Practical Research

NATURE OF INQUIRY AND RESEARCH

Research is defined as the scientific

investigation of phenomena which includes
collection, presentation, analysis and interpretation
of facts that links an individual’s speculation with
reality. In other words, research is the systematic
study of trend and event which involves careful
collection, presentation, analysis and interpretation
of quantitative data or facts that relates man’s
thinking with reality.

The research process is, for many of us, just the way we do things. We research
the best buys in cars and appliances, we research book reviews before shopping for
books, we research the best schools for our children and ourselves, and we probably
perform some kind of research in our jobs. Our search for information may lead us to
interview friends or other knowledgeable people; read articles in magazines, journals,
or newspapers; listen to the radio; search an encyclopedia on CD-ROM; and even
explore the Internet and World Wide Web for information. We use our local public
libraries and our school libraries.

Research can be a way of life; it is the basis for many of the important decisions
in our lives. Without it, we are deluged with information, subjected to the claims of
advertisers, or influenced by hearsay in making sense of the world around us. This
informal, experiential research helps us decipher the flood of information we encounter
daily.

Formal academic research differs from experiential research and may be more
investigative in nature. For example, it may require us to learn about an area in which
we have little knowledge or inclination to learn. It may be library-oriented or field-
oriented, depending on the nature of the research.

Academic research, like the everyday research we do, is associated with

curiosity and intellectual discovery. The writing associated with academic research is
demanding and challenging, with a methodology and discipline all its own. Although
many of the concepts and processes of research are generic, academic research is

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discipline-specific and demands a more rigorous methodology. This chapter

presents the methodology of academic research, many of the generic processes of
research writing, and suggestions for applying the concepts to various disciplines. The
chapter ends with a brief look at the structure of a research paper.

IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH

Research studies these days are gaining an unprecedented focus and attention.
A researchable area in any academic discipline is an area that has an ample scope to
be explored. If the scope in itself poses some potential problems that need to be
answered, a research methodology offers solutions for dealing with them effectively.
The very path one traverses in search of authentic solutions to a specific academic
problem constitutes what we call ‘research’. This research question posed by the
researcher and the methodology that he adopts to get solutions is the most valuable
part of the research work.

Research is important because it gives direction to deal with a specific problem.

Whether the problem is thoroughly solved or not is not the forte of the research work.
Accumulating amicable and all the possible solutions hypothetically are in itself
considered a commendable achievement.

VALUES OF RESEARCH TO MAN

1. Research improves the quality of life.

2. Research improves instruction.
3. Research improves students’ achievement.
4. Research improves teacher’s competence.
5. Research satisfies man’s needs.
6. Research reduces the burden of work.
7. Research has deep-seated psychological aspects.
8. Research improves the exportation of food products.
9. Research responds to the economic recovery and austerity measure of the
country.
10. Research trains graduates to become responsive to the economic development
of the country and to compete globally.

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CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH

1. Empirical. Research is based on direct experience or observation by the

researcher. The collection of data relies on practical experience without giving
consideration to scientific knowledge or theory.

2. Logical. Research is based on valid procedures and principles. Scientific study is

done in an orderly manner so that the investigator has confidence on the results.
Systematic examination of the procedures used in the research enables the
investigator to draw valid conclusions.

3. Cyclical. Research is a cyclical process because it starts with a problem and ends
with a problem. for instance, an investigator who completes his study states his
findings and draws up his conclusions and recommendations.
4. Analytical. Research utilizes proven analytical procedures in gathering the data,
whether historical, descriptive, experimental and case study. In historical research,
the data gathered focus in the past; in descriptive research, the study focuses on
the present situation; experimental, future; and case study, past, present, and
future.

5. Critical. Research exhibits careful and precise judgment. A higher level of

confidence must be established. For instance, 1.0 percent or 5.0 percent level of
confidence may be scientifically utilized to test the research hypothesis.

6. Methodical. Research is conducted in a methodical manner without bias using

systematic method and procedures. For instance, if the researcher’s study is
experimental research with two variables, control and experimental groups, hence,
he uses two-group design; if three or more variables, parallel-group design.

7. Replicability. The research design and procedures are replicated or repeated to

enable the researcher to arrive at valid and conclusive results. Similarities and
differences of replicated researches can be compared. Replicability of the study
means using the same instrument, method, and procedure but different subjects
and venues.

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PROCESSES OF RESEARCH

Step 1: Identify the Problem

The first step in the process is to identify a problem or develop a research question.
The research problem may be something the agency identifies as a problem, some
knowledge or information that is needed by the agency, or the desire to identify a
recreation trend nationally.

Step 2: Review the Literature

Now that the problem has been identified, the researcher must learn more about the
topic under investigation. To do this, the researcher must review the literature related
to the research problem. This step provides foundational knowledge about the problem
area. The review of literature also educates the researcher about what studies have
been conducted in the past, how these studies were conducted, and the conclusions in
the problem area.

Step 3: Clarify the Problem

Many times the initial problem identified in the first step of the process is too large or
broad in scope. In step 3 of the process, the researcher clarifies the problem and
narrows the scope of the study. This can only be done after the literature has been
reviewed. The knowledge gained through the review of literature guides the researcher
in clarifying and narrowing the research project.

Step 4: Clearly Define Terms and Concepts

Terms and concepts are words or phrases used in the purpose statement of the study
or the description of the study. These items need to be specifically defined as they
apply to the study. Terms or concepts often have different definitions depending on
who is reading the study. To minimize confusion about what the terms and phrases
mean, the researcher must specifically define them for the study.

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Step 5: Define the Population

Research projects can focus on a specific group of people, facilities, park

development, employee evaluations, programs, financial status, marketing efforts, or
the integration of technology into the operations. For example, if a researcher wants to
examine a specific group of people in the community, the study could examine a
specific age group, males or females, people living in a specific geographic area, or a
specific ethnic group. Literally thousands of options are available to the researcher to
specifically identify the group to study.

Step 6: Develop the Instrumentation Plan

The plan for the study is referred to as the instrumentation plan. The instrumentation
plan serves as the road map for the entire study, specifying who will participate in the
study; how, when, and where data will be collected; and the content of the program.
This plan is composed of numerous decisions and considerations that are addressed
in chapter 8 of this text. The group of participants is called the sample, which is a
smaller group selected from the population specified for the study. The study cannot
possibly include every 10- to 12-year-old child in the community, so a smaller group is
used to represent the population.

Step 7: Collect Data

Once the instrumentation plan is completed, the actual study begins with the collection
of data. The collection of data is a critical step in providing the information needed to
answer the research question. Every study includes the collection of some type of
data—whether it is from the literature or from subjects—to answer the research
question. Data can be collected in the form of words on a survey, with a questionnaire,
through observations, or from the literature.

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Step 8: Analyze the Data

All the time, effort, and resources dedicated to steps 1 through 7 of the research
process culminate in this final step. The researcher finally has data to analyze so that
the research question can be answered. In the instrumentation plan, the researcher
specified how the data will be analyzed. The researcher now analyzes the data
according to the plan. The results of this analysis are then reviewed and summarized
in a manner directly related to the research questions. Then, the data will be analyzed
to determine if the differences are statistically significant. If the differences are
statistically significant, the study validates the theory that was the focus of the study.
The results of the study also provide valuable information about one strategy to combat
childhood obesity in the community.

ETHICS IN RESEARCH

1. Honesty
Strive for honesty in all scientific communications. Honestly report data, results,
methods and procedures, and publication status. Do not fabricate, falsify, or
misrepresent data. Do not deceive colleagues, research sponsors, or the public.

2. Objectivity
Strive to avoid bias in experimental design, data analysis, data interpretation, peer
review, personnel decisions, grant writing, expert testimony, and other aspects of
research where objectivity is expected or required. Avoid or minimize bias or self-
deception. Disclose personal or financial interests that may affect research.

3. Integrity
Keep your promises and agreements; act with sincerity; strive for consistency of
thought and action.

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4. Carefulness
Avoid careless errors and negligence; carefully and critically examine your own
work and the work of your peers. Keep good records of research activities, such as
data collection, research design, and correspondence with agencies or journals.

5. Openness
Share data, results, ideas, tools, resources. Be open to criticism and new ideas.

6. Respect for Intellectual Property

Honor patents, copyrights, and other forms of intellectual property. Do not use
unpublished data, methods, or results without permission. Give proper
acknowledgement or credit for all contributions to research. Never plagiarize.

7. Confidentiality
Protect confidential communications, such as papers or grants submitted for
publication, personnel records, trade or military secrets, and patient records.

