes from one species to another

9|Page CROP PRO 211

3. Biotechnology: (broad definition) refers to the use of living organisms or their components to

provide useful products. e.g. making wine, beer, or bread; composting organic materials;

releasing parasitic wasps to control insect pests; breeding plants or animals; and producing

crops and livestock.

Recombinant DNA techniques

allow the specific identification, isolation and alteration of genes and their reintroduction into

living organisms to produce transgenic varieties; supplementing and extending traditional

breeding methods

Recombinant DNA and transformation techniques allow plant breeders to use genes from

essentially any source as tools for crop improvement.

Transgenic plant methods enable these four well characterized genes to be inserted into a

transgenic plant, producing a highly specific change in only the trait of interest.

Year 1996 to 2001: global production area for transgenic crops (e.g. soybean, cotton, corn

and canola) increased from 0 to 50 million hectares

Examples of transgenic crops, broadly known as genetically modified organisms or GMO:

Calgene’s Flavr Savr tomato (Left tomato): first

commercial food product derived from a
transgenic crop variety; commercialized in year
1994 (presently no longer available in the
market); This tomato does not rot even when
riped in the plant but problems arised with
physical damages due to handling
(postharvest).

GoldenRice: accumulation of beta-carotene

(which is converted into vitamin A when
consumed by animals) in rice grains: scientists
used genes from daffodil, pea, a bacterium, and
a virus. Ordinary rice is white but golden rice is
golden or yellow in color (shown in the picture
at the right).

10 | P a g e C R O P P R O 2 1 1