CELL DIVISION

MITOSIS

The G1, S, and G2 phases make up interphase, and the M phase represents cell
division. Cell division includes division of the nucleus, called mitosis, and division of the
cytoplasm, called cytokinesis.

Mitosis is further broken down into four phases: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and
telophase.

 Prophase is the longest phase of mitosis. Prophase is when chromatin begins to

condense into the shape of chromosomes, and the nucleolus disappears. The
previously replicated DNA coils tightly into sister chromatids. For the first time,
you see individual chromosomes. In the center of each chromosome, a
centromere attaches the sister chromatids together. Meanwhile, in the
cytoplasm, microtubules known as spindle fibers begin to fan out from two sets
of paired structures called centrioles. The spindle fibers elongate as the
centrioles begin moving to opposite sides, or poles, of the cell. While this is
happening, the nuclear membrane surrounding the nucleus disappears. Now that
chromosomes are no longer separated from the cytoplasm, the opposite ends of
the spindle fibers can attach to the centromeres.
 Next, the cell enters metaphase. The centrioles complete their movement to
the poles of the cell while the spindle fibers line up the chromosomes along the
equator of the cell. The end-to-end alignment of chromosomes results in a sister
chromatid on either side of the equator.
 Anaphase follows metaphase. During anaphase, spindle fibers separate the
sister chromatids at their centromere. Once separated from each other, each
chromatid is called a chromosome. The single-stranded chromosomes form a V
shape as the spindle fibers shorten and drag them through the gel-like
cytoplasm. The chromosomes move to opposite poles of the cell toward their
 centrioles. It's common to confuse centrioles with centromeres which connect
chromatids. Remember, centrioles are at the poles.
 Telophase is the final stage of mitosis. In telophase, a nuclear membrane re-
forms around each set of chromosomes. Then the chromosomes spread out into
chromatin, and the nucleolus becomes visible once again. Mitosis, the division of
the nucleus, is now complete.

The final step of the M phase is cytokinesis, the division of the cytoplasm. In
animal cells, cytokinesis occurs through the inward movement of the cell membrane.
This progressively pinches the cytoplasm until two identical daughter cells form. In
contrast, plant cells can't pinch in two because they have a rigid cell wall surrounding
their cell membrane. Instead, cell wall material assembles along the equator forming a
structure called the cell plate. The cell plate grows until it joins with the existing cell
membrane, separating the two halves of the cell into daughter cells. Over time, new cell
walls form between the two daughter cells. Here are the key points to remember.
The M phase is the fourth and final phase of the cell cycle. During the M phase,
cell division occurs through two processes: mitosis, when the nucleus divides, and
cytokinesis, when the cytoplasm divides. Mitosis has four phases. During prophase,
chromatin condenses into chromosomes, spindle fibers form, and the nucleolus and
nuclear membrane disappear. During metaphase, spindle fibers align the chromosomes
along the cell equator. In anaphase, the spindle fibers separate sister chromatids into
two separate groups of chromosomes, pulling them toward the poles. And in telophase,
the nucleolus and nuclear membrane re-form. The chromosomes disperse into
chromatin. Cytokinesis is division of the cytoplasm.
The M phase is complete after cytokinesis occurs. The M phase of the cell cycle
always results in two daughter cells. Both of these daughter cells are identical to each
other and identical to the original cell that underwent mitosis.
 MEIOSIS
Meiosis, sometimes called reduction division, is the type of cell division that
produces gametes. By gametes, we mean sex cells such as sperm cells in males and
egg cells in females.
Meiosis is broken down into two stages of cell division called meiosis I and
meiosis II. Meiosis I has four phases: prophase I, metaphase I, anaphase I, and
telophase I.
And meiosis II also has four phases: prophase II, metaphase II, anaphase II, and
telophase II.
Let's look at what happens during meiosis I.
Prophase I starts with a diploid cell. Its chromatin contains two uncoiled, spread
out sets of chromosomes, one from each parent. After the DNA in the chromatin
replicates, it condenses into the more familiar X-shaped chromosomes. The replicated
DNA is the same in the identical sister chromatids of each chromosome.
In a process called synapsis, each chromosome pairs up with and binds to its
corresponding homologous chromosome, forming a tetrad. A tetrad is the group of four
sister chromatids in paired homologous chromosomes. The chromosomes contain
genetic information called genes. These genes were inherited from each parent, and
different versions of the same gene on each chromosome are called alleles. In a
process called crossing over, chromatids from each homologous chromosome exchange
segments of alleles. Also called recombination, crossing over randomly happens on
every chromosome, resulting in different gene combinations. This explains why every
gamete is genetically different from every other gamete. Crossing over results in
genetic variety in offspring. This is why children are different from their biological
parents, as well as from their biological siblings. Continuing on with prophase I, the
nuclear membrane disappears, the centrioles move to opposite ends of the cell, and
spindle fibers fan out from them. Next, in metaphase I, the homologous
chromosomes line up at the equator and attach to spindle fibers from opposite poles.
During anaphase I, spindle fibers separate the homologous chromosomes in each
tetrad and pull them to opposite poles of the cell. The cell enters telophase I with one
chromosome from each homologous pair at separate poles. However, each
chromosome still consists of sister chromatids. Keep in mind that each chromosome's
sister chromatids are no longer identical because of the allele exchange that happened
during crossing over. Then spindle fibers disappear and the nuclear membrane re-forms
around the chromosomes. Finally, cytokinesis occurs. Meiosis I ends with two
genetically different haploid daughter cells. Each haploid cell contains only one set of
chromosomes consisting of paired sister chromatids. Both cells now enter the next
stage, meiosis II.
However, unlike meiosis I, DNA does not replicate before meiosis II begins. Once
again, in prophase II, the nuclear membrane disappears, and spindle fibers fan out
from the two sets of paired centrioles. During metaphase II, the chromosomes in
each cell line up at the equator and attach to spindle fibers from both poles. During
anaphase II, the sister chromatids of each chromosome separate and move to
opposite poles. Once the sister chromatids separate, they are called chromosomes.
Finally, during telophase II, the spindle fibers disappear, and nuclear membranes re-
form, and cytokinesis occurs in both cells.
Meiosis II ends with four genetically different haploid daughter cells, each
containing only one set of chromosomes. Some key points to remember about meiosis.
It begins with a diploid cell. Meiosis only produces gametes. Gametes are genetically
different haploid cells, sperm cells in males and eggs in females. Meiosis has two stages
of cell division called meiosis I and meiosis II.
During meiosis I, homologous chromosomes separate to produce two haploid
cells, each containing chromosomes in the form of paired sister chromatids. In meiosis
II, the sister chromatids separate in both cells, becoming individual chromosomes.
Cytokinesis of these cells produces four genetically different haploid gametes.
And here are some key points to remember about prophase I. The pairing of
homologous chromosomes called synapsis occurs. Each pair of homologous
chromosomes, consisting of four chromatids, is called a tetrad. During the process of
crossing over, chromosomes in homologous pairs exchange segments of alleles.
Crossing over results in genetic differences in gametes. All gametes produced by
meiosis are haploid.