8. Responsible Publication
Publish in order to advance research and scholarship, not to advance just your own
career. Avoid wasteful and duplicative publication.

9. Responsible Mentoring
Help to educate, mentor, and advise students. Promote their welfare and allow them
to make their own decisions.

10. Respect for colleagues

Respect your colleagues and treat them fairly.

11. Social Responsibility

Strive to promote social good and prevent or mitigate social harms through
research, public education, and advocacy.

12. Non-Discrimination
Avoid discrimination against colleagues or students on the basis of sex, race,
ethnicity, or other factors not related to scientific competence and integrity.
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13. Competence
Maintain and improve your own professional competence and expertise through
lifelong education and learning; take steps to promote competence in science as a
whole.

14. Legality
Know and obey relevant laws and institutional and governmental policies.

15. Human Subjects Protection

When conducting research on human subjects, minimize harms and risks and
maximize benefits; respect human dignity, privacy, and autonomy; take special
precautions with vulnerable populations; and strive to distribute the benefits and
burdens of research fairly.

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE RESEARCHER

1. Intellectual Curiosity. A researcher undertakes a deep thinking and inquiry of the

things, and situations around him.

2. Prudence. The researcher is careful to conduct his research study at the right time
and at the right place wisely, efficiently, and economically.

3. Healthy Criticism. The researcher is always doubtful as to the truthfulness of the

results.

4. Intellectual Honesty. An intelligent researcher is honest to collect or gather data or

facts in order to arrive at honest results.

5. Intellectual Creativity. A productive and resourceful investigator always creates

new researches.

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QUANTITATIVE and QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Qualitative Research is primarily exploratory research. It is used to gain an

understanding of underlying reasons, opinions, and motivations. It provides insights
into the problem or helps to develop ideas or hypotheses for potential quantitative
research. Qualitative Research is also used to uncover trends in thought and opinions,
and dive deeper into the problem. Qualitative data collection methods vary using
unstructured or semi-structured techniques. Some common methods include focus
groups (group discussions), individual interviews, and participation/observations. The
sample size is typically small, and respondents are selected to fulfill a given quota.

Quantitative Research is used to quantify the problem by way of generating

numerical data or data that can be transformed into useable statistics. It is used to
quantify attitudes, opinions, behaviors, and other defined variables – and generalize
results from a larger sample population. Quantitative Research uses measurable data
to formulate facts and uncover patterns in research. Quantitative data collection
methods are much more structured than Qualitative data collection methods.
Quantitative data collection methods include various forms of surveys – online surveys,
paper surveys, mobile surveys and kiosk surveys, face-to-face interviews, telephone
interviews, longitudinal studies, website interceptors, online polls, and systematic
observations.

The main differences between quantitative and qualitative research consist in respect
to data sample, data collection, data analysis, and last but not least in regard to
outcomes.

Data collection in qualitative research is seldom based on unstructured or semi-

structured, but methodologically flexible techniques, e.g. individual depth interviews or
group discussions, that are suited to elicit great detail and a comprehensive view.
Quantitative research uses highly structured, rigid techniques such as online
questionnaires, on-street or telephone interviews. Unlike qualitative research, which

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allows unlimited expression from respondents, quantitative research relies responses

to pre-formulated questions.

Outcomes: Qualitative research typically is exploratory and/or investigative in nature.

Its findings are often not conclusive and cannot automatically be used to make
generalizations. However, it is indispensable in developing a deep understanding of a
given thematic complex and sound rationale for further decision making. Quantitative
research is essential for providing a broad base of insight on which typically a final
course of action is recommended.

KINDS OF RESEARCH

1. Basic Research. This is also called as “fundamental research” or “pure research”. It

seeks to discover basic truths or principles. It is intended to add to the body of
scientific knowledge by exploring the unknown to extend the boundaries of
knowledge as well as to discover new facts , and learn more accurately the
characteristics of known without any particular thought as to immediate usefulness
or value to man.

Examples:

 Boyle’s Law
 Charles’ Law
 Archimedes’ Principle
 Hooke’s Law
 Newton’s Law

2. Applied Research. This type of research involves seeking new applications of

scientific knowledge to the solution of a problem, such as a development of a new
system or procedure, new device, or new method in order to solve the problem. In
this type of research, the problem is identified and a new system or new method is
applied in order to solve the problem.

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3. Developmental Research. This is a decision-oriented research involving the

application of the steps of the scientific method in response to an immediate need to
improve existing practices. This process involves practitioners who study a certain
problem from such experience draw their decisions and development as well as
evaluation.

CLASSIFICATIONS OF RESEARCH
1. Library Research. This is done in the library where answers to specific questions
or problems of the study are available. The historical method of research lends itself
to library research because the study is focused on the past and much of the
secondary sources are found in the library.

2. Field Research. Here, research is conducted in a natural setting. No changes in the

environment are mad. Field research is both applicable to descriptive survey and
experimental methods.

3. Laboratory Research. The research is conducted in artificial or controlled

conditions by isolating the study in a thoroughly specified and equipped area. The
purposes are: (1) to test hypotheses derived from theory, (2) to control variance
under research conditions, and (3) to discover the relations between the dependent
and the independent. Laboratory research is applicable to experimental.
Descriptive, and case study methods.

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QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

THE VALUE OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Qualitative research methods are able to explore the complexity of human

behavior and generate deeper understanding of illness behaviors and therapeutic
interactions. Nevertheless, there is still a sense of distrust of qualitative research,
related to the challenge of evaluating both the quality and usefulness of findings
derived through qualitative methods. This discussion paper explores these issues. It
examines some of the most frequently used techniques aimed at ensuring quality and
value in qualitative research, such as sampling, triangulation, multiple coding,
respondent validation and the use of audit trails, as well as addressing reflexivity.
Because of the pluralistic and interactive nature of qualitative inquiry, the criteria used
to judge quality need to be appropriate to each piece of research and should provide
evidence to help readers to evaluate the calibre of the study and its relevance to their
own area of work.
Understanding the “why” requires a lot of time and resources but is an important
element for any marketing or advertising strategy. It’s only when a researcher
immerses himself or herself in the project, understands the industry and the market
dynamics, and develops a feel for consumers’ needs and drivers that the “why” will
uncover real opportunities — not just fancy pictures or quotes. And these new
opportunities often give the organization a competitive advantage.

KINDS OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

1. Ethnography

Ethnographic research is probably the most familiar and applicable type of qualitative
method to UX professionals. In ethnography, you immerse yourself in the target
participants' environment to understand the goals, cultures, challenges, motivations,
and themes that emerge. Ethnography has its roots in cultural anthropology where
researchers immerse themselves within a culture, often for years! Rather than relying
on interviews or surveys, you experience the environment first hand, and sometimes
as a "participant observer."

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2. Narrative

The narrative approach weaves together a sequence of events, usually from just one
or two individuals to form a cohesive story. You conduct in-depth interviews, read
documents, and look for themes; in other words, how does an individual story illustrate
the larger life influences that created it. Often interviews are conducted over weeks,
months, or even years, but the final narrative doesn't need to be in chronological order.
Rather it can be presented as a story (or narrative) with themes, and can reconcile
conflicting stories and highlight tensions and challenges which can be opportunities for
innovation.

3. Phenomenological

When you want to describe an event, activity, or phenomenon, the aptly named
phenomenological study is an appropriate qualitative method. In a phenomenological
study, you use a combination of methods, such as conducting interviews, reading
documents, watching videos, or visiting places and events, to understand the meaning
participants place on whatever's being examined. You rely on the participants' own
perspectives to provide insight into their motivations.

4. Grounded Theory

Whereas a phenomenological study looks to describe the essence of an activity or

event, grounded theory looks to provide an explanation or theory behind the events.
You use primarily interviews and existing documents to build a theory based on the
data. You go through a series of open and axial coding techniques to identify themes
and build the theory.

5. Case Study

Made famous by the Harvard Business School, even mainly quantitative researchers
can relate to the value of the case study in explaining an organization, entity, company,
or event. A case study involves a deep understanding through multiple types of data
sources. Case studies can be explanatory, exploratory, or describing an event. The
annual CHI conference has a peer-reviewed track dedicated to case studies.
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CHARACTERISTICS OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

1. Absence of “truth” – With all the emphasis in qualitative research on reality and
the human condition, it might be expected that qualitative inquiry is in the business
of garnering “the truth” from participants. Instead of “truth,” the qualitative
researcher collects information from which some level of knowledge can be gained.

2. Importance of context – A relevant factor in the elusiveness of “truth” is the central

and significant role context plays in qualitative research.

3. Importance of meaning –Qualitative researchers derive meaning from the data by

way of multiple sources, evaluating any number of variables such as: the context,
the language, the impact of the participant-researcher relationship, the potential for
participant bias, and the potential for researcher bias.

4. Researcher-as-instrument – Along with the emphases on context, meaning, and

the potential for researcher subjectivity, qualitative research is distinguished by the
fact it places the researcher at the center of the data-gathering phase and, indeed,
the researcher is the instrument by which information is collected.

5. Participant-researcher relationship – Closely associated with the idea that the

researcher is the tool by which data are gathered is the important function of the
participant-researcher relationship in qualitative research and its impact on research
outcomes.

6. Skill set required of the researcher – Qualitative research requires a unique set of
skills from the researcher, skills that go beyond the usual qualities of organization,
attention to detail, and analytical abilities that are necessary for all researchers.
Techniques to build rapport with participants and active listening skills are only two
examples.

7. Flexibility of the research design – A defining characteristic of qualitative

research is the flexibility built into the research design. For instance, it is not until a
focus group moderator is actually in a group discussion that he or she understands
which topical areas to pursue more than others or the specific follow-up (probing)
questions to interject.

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8. Types of issues or questions effectively addressed by qualitative research –

Qualitative research is uniquely suited to address research issues or questions that
might be difficult, if not impossible, to investigate under more structured, less flexible
research designs.

9. Messy analysis and inductive approach –Without a doubt, qualitative research

analysis is messy. The analysis of qualitative data does not follow a straight line,
where point ‘A’ leads to point ‘B’, but rather is a multi-layered, involved process that
continually builds upon itself until a meaningful and verifiable interpretation is
achieved.

10. Unique capabilities of online and mobile qualitative research – Online and
mobile technology offer unique enhancements to qualitative research design. In
large part, this technology has shifted the balance of power from the researcher to
the online or mobile participant who is given greater control of the research process
by way of more flexibility, convenience, and ways to respond in greater detail and
depth to the researcher’s questions.

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USES OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

1. New product idea generation and development

2. Investigating current or potential product/service/brand positioning and

marketing strategy

3. Strengths and weaknesses of products/brands

4. Understanding dynamics of purchase decision dynamics

5. Studying reactions to advertising and public relations campaigns, other

marketing communications, graphic identity/branding, package design, etc.

6. Exploring market segments, such as demographic and customer groups

7. Studying emotions and attitudes on societal and public affairs issues

8. Assessing the usability of websites or other interactive products or services

9. Understanding perceptions of a company, brand, category and product

10. Determining consumer language as a preliminary step to develop a

quantitative survey

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STRENGTHS OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

 Useful for studying a limited number of cases in depth
 Useful for describing complex phenomena
 Provides individual case information
 Can conduct cross-case comparisons and analysis
 The researcher can use the primarily qualitative method of grounded theory to
inductively
 generate a tentative but explanatory theory about a phenomenon
 Can determine how participants interpret constructs (e.g., self-esteem, IQ)
 Data are usually collected in naturalistic settings in qualitative research
 Qualitative data in the words and categories of participants lend themselves to
exploring
 how and why phenomena occur

WEAKNESSES OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

 Knowledge produced might not generalize to other people or other settings (i.e.,
findings
 might be unique to the relatively few people included in the research study).
 It is difficult to make quantitative predictions.
 It is more difficult to test hypotheses and theories with large participant pools.
 It might have lower credibility with some administrators and commissioners of
programs.
 It generally takes more time to collect the data when compared to quantitative
research.
 Data analysis is often time consuming.
 The results are more easily influenced by the researcher’s personal biases and
 Idiosyncrasies

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IDENTIFYING THE INQUIRY AND STATING THE PROBLEM

CREATING A WORKING TITLE

The title is without doubt the part of a paper that is read the most, and it is usually
read first. If the title is too long, this usually indicates there are too many unnecessary
words. Avoid language, such as, "A Study to Investigate the...," this is obvious or it
does not help the reader understand the purpose of your paper. On the other hand, a
title which is too short often uses words which are too general and does not tell the
reader what is being studied. For example, a paper with the title, "African Politics" is so
non-specific it could be the title of a book. A good title will provide information about the
focus of your research study.

CHARACTERISTICS OF EFFECTIVE TITLE

 Indicate accurately the subject and scope of the study,

 Rarely use abbreviations unless they are commonly known,
 Use words that create a positive impression and stimulate reader interest,
 Use current nomenclature from the field of study,
 Identify key variables, both dependent and independent,
 May reveal how the paper will be organized,
 Suggest a relationship between variables which supports the major hypothesis,
 Is limited to 10 to 15 substantive words,
 Does not include redundant phrasing, such as, "A study of," "An analysis of" or
similar constructions,
 May be in the form of a question or declarative statement,
 If you use a quote as part of the title, the source of the quote is cited [usually
using an asterisk and footnote],
 Use correct grammar and capitalization with all first words and last words
capitalized, including the first word of a subtitle. All nouns, pronouns, verbs,
adjectives, and adverbs that appear between the first and last words of the title
are also capitalized, and
 Rarely uses an exclamation mark at the end of the title.

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TIPS IN WRITING A RESEARCH TITLE

1. Keep it simple, brief and attractive: The primary function of a title is to provide a
precise summary of the paper’s content. So keep the title brief and clear. Use active
verbs instead of complex noun-based phrases, and avoid unnecessary details.
Moreover, a good title for a research paper is typically around 10 to 12 words long.
A lengthy title may seem unfocused and take the readers’ attention away from an
important point.

2. Use appropriate descriptive words: A good research paper title should contain key
words used in the manuscript and should define the nature of the study. Think about
terms people would use to search for your study and include them in your title.
3. Avoid abbreviations and jargon: Known abbreviations such as AIDS, NATO, and so
on can be used in the title. However, other lesser-known or specific abbreviations
and jargon that would not be immediately familiar to the readers should be left out.

STATING RESEARCH QUESTIONS

It's absolutely essential to develop a research question that you're interested in
or care about in order to focus your research and your paper (unless, of course, your
instructor gives you a very specific assignment). For example, researching a broad
topic such as "business management" is difficult since there may be hundreds of
sources on all aspects of business management. On the other hand, a focused
question such as "What are the pros and cons of Japanese management style?" is
easier to research and can be covered more fully and in more depth.

1. Researchers should begin by identifying a broader subject of interest that lends

itself to investigation. For example, a researcher may be interested in childhood
obesity.

2. The next step is to do preliminary research on the general topic to find out what
research has already been done and what literature already exists. How much
research has been done on childhood obesity? What types of studies? Is there a
unique area that yet to be investigated or is there a particular question that may be
worth replicating?

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3. Then begin to narrow the topic by asking open-ended "how" and "why" questions.
For example, a researcher may want to consider the factors that are contributing to
childhood obesity or the success rate of intervention programs. Create a list of
potential questions for consideration and choose one that interests you and
provides an opportunity for exploration.

4. Finally, evaluate the question by using the following list of guidelines:

 Is the research question one that is of interest to the researcher and potentially to
others? Is it a new issue or problem that needs to be solved or is it attempting to
shed light on previously researched topic.
 Is the research question researchable? Consider the available time frame and
the required resources. Is the methodology to conduct the research feasible?
 Is the research question measureable and will the process produce data that can
be supported or contradicted?
 Is the research question too broad or too narrow?

SCOPE AND DELIMITATION OF RESEARCH

Scope and delimitations of the study is an important section of a thesis,

dissertation, and research paper. This includes the coverage of the study area, the
subjects, the research apparatus, equipment or instrument, the research issues and
concerns, the duration of the study, and the constraints that have direct bearing on the
result of the study.

BENEFITS AND BENEFICIARIES OF RESEARCH

The benefits of the study in the study in the research paper, thesis, dissertation,
or research project is a must. For a research project seeking for financial assistance
from other agencies, significance of the study is presented comprehensively to
convince the screening committee the importance of the study.

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The researcher should prove that the study has important contributions in relation to:

a. Solving the problem and need

b. Bridging a knowledge gap
c. Improving social, economic and health conditions
d. Enriching research instruments, methods and strategies
e. Supporting government thrusts

STATEMENT OF RESEARCH PROBLEM

There are five factors to consider to determine whether that a problem is

researchable or not. These factors are:
1. the problem is existing in the locality or country but no known solution to the
problem;
2. the solution can be answered by using statistical methods and techniques;
3. there are probable solutions but they are not yet tested;
4. the occurrence of phenomena requires scientific investigation to arrive at precise
solution; and
5. serious needs/problems of the people where it demands research.

Characteristics of Research Problem

Generally speaking, whether a research problem is historical, descriptive,

experimental or case study, the characteristics of a research problem has the acronym
SMART – Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Realistic, and Time bound. This means
that a research problem should be:

1. Specific. The problem should be specifically stated. For instance, for experimental
research, “What is the mean growth increment of Eucheuma cultured in municipal
waters of Estancia, Iloilo, Philippines using lantay and hanging methods?” For
descriptive research, “What is the mean performance of teachers in the city and
province of Iloilo, Philippines?”

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2. Measurable. It is easy to measure by using research instruments, apparatus, or

equipment. For example, in experimental research, the equipment and apparatus
used in collecting data on the cultivation of Eucheuma using lantay and hanging
methods are weighing scale to get the weight of seaweed; refractometer, salinity of
water; thermometer, temperature of water; DO meter, dissolved oxygen of water;
and pH meter, acidity of water. For descriptive research, the instruments used in
gathering of data are questionnaires, tests, checklists and many others.

3. Achievable. The data are achievable using correct statistical tools to arrive at
precise results. For example, t-test is the appropriate statistical tool used in the
specific problem “Is there a significant difference on the mean growth increment of
Eucheuma cultured in municipal waters of Estancia, Iloilo, Philippines, using lantay
and hanging methods?” For descriptive research, Friedman’s two-way ANOVA is
the statistical tool used to determine the significant difference of the achievement
and nutritional intake of teacher education students who reside at home and
boarding houses.

4. Realistic. Real results are attained because they are gathered scientifically and not
manipulated or maneuvered.

5. Time-bound. Time frame is required in every activity because the shorter

completion of the activity, the better.

LEARNING FROM OTHERS AND REVIEWING THE LITERATURE

Criteria in selecting literature

1. Selecting the Literature

2. Have you clearly indicated the scope and purpose of the review?
3. Have you included a balanced coverage of what is available?
4. Have you included the most recent and relevant studies?
5. Have you included enough material to show the development and limitations in this
area?

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6. Have you indicated the source of the literature by referencing accurately?

7. Have you used mostly primary sources or appropriate secondary sources?

Critiquing Sources Found

1. Have you clearly (and logically) ordered and sorted the research, focusing on
themes or ideas rather than the authors?
2. Does the review move from broader concepts to a more specific focus?
3. Is there adequate critique of research limitations, including design and
methodology?
4. Are the studies compared and contrasted with controversies highlighted?
5. Is the relevance to your problem clear?
6. Summarizing & Interpreting
7. Have you made an overall interpretation of what is available?
8. Do the implications provide theoretical of empirical justification for your own
research questions/hypothesis?
9. Do the implications provide a rationale for your own research design?

Ethical Standards in Writing Related Literature

1. Honesty with professional colleagues

2. Report your findings with complete honesty.
3. Do not misrepresent, misinform, mislead, and/or intentionally misinterpret.
4. Give appropriate credit when using other people's work.
5. Avoid plagiarism by fully acknowledging all content belonging to others.
6. Researchers should not expose their participants to physical or psychological harm.
7. Participants should not be exposed to: unusual stress, embarrassment, or loss of
self-esteem as a result of their participation.
8. In case the study contains a certain amount of stress or psychological discomfort,
participants should be aware of it and explicitly express their consent to participate.
9. Right to Privacy
10. Researchers should protect the privacy of their participants.

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RELATED LITERATURE CITATION

1. APA (American Psychological Association) style is most frequently used within the
social sciences, in order to cite various sources. This APA Citation Guide, revised
according to the 6th edition of the APA manual, provides the general format for in-
text citations and the reference page. For more information, please consult the
Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, (6th ed.).
A. Short quotations

If you are directly quoting from a work, you will need to include the author, year of
publication, and the page number for the reference (preceded by "p."). Introduce the
quotation with a signal phrase that includes the author's last name followed by the date
of publication in parentheses.

According to Jones (1998), "Students often had difficulty using APA style,
especially when it was their first time" (p. 199).

If the author is not named in a signal phrase, place the author's last name, the year of
publication, and the page number in parentheses after the quotation.

She stated, "Students often had difficulty using APA style" (Jones, 1998, p. 199),
but she did not offer an explanation as to why.

B. Summary or paraphrase

If you are paraphrasing an idea from another work, you only have to make reference to
the author and year of publication in your in-text reference, but APA guidelines
encourage you to also provide the page number (although it is not required.)

According to Jones (1998), APA style is a difficult citation format for first-time
learners.

APA style is a difficult citation format for first-time learners (Jones, 1998, p. 199).

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C. Citing an Author or Authors

 A Work by Two Authors: Name both authors in the signal phrase or in the
parentheses each time you cite the work. Use the word "and" between the
authors' names within the text and use the ampersand in the parentheses.

Research by Wegener and Petty (1994)

supports....................................................................
……………………………………………………………………..(Wegener & Petty, 1994)

 A Work by Three to Five Authors: List all the authors in the signal phrase or in
parentheses the first time you cite the source. Use the word "and" between the
authors' names within the text and use the ampersand in the parentheses.

(Kernis, Cornell, Sun, Berry, & Harlow, 1993)

In subsequent citations, only use the first author's last name followed by "et al." in the
signal phrase or in parentheses.

(Kernis et al., 1993)

In et al., et should not be followed by a period.

 Organization as an Author: If the author is an organization or a government

agency, mention the organization in the signal phrase or in the parenthetical
citation the first time you cite the source.

According to the American Psychological Association (2000),...

If the organization has a well-known abbreviation, include the abbreviation in brackets

the first time the source is cited and then use only the abbreviation in later citations.

First citation: (Mothers Against Drunk Driving [MADD], 2000)

Second citation: (MADD, 2000)

 Two or More Works in the Same Parentheses: When your parenthetical

citation includes two or more works, order them the same way they appear in the
reference list (viz., alphabetically), separated by a semi-colon.

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(Berndt, 2002; Harlow, 1983)

 Authors With the Same Last Name: To prevent confusion, use first initials with
the last names.

(E. Johnson, 2001; L. Johnson, 1998)

 Two or More Works by the Same Author in the Same Year: If you have two
sources by the same author in the same year, use lower-case letters (a, b, c)
with the year to order the entries in the reference list. Use the lower-case letters
with the year in the in-text citation.

Research by Berndt (1981a) illustrated that...

 Personal Communication: For interviews, letters, e-mails, and other person-to-

person communication, cite the communicator's name, the fact that it was
personal communication, and the date of the communication. Do not include
personal communication in the reference list.

(E. Robbins, personal communication, January 4, 2001).

D. Citing Indirect Sources

If you use a source that was cited in another source, name the original source in your
signal phrase. List the secondary source in your reference list and include the
secondary source in the parentheses.

Johnson argued that...(as cited in Smith, 2003, p. 102).

Note: When citing material in parentheses, set off the citation with a comma, as above.
Also, try to locate the original material and cite the original source.

2. MLA (Modern Language Association) style is most commonly used to write papers
and cite sources within the liberal arts and humanities. This resource, updated to
reflect the MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers (7th ed.) and the MLA
Style Manual and Guide to Scholarly Publishing (3rd ed.), offers examples for the
general format of MLA research papers, in-text citations, endnotes/footnotes, and
the Works Cited page.

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A. In-text citations: Author-page style

MLA format follows the author-page method of in-text citation. This means that the
author's last name and the page number(s) from which the quotation or paraphrase is
taken must appear in the text, and a complete reference should appear on your Works
Cited page. The author's name may appear either in the sentence itself or in
parentheses following the quotation or paraphrase, but the page number(s) should
always appear in the parentheses, not in the text of your sentence.

Wordsworth stated that Romantic poetry was marked by a "spontaneous

overflow of powerful feelings" (263).

Romantic poetry is characterized by the "spontaneous overflow of powerful

feelings" (Wordsworth 263).

Wordsworth extensively explored the role of emotion in the creative process

(263).

B. In-text citations for print sources with known author

For Print sources like books, magazines, scholarly journal articles, and newspapers,
provide a signal word or phrase (usually the author’s last name) and a page number. If
you provide the signal word/phrase in the sentence, you do not need to include it in the
parenthetical citation.

Human beings have been described by Kenneth Burke as "symbol-using

animals" (3).

Human beings have been described as "symbol-using animals" (Burke 3).

C. In-text citations for print sources with no known author

When a source has no known author, use a shortened title of the work instead of an
author name. Place the title in quotation marks if it's a short work (such as an article) or
italicize it if it's a longer work (e.g. plays, books, television shows, entire Web sites) and
provide a page number.

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We see so many global warming hotspots in North America likely because this
region has "more readily accessible climatic data and more comprehensive
programs to monitor and study environmental change . . ." ("Impact of Global
Warming" 6).

D. Citing a work by multiple authors

For a source with three or fewer authors, list the authors' last names in the text or in
the parenthetical citation:

Smith, Yang, and Moore argue that tougher gun control is not needed in the
United States (76).

The authors state "Tighter gun control in the United States erodes Second
Amendment rights" (Smith, Yang, and Moore 76).

E. Short quotations

To indicate short quotations (fewer than four typed lines of prose or three lines of
verse) in your text, enclose the quotation within double quotation marks. Provide the
author and specific page citation (in the case of verse, provide line numbers) in the
text, and include a complete reference on the Works Cited page. Punctuation marks
such as periods, commas, and semicolons should appear after the parenthetical
citation. Question marks and exclamation points should appear within the quotation
marks if they are a part of the quoted passage but after the parenthetical citation if they
are a part of your text.

According to some, dreams express "profound aspects of personality" (Foulkes

184), though others disagree.

According to Foulkes's study, dreams may express "profound aspects of

personality" (184).

Is it possible that dreams may express "profound aspects of personality"

(Foulkes 184)?

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UNDERSTANDING DATA AND WAYS TO

SYSTEMATICALLY COLLECT DATA

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGN

A common feature of qualitative projects is that they aim to create understanding

from data as the analysis proceeds. This means that the research design of a
qualitative study differs from that of a study that starts with an understanding to be
tested, where often the hypothesis literally dictates the form, quantity, and scope of
required data. This sort of design preempts other ways of looking at the research
question.
Qualitative research is usually not preemptive. Whatever the study and whatever
the method, the indications of form, quantity, and scope must be obtained from the
question, from the chosen method, from the selected topic and goals, and also, in an
ongoing process, from the data. Thus research design is both challenging and
essential, yet it is the least discussed and least adequately critiqued component of
many qualitative projects. Freedom from a preemptive research design should never
be seen as release from a requirement to have a research design.

Basic Qualitative Research Characteristics

 Design is generally based on a social constructivism perspective.

 Research problems become research questions based on prior research
experience.
 Sample sizes can be as small as one.
 Data collection involves interview, observation, and/or archival (content) data.
 Interpretation is based on a combination of researcher perspective and data
collected.

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Data collection methods

Data Collection is an important aspect of any type of research study. Inaccurate
data collection can impact the results of a study and ultimately lead to invalid results.
Data collection methods for impact evaluation vary along a continuum. At the one end
of this continuum are quantitative methods and at the other end of the continuum are
qualitative methods for data collection .

Qualitative Data Collection

Qualitative data collection methods play an important role in impact evaluation by
providing information useful to understand the processes behind observed results and
assess changes in people’s perceptions of their well-being. Furthermore qualitative
methods can be used to improve the quality of survey-based quantitative evaluations
by helping generate evaluation hypothesis; strengthening the design of survey
questionnaires and expanding or clarifying quantitative evaluation findings. These
methods are characterized by the following attributes:

 they tend to be open-ended and have less structured protocols (i.e., researchers
may change the data collection strategy by adding, refining, or dropping
techniques or informants)
 they rely more heavily on interactive interviews; respondents may be interviewed
several times to follow up on a particular issue, clarify concepts or check the
reliability of data
 they use triangulation to increase the credibility of their findings (i.e., researchers
rely on multiple data collection methods to check the authenticity of their results)
 generally their findings are not generalizable to any specific population, rather
each case study produces a single piece of evidence that can be used to seek
general patterns among different studies of the same issue

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QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS

Design / Method Focus Sample Size Data Collection

Observation &
Ethnography Context or culture --
interviews
Stories from
Individual experience &
Narrative 1 to 2 individuals &
sequence
documents
People who have
Phenomenological experienced a 5 to 25 Interviews
phenomenon

Develop a theory from Interviews, then open

Grounded Theory 20 to 60
grounded in field data and axial coding

Interviews,
Organization, entity,
Case Study -- documents, reports,
individual, or event
observations

DATA ANALYSIS PROCEDURES

Analysis of data is a process of inspecting, cleaning, transforming, and modeling

data with the goal of discovering useful information, suggesting conclusions, and
supporting decision-making. Data analysis has multiple facets and approaches,
encompassing diverse techniques under a variety of names, in different business,
science, and social science domains.
Analysis refers to breaking a whole into its separate components for individual
examination. Data analysis is a process for obtaining raw data and converting it into
information useful for decision-making by users. Data is collected and analyzed to
answer questions, test hypotheses or disprove theories.

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Statistician John Tukey defined data analysis in 1961 as: "Procedures for
analyzing data, techniques for interpreting the results of such procedures, ways of
planning the gathering of data to make its analysis easier, more precise or more
accurate, and all the machinery and results of (mathematical) statistics which apply to
analyzing data."

Once you have selected the topic of the research and have gone through the
process of literature survey, established your own focus of research, selected the
research paradigm and methodology, prepared your own research plan and have
collected the data; the next step is analysis of the data collected, before finally writing
the research report.
Data analysis is an ongoing activity, which not only answers your question but
also gives you the directions for future data collection. Data analysis procedures (DAP)
help you to arrive at the data analysis. The uses of such procedures put your research
project in perspective and assist you in testing the hypotheses with which you have

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started your research. Hence with the use of DAP, you can convert data into
information and knowledge, and explore the relationship between variables.

Understanding of the data analysis procedures will help you to appreciate the
meaning of the scientific method, hypotheses testing and statistical significance in
relation to research questions realize the importance of good research design when
investigating research questions have knowledge of a range of inferential statistics and
their applicability and limitations in the context of your research be able to devise,
implement and report accurately a small quantitative research project be capable of
identifying the data analysis procedures relevant to your research project show an
understanding of the strengths and limitations of the selected quantitative and/or
qualitative research project demonstrate the ability to use word processing, project
planning and statistical computer packages in the context of a quantitative research
project and report be adept of working effectively alone or with others to solve a
research question/ problem quantitatively.

The literature survey which you carried out guides you through the various data
analysis methods that have been used in similar studies. Depending upon your
research paradigm and methodology and the type of data collection, this also assists
you in data analysis. Hence once you are aware of the fact that which particular
procedure is relevant to your research project, you get the answers to:

 What kinds of data analysis tools are identified for similar research
investigations?
 What data analysis procedures should you use for your purpose?

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SELECTING SAMPLING DESIGN

Sampling Procedures

1. Simple Random Sampling

In simple random sampling, every individual in the target population has an equal
chance of being part of the sample. This requires two steps:
a. Obtain a complete list of the population.
b. Randomly select individuals from that list for the sample.

Recall that the sampling procedure must reflect the unit of analysis. In a study
where the unit of analysis is the student, the researcher must obtain a complete list of
every student in the target population to achieve simple random sampling. This is
rarely possible, so very few, if any, educational studies use simple random sampling.

Another factor to consider is the word random. Random is a technical term in social
science research that means that selection was made without aim, reason, or patterns.
If any study uses the word random, it means that specific scientific procedures were
used to ensure that the sample was selected purely by chance. Scientists have
developed a few procedures that must be followed for a study to achieve random, such
as the hat-and-draw method or a random number table. To be random, participants
cannot be chosen because of their intelligence, gender, social class, convenience, or
any other factor besides scientifically-agreed upon random procedures. Using the word
random when the unit of analysis was not selected by the hat-and-draw method or a
random number table is either irresponsible or flat-out untruthful.

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2. Stratified Random Sampling

In stratified random sampling, the researcher first divides the population into groups
based on a relevant characteristic and then selects participants within those groups. In
educational research, stratified random sampling is typi cally used when the researcher
wants to ensure that specific subgroups of people are adequately represented within
the sample. For example, a research study examining the effect of computerized
instruction on math achievement needs to adequately sample both male and female
pupils. Stratified random sampling will be used to ensure adequate representation of
both males and females. Stratified random sampling requires four steps:

a. Determine the strata that the population will be divided into. The strata are the
characteristics that the population is divided into, perhaps gender, age,
urban/rural, etc.
b. Determine the number of participants necessary for each stratum. Perhaps the
researcher wants equal representation within the strata: half male, half female;
20 children age 5, 20 children age 6, and 20 age 7; etc. Other times (e.g., large

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survey research), the researcher might want to use proportionate random

sampling. This requires that the researcher first knows the proportion of the
group in the entire population and then match that proportion within the sample.
For example, a researcher might find the most recent Nigerian census to
determine that females represent 53% of the population in Nigeria, so the sample
will then include 53% females.
c. Split the units of analysis into the respective strata. In other words, if the target
population is students and the researcher wants to stratify based on gender, then
the researcher will need two lists of the target population: one list of the male
students and another list of the female students.
d. Randomly sample participants from within the group. Using either the hat-and-
draw method or a random number table, randomly select the requisite number of
males and do the same for the females.

3. Purposive Sampling
In purposive sampling, the researcher uses their expert judgment to select
participants that are representative of the population. To do this, the researcher should
consider factors that might influence the population: perhaps socio-economic status,
intelligence, access to education, etc. Then the researcher purposefully selects a
sample that adequately represents the target population on these variables.

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4. Multi-Stage Sampling
More frequently, educational researchers use multi-stage sampling. In multi-stage
sampling, the sample is selected in multiple steps, or stages. For example, in the first
stage, geographical regions, such as local government areas, are selected. In the
second stage, perhaps schools may be selected. In the third stage, the unit of analysis
- perhaps teachers or students, are sampled. If the unit of analysis is not selected in
the first step, then the sampling procedure is multi-stage sampling. In multi-stage
sampling, other sampling techniques may be used at the different stages. For example,
the first stage may use random sampling, the second stage may use purposive
sampling, and the third stage may use stratified sampling.

The steps in multi-stage sampling are as follows:

a. Organize the sampling process into stages where the unit of analysis is
systematically grouped.
b. Select a sampling technique for each stage.
c. Systematically apply the sampling technique to each stage until the unit of
analysis has been selected.

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METHODS OF COLLECTING DATA

INTERVIEW

Introduction

Interviews are particularly useful for getting the story behind

a participant's experiences. The interviewer can pursue in-depth
information around a topic. Interviews may be useful as follow-up
to certain respondents to questionnaires, e.g., to further
investigate their responses. Usually open-ended questions are
asked during interviews.

Before you start to design your interview questions and process, clearly articulate
to yourself what problem or need is to be addressed using the information to be
gathered by the interviews. This helps you keep clear focus on the intent of each
question.

Preparation for Interview

1. Choose a setting with little distraction. Avoid loud lights or noises, ensure the
interviewee is comfortable (you might ask them if they are), etc. Often, they may feel
more comfortable at their own places of work or homes.
2. Explain the purpose of the interview.
3. Address terms of confidentiality. Note any terms of confidentiality. (Be careful here.
Rarely can you absolutely promise anything. Courts may get access to information,
in certain circumstances.) Explain who will get access to their answers and how
their answers will be analyzed. If their comments are to be used as quotes, get their
written permission to do so. See getting informed consent.
4. Explain the format of the interview. Explain the type of interview you are conducting
and its nature. If you want them to ask questions, specify if they're to do so as they
have them or wait until the end of the interview.
5. Indicate how long the interview usually takes.
6. Tell them how to get in touch with you later if they want to.
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7. Ask them if they have any questions before you both get started with the interview.
8. Don't count on your memory to recall their answers. Ask for permission to record the
interview or bring along someone to take notes.

Types of Interviews

1. Informal, conversational interview - no predetermined questions are asked, in

order to remain as open and adaptable as possible to the interviewee's nature and
priorities; during the interview, the interviewer "goes with the flow".
2. General interview guide approach - the guide approach is intended to ensure that
the same general areas of information are collected from each interviewee; this
provides more focus than the conversational approach, but still allows a degree of
freedom and adaptability in getting information from the interviewee.
3. Standardized, open-ended interview - here, the same open-ended questions are
asked to all interviewees (an open-ended question is where respondents are free to
choose how to answer the question, i.e., they don't select "yes" or "no" or provide a
numeric rating, etc.); this approach facilitates faster interviews that can be more
easily analyzed and compared.
4. Closed, fixed-response interview - where all interviewees are asked the same
questions and asked to choose answers from among the same set of alternatives.
This format is useful for those not practiced in interviewing.

Types of Topics in Questions

1. Behaviors - about what a person has done or is doing

2. Opinions/values - about what a person thinks about a topic
3. Feelings - note that respondents sometimes respond with "I think ..." so be careful to
note that you're looking for feelings
4. Knowledge - to get facts about a topic
5. Sensory - about what people have seen, touched, heard, tasted or smelled
6. Background/demographics - standard background questions, such as age,
education, etc.
Note that the above questions can be asked in terms of past, present or future.

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Sequence of Questions

1. Get the respondents involved in the interview as soon as possible.

2. Before asking about controversial matters (such as feelings and conclusions), first
ask about some facts. With this approach, respondents can more easily engage in
the interview before warming up to more personal matters.
3. Intersperse fact-based questions throughout the interview to avoid long lists of fact-
based questions, which tends to leave respondents disengaged.
4. Ask questions about the present before questions about the past or future. It's
usually easier for them to talk about the present and then work into the past or
future.
5. The last questions might be to allow respondents to provide any other information
they prefer to add and their impressions of the interview.

Wording of Questions

1. Wording should be open-ended. Respondents should be able to choose their own

terms when answering questions.
2. Questions should be as neutral as possible. Avoid wording that might influence
answers, e.g., evocative, judgmental wording.
3. Questions should be asked one at a time.
4. Questions should be worded clearly. This includes knowing any terms particular to
the program or the respondents' culture.
5. Be careful asking "why" questions. This type of question infers a cause-effect
relationship that may not truly exist. These questions may also cause respondents
to feel defensive, e.g., that they have to justify their response, which may inhibit
their responses to this and future questions.

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Kinds of question

1. Introducing questions: 'Why did you...?' or 'Can you tell me about...?' Through these
questions you introduce the topic.
2. Follow up questions: Through these you can elaborate on their initial answer.
Questions may include: 'What did you mean...?' or 'Can you give more detail...?'
3. Probing questions: You can employ direct questioning to follow up what has been
said and to get more detail. 'Do you have any examples?' or 'Could you say more
about...?'
4. Specifying questions: Such as 'What happened when you said that?' or 'What did he
say next?'
5. Direct questions: Questions with a yes or no answer are direct questions. You might
want to leave these questions until the end so you don't lead the interviewee to
answer a certain way.
6. Indirect questions: You can ask these to get the interviewee's true opinion.
7. Structuring questions: These move the interview on to the next subject. For
example, 'Moving on to...'
8. Silence: Through pauses you can suggest to the interviewee that you want them to
answer the question!
9. Interpreting questions: 'Do you mean that...?' or 'Is it correct that...?'

Conducting Interview

1. Occasionally verify the tape recorder (if used) is working.

2. Ask one question at a time.
3. Attempt to remain as neutral as possible. That is, don't show strong emotional
reactions to their responses. Patton suggests to act as if "you've heard it all before."
4. Encourage responses with occasional nods of the head, "uh huh"s, etc.
5. Be careful about the appearance when note taking. That is, if you jump to take a
note, it may appear as if you're surprised or very pleased about an answer, which
may influence answers to future questions.
6. Provide transition between major topics, e.g., "we've been talking about (some
topic) and now I'd like to move on to (another topic)."
7. Don't lose control of the interview. This can occur when respondents stray to
another topic, take so long to answer a question that times begins to run out, or
even begin asking questions to the interviewer.
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Immediately After Interview

1. Verify if the tape recorder, if used, worked throughout the interview.

2. Make any notes on your written notes, e.g., to clarify any scratching, ensure pages
are numbered; fill out any notes that don't make senses, etc.
3. Write down any observations made during the interview. For example, where did the
interview occur and when, was the respondent particularly nervous at any time?
Were there any surprises during the interview? Did the tape recorder break?

SURVEY

A survey is a systematic method of collecting

data from a population of interest. It tends to be
quantitative in nature and aims to collect information
from a sample of the population such that the results
are representative of the population within a certain
degree of error.

The purpose of a survey is to collect quantitative information, usually through the

use of a structured and standardized questionnaire.

Advantages of Surveys

 Can be completed by telephone, mail, fax, or in-person.

 It is quantifiable and generalizable to an entire population if the population is
sampled appropriately.
 Standardized, structured questionnaire minimizes interviewer bias.
 Tremendous volume of information can be collected in short period of time.
 Can take less time to analyze than qualitative data.

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Disadvantages of Surveys

 More difficult to collect a comprehensive understanding of respondents’

perspective (in-depth information) compared to in-depth interviews or focus
groups.
 Can be very expensive.
 Requires some statistical knowledge, sampling and other specialized skills to
process and interpret results.

STEPS IN CONDUCTING A SURVEY

1. Clarify purpose
 Why conduct a Survey?
 Who are the stakeholders?
 Who is the population of interest?
 What issues need to be explored?

2. Assess Resources
 What external resources will you need?
 Which in-house resources can you make use of?

3. Decide on Methods
 Select the method which is most appropriate

4. Write Questionnaire
 Decide on what questions to ask
 Set the types of response formats
 Set the layout of the questionnaire

5. Pilot test/Revise questionnaire

 Pilot test the questionnaire
 Revise the questionnaire

6. Prepare Sample
 Decide on the sample design
 Identify sources of sample
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7. Collect data
8. Process data
9. Data enter the information
10. Analyze the Results
11. Interpret and Disseminate Results
12. Take Action

ANALYZING THE MEANING OF THE DATA

Analyzing information involves examining it in ways that reveal the relationships,

patterns, trends, etc. that can be found within it. That may mean subjecting it to
statistical operations that can tell you not only what kinds of relationships seem to exist
among variables, but also to what level you can trust the answers you’re getting. It
may mean comparing your information to that from other groups (a control or
comparison group, statewide figures, etc.), to help draw some conclusions from the
data. The point, in terms of your evaluation, is to get an accurate assessment in order
to better understand your work and its effects on those you’re concerned with, or in
order to better understand the overall situation.

The analysis of qualitative research involves aiming to uncover and / or

understand the big picture - by using the data to describe the phenomenon and what
this means. Both qualitative and quantitative analysis involves labelling and coding all
of the data in order that similarities and differences can be recognized. Responses
from even an unstructured qualitative interview can be entered into a computer in order
for it to be coded, counted and analyzed. The qualitative researcher, however, has no
system for pre-coding, therefore a method of identifying and labelling or coding data

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needs to be developed that is bespoke for each research which is called content
analysis.

Content analysis can be used when qualitative data has been collected through:

 Interviews
 Focus groups
 Observation
 Documentary analysis

Content analysis is a procedure for the categorization of verbal or behavioral data, for
purposes of classification, summarization and tabulation.'

The content can be analyzed on two levels:

1. Basic level or the manifest level: a descriptive account of the data i.e. this is what
was said, but no comments or theories as to why or how
2. Higher level or latent level of analysis: a more interpretive analysis that is concerned
with the response as well as what may have been inferred or implied

Content analysis involves coding and classifying data, also referred to as

categorizing and indexing and the aim of context analysis is to make sense of the data
collected and to highlight the important messages, features or findings.

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HOW TO COLLECT AND ANALYZE DATA?

1. Implement your measurement system

Clearly define and describe what measurements or observations are needed. The
definition and description should be clear enough to enable observers to agree on what
they’re observing and reliably record data in the same way.

Select and train observers. Particularly if this is part of a participatory process,

observers need training to know what to record; to recognize key behaviors, events,
and conditions; and to reach an acceptable level of inter-rater reliability (agreement
among observers).

Conduct observations at the appropriate times for the appropriate period of time. This
may include reviewing archival material; conducting interviews, surveys, or focus
groups; engaging in direct observation; etc.

2. Organize the data you’ve collected

How you do this depends on what you’re planning to do with it, and on what you’re
interested in.

Enter any necessary data into the computer. This may mean simply typing comments,
descriptions, etc., into a word processing program, or entering various kinds of
information (possibly including audio and video) into a database, spreadsheet, a GIS
(Geographic Information Systems) program, or some other type of software or file.

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Transcribe any audio- or videotapes. This makes them easier to work with and copy,
and allows the opportunity to clarify any hard-to-understand passages of speech.
Score any tests and record the scores appropriately.

Sort your information in ways appropriate to your interest. This may include sorting by
category of observation, by event, by place, by individual, by group, by the time of
observation, or by a combination or some other standard.

When possible, necessary, and appropriate, transform qualitative into quantitative

data. This might involve, for example, counting the number of times specific issues
were mentioned in interviews, or how often certain behaviors were observed.

3. Conduct data graphing, visual inspection, statistical analysis, or other

operations on the data as appropriate

We’ve referred several times to statistical procedures that you can apply to quantitative
data. If you have the right numbers, you can find out a great deal about whether your
program is causing or contributing to change and improvement, what that change is,
whether there are any expected or unexpected connections among variables, how your
group compares to another you’re measuring, etc.

Calculating the mean (average), median (midpoint), and/or mode (most frequent) of a
series of measurements or observations. What was the average blood pressure, for
instance, of people who exercised 30 minutes a day at least five days a week, as
opposed to that of people who exercised two days a week or less?

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Using qualitative interviews, conversations, and participant observation to observe

(and track changes in) the people or situation. Journals can be particularly revealing in
this area because they record people’s experiences and reflections over time.

Finding patterns in qualitative data. If many people refer to similar problems or

barriers, these may be important in understanding the issue, determining what works
or doesn’t work and why, or more.

Comparing actual results to previously determined goals or benchmarks. One measure

of success might be meeting a goal for planning or program implementation, for
example.

4. Take note of any significant or interesting results

Depending on the nature of your research, results may be statistically significant (the
95% or better certainty that we discussed earlier), or simply important or unusual.
They may or may not be socially significant (i.e., large enough to solve the problem).

There are a number of different kinds of results you might be looking for.

a. Differences within people or groups. If you have repeated measurements for

individuals/groups over time, we can see if there are marked increases/decreases in
the (frequency, rate) of behavior (events, etc.) following introduction of the program
or intervention. When the effects are seen when and only when the intervention is
introduced – and if the intervention is staggered (delayed) across people or groups
– this increases our confidence that the intervention, and not something else, is
producing the observed effects.

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b. Differences between or among two or more groups. If you have one or more
randomized control groups in a formal study (groups that are drawn at random from
the same population as the group in your program, but are not getting the same
program or intervention, or are getting none at all), then the statistical significance of
differences between or among the groups should tell you whether your program has
any more influence on the dependent variable(s) than what’s experienced by the
other groups.
c. Results that show statistically significant changes. With or without a control or
comparison group, many statistical procedures can tell you whether changes in
dependent variables are truly significant (or not likely due to chance). These results
may say nothing about the causes of the change (or they may, depending on how
you’ve structured your evaluation), but they do tell you what’s happening, and give
you a place to start.
d. Correlations. Correlation means that there are connections between or among two
or more variables. Correlations can sometimes point to important relationships you
might not have predicted. Sometimes they can shed light on the issue itself, and
sometimes on the effects of a group’s cultural practices. In some cases, they can
highlight potential causes of an issue or condition, and thus pave the way for future
interventions.
e. Correlation between variables doesn’t tell you that one necessarily causes the
other, but simply that changes in one have a relationship to changes in the
other. Among American teenagers, for instance, there is probably a fairly high
correlation between an increase in body size and an understanding of algebra. This
is not because one causes the other, but rather the result of the fact that American
schools tend to begin teaching algebra in the seventh, eighth, or ninth grades, a
time when many 12-, 13-, and 14-year-olds are naturally experiencing a growth
spurt.

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f. Patterns. In both quantitative and qualitative information, patterns often emerge:

certain health conditions seem to cluster in particular geographical areas; people
from a particular group behave in similar ways; etc. These patterns may not be
specifically what you were looking for or expected to find, but they may either be
important in themselves or shed light on the areas you’re interested in. In some
cases, you may need to subject them to statistical procedures (regression analysis,
for example) to see if, in fact, they’re random, or if they constitute actual patterns.

5. Interpret the results

Once you’ve organized your results and run them through whatever statistical or other
analysis you’ve planned for, it’s time to figure out what they mean for your evaluation.
Probably the most common question that evaluation research is directed toward is
whether the program being evaluated works or makes a difference. In research terms,
that often translates to “What were the effects of the independent variable (the
program, intervention, etc.) on the dependent variable(s) (the behavior, conditions, or
other factors it was meant to change)?”

If your analysis gives you a clear indication that what you’re doing is accomplishing
your purposes, interpretation is relatively simple: You should keep doing it, while trying
out ways to make it even more effective, or while aiming at other related issues as well.

Once you have organized your data, both statistical results and anything that can’t be
analyzed statistically need to be analyzed logically. This may not give you convincing
information but it will almost undoubtedly give you some ideas to follow up on, and
some indications of connections and avenues you might not yet have considered. It will
also show you some additional results – people reacting differently than before to the

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program, for example. The numbers can tell you whether there is change, but they
can’t always tell you what causes it or why (although they sometimes can), or why
some people benefit while others don’t. Those are often matters for logical analysis, or
critical thinking.

Analyzing and interpreting the data you’ve collected brings you, in a sense, back to the
beginning. You can use the information you’ve gained to adjust and improve your
program or intervention, evaluate it again, and use that information to adjust and
improve it further, for as long as it runs. You have to keep up the process to ensure
that you’re doing the best work you can and encouraging changes in individuals,
systems, and policies that make for a better and healthier community.

You have to become a cultural detective to understand your initiative, and, in some
ways, every evaluation is an anthropological study.

REPOTING AND SHARING THE FINDINGS

Guidelines in Making Conclusions

1. Conclusions are inferences, deductions, abstractions, implications, interpretations,

general statements, and/or generalizations based upon the findings. Conclusions are
the logical and valid outgrowths upon the findings.

They should not contain any numeral because numerals generally limit the forceful
effect or impact and scope of a generalization. No conclusions should be made that
are not based upon the findings.
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Example: The conclusion that can be drawn from the findings in No. 2 under the
summary of findings is this: All the teachers were qualified to teach in the high
school but the majority of them were not qualified to teach science.

2. Conclusions should appropriately answer the specific questions raised at the

beginning of the investigation in the order they are given under the statement of the
problem. The study becomes almost meaningless if the questions raised are not
properly answered by the conclusions.

Example. If the question raised at the beginning of the research is:

“How adequate are the facilities for the teaching of science?” and the findings
show that the facilities are less than the needs of the students, the answer and
the conclusion should be: “The facilities for the teaching of science are
inadequate”.

3. Conclusions should point out what were factually learned from the inquiry.

However, no conclusions should be drawn from the implied or indirect effects of the
findings.

Example: From the findings that the majority of the teachers were non-science
majors and the facilities were less than the needs of the students, what have
been factually learned are that the majority of the teachers were not qualified to
teach science and the science facilities were inadequate?

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4. Conclusions should be formulated concisely, that is, brief and short, ye they convey
all the necessary information resulting from the study as required by the specific
questions.

Without any strong evidence to the contrary, conclusions should be stated

categorically. They should be worded as if they are 100 percent true and correct. They
should not give any hint that the researcher has some doubts about their validity and
reliability. The use of qualifiers such as probably, perhaps, may be, and the like should
be avoided as much as possible.

5. Conclusions should refer only to the population, area, or subject of the study. Take
for instance, the hypothetical teaching of science in the high schools of Province A,
all conclusions about the faculty; facilities, methods, problems, etc. refer only to the
teaching of science in the high schools of Province A.

6. Conclusions should not be repetitions of any statements anywhere in the thesis.

They may be recapitulations if necessary but they should be worded differently and
they should convey the same information as the statements recapitulated.

Guidelines in Making Recommendations

A Recommendation is generally included at the end of a General Discussion. It may

propose: action, or further research.

More specifically, Recommendations may:

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Recommend follow-up or future work that remains to be done, such as :

 carrying out research which seeks to replicate or extend your study
 carrying out new research which you were unable to attempt, but feel is
necessary
 applying or considering the implications of your research

Reflexively caution or advise on problems, weaknesses or omissions of your own

study. For example:
 variables that still need to be examined more fully
 weaknesses in your methodology, such as an unrepresentative or small sample
 The purpose here is so that other researchers can avoid the same pitfalls.

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TECHNIQUES IN LISTING REFERENCES

1. HARVARD Method

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2. APA Method

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THE PROCESS OF REPORT WRITING

All reports need to be clear, concise and well structured. The key to writing an
effective report is to allocate time for planning and preparation. With careful planning,
the writing of a report will be made much easier. The essential stages of successful
report writing are described below. Consider how long each stage is likely to take and
divide the time before the deadline between the different stages. Be sure to leave time
for final proof reading and checking.

Stage One: Understanding the report brief

This first stage is the most important. You need to be confident that you understand the
purpose of your report as described in your report brief or instructions. Consider who
the report is for and why it is being written. Check that you understand all the
instructions or requirements, and ask your tutor if anything is unclear.

Stage Two: Gathering and selecting information

Once you are clear about the purpose of your report, you need to begin to gather
relevant information. Your information may come from a variety of sources, but how
much information you will need will depend on how much detail is required in the
report. You may want to begin by reading relevant literature to widen your
understanding of the topic or issue before you go on to look at other forms of
information such as questionnaires, surveys etc. As you read and gather information
you need to assess its relevance to your report and select accordingly. Keep referring
to your report brief to help you decide what relevant information is.

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Stage Three: Organizing your material

Once you have gathered information you need to decide what will be included and in
what sequence it should be presented. Begin by grouping together points that are
related. These may form sections or chapters. Remember to keep referring to the
report brief and be prepared to cut any information that is not directly relevant to the
report. Choose an order for your material that is logical and easy to follow.

Stage Four: Analyzing your material

Before you begin to write your first draft of the report, take time to consider and make
notes on the points you will make using the facts and evidence you have gathered.
What conclusions can be drawn from the material? What are the limitations or flaws in
the evidence? Do certain pieces of evidence conflict with one another? It is not enough
to simply present the information you have gathered; you must relate it to the problem
or issue described in the report brief.

Stage Five: Writing the report

Having organized your material into appropriate sections and headings you can begin
to write the first draft of your report. You may find it easier to write the summary and
contents page at the end when you know exactly what will be included. Aim for a
writing style that is direct and precise. Avoid waffle and make your points clearly and
concisely. Chapters, sections and even individual paragraphs should be written with a
clear structure. The structure described below can be adapted and applied to chapters,
sections and even paragraphs.

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 Introduce the main idea of the chapter/section/paragraph

 Explain and expand the idea, defining any key terms.
 Present relevant evidence to support your point(s).
 Comment on each piece of evidence showing how it relates to your point(s).
 Conclude your chapter/section/paragraph by either showing its significance to the
report as a whole or making a link to the next chapter/section/paragraph.

Stage Six: Reviewing and redrafting

Ideally, you should leave time to take a break before you review your first draft. Be
prepared to rearrange or rewrite sections in the light of your review. Try to read the
draft from the perspective of the reader. Is it easy to follow with a clear structure that
makes sense? Are the points concisely but clearly explained and supported by relevant
evidence? Writing on a word processor makes it easier to rewrite and rearrange
sections or paragraphs in your first draft. If you write your first draft by hand, try writing
each section on a separate piece of paper to make redrafting easier.

Stage Seven: Presentation

Once you are satisfied with the content and structure of your redrafted report, you can
turn your attention to the presentation. Check that the wording of each
chapter/section/subheading is clear and accurate. Check that you have adhered to the
instructions in your report brief regarding format and presentation. Check for
consistency in numbering of chapters, sections and appendices. Make sure that all
your sources are acknowledged and correctly referenced. You will need to proof read
your report for errors of spelling or grammar. If time allows, proof read more than once.
Errors in presentation or expression create a poor impression and can make the report
difficult to read.

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REFERENCES

http://analyst0091.blogspot.com/2011/05/chapter-1-meaning-and-characteristics.html

http://atlasti.com/quantitative-vs-qualitative-research/

http://guides.lib.umich.edu/c.php?g=283022&p=1885747

http://libguides.logan.edu/c.php?g=181964&p=1198011

http://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/title

http://libguides.wpi.edu/c.php?g=355469&p=2396791

http://libweb.surrey.ac.uk/library/skills/Introduction%20to%20Research%20and%20Managing%20Information%
20Leicester/page_45.htm

http://libweb.surrey.ac.uk/library/skills/Introduction%20to%20Research%20and%20Managing%20Information%
20Leicester/page_54.htm

http://linguistics.byu.edu/faculty/henrichsenl/ResearchMethods/RM_1_05.html

http://www.editage.com/insights/3-basic-tips-on-writing-a-good-research-paper-title

http://www.employment.gov.yk.ca/interview.html

http://www.measuringu.com/blog/qual-methods.php

http://www.measuringu.com/blog/qual-methods.php

http://www.monster.com/career-advice/article/boost-your-interview-iq

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15560669

http://www.niehs.nih.gov/research/resources/bioethics/whatis/

http://www.snapsurveys.com/blog/what-is-the-difference-between-qualitative-research-and-quantitative-
research/

http://www.snapsurveys.com/blog/what-is-the-difference-between-qualitative-research-and-quantitative-
research/

https://www.bcps.org/offices/lis/researchcourse/images/Textbook_Chapter_on_Qualitative_Research_Design.
pdf

https://www.umuc.edu/writingcenter/onlineguide/tutorial/chapter4/ch4-01.html

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