Computer Literacy

A computer is an electronic data processing device that takes input from the users and gives the
desired result as output. Moreover, it is programmed to automatically carry out sequences of arithmetic
or logical operations.

Computer Generations

1st Generation

 Period: 1946-1959.
 vacuum tubes
 These tubes like electric bulbs produced a lot of heat and were prone to the frequent
fusing of the installations.
 Therefore, were very expensive and could be afforded only by very large organisations.
 Supported Machine language only
 Slow Input/Output device
 Huge size
 Need of A.C.
 Non-portable
 Consumed a lot of electricity

The computer of this generation were –

 ENIAC  EDVAC  UNIVAC  IBM-701  IBM-650

2ND Generation

 period: 1959-1965.
 transistor
 cheaper
 consumed less power
 more compact in size
 more reliable and faster
 In this generation, magnetic cores were used as primary memory, and magnetic tape and
magnetic disks as secondary storage devices.
 In this generation assembly language and high-level programming languages like FORTRAN,
and COBOL were used.
 There were Batch processing and Multiprogramming Operating system used.
 Generate less heat as compared to First generation computers
 Consumed less electricity as compared to First generation computers.
 A.C. needed.

Some computers of this generation were:

 IBM 1620  IBM 7094  CDC 1604  CDC 3600  UNIVAC 1108

3rd Generation

 period: 1965-1971.
  Integrated Circuits (IC's). A single I.C. has many transistors, resistors, and capacitors along
with the associated circuitry.
 Invented by Jack Kilby.
 In this generation, Remote processing, Time-sharing, Real-time, and Multi-programming
Operating Systems were used.
 High-level languages (FORTRAN-II TO IV, COBOL, PASCAL PL/1, BASIC, ALGOL-68 etc.) were
used during this generation.

Some computers of this generation were:

 IBM-360 series  Honeywell-6000 series  PDP (Personal Data Processor)  IBM-370/168  TDC-316

4th generation

 period: - 1971-1980.
 Very Large Scale Integrated (VLSI) circuits. VLSI circuits having about 5000 transistors and
other circuit elements and their associated circuits on a single chip made it possible to have
microcomputers of the fourth generation.
 it gave rise to the personal computer (PC) revolution.
 In this generation Time sharing, Real-time, Networks, and Distributed Operating Systems
were used.
 All the Higher-level languages like C and C++, DBASE, etc. were used in this generation.
 Very cheap, Pipeline processing, No A.C. needed, Concept of the internet was introduced.
 Computers became easily available.

Some computers of this generation were:

 DEC 10  STAR 1000  PDP 11  CRAY-1(Super Computer)  CRAY-X-MP (Super Computer).

5th generation

 period 1980-till date.

 the VLSI and ULSI (Ultra Large-Scale Integration) technology.
 This generation is based on parallel processing hardware and AI (Artificial Intelligence)
software.
 Development of Natural language processing
 Advancement in Superconductor technology
 More user-friendly interfaces with multimedia features
 Availability of very powerful and compact computers at cheaper rates

Some computer types of this generation are:

 Desktop  Laptop  Notebook  Ultrabook  Chromebook

Classifications of Computers –

Based on size, computers can be classified into the following groups –

A. Micro-Computer: -
  Microcomputer or personal computer (PC).
 Single-user computer system. Moderately powerful microprocessor.

B. WorkStation: -

 Single-user computer system. Similar to Personal Computers but have more powerful
microprocessors.
 used for engineering applications (CAD/CAM), desktop publishing, and software
development.
 Workstations generally come with a large, high-resolution graphics screen, a large amount of
RAM, inbuilt network support, and a graphical user interface.
 Common operating systems for workstations are UNIX and Windows NT.
 workstations are typically linked together to form a local-area network.

C. Mini Computers: -

 Multi-user computer system.

 capable of supporting from up to 250 users simultaneously

D. Main Frame computers: -

 very large in size and is an expensive computer capable of supporting hundreds, or even
thousands, of users simultaneously.
 Mainframe executes many programs concurrently.

E. Supercomputer: -

 the fastest computers currently available.

 very expensive and are employed for specialized applications that require immense amounts
of mathematical calculations (number crunching).
 For example, weather forecasting, scientific simulations, (animated) graphics, fluid dynamic
calculations, nuclear energy research, electronic design, and analysis of geological data (e.g.
in petrochemical prospecting).

CPU (Central Processing Unit)

CPU has the following three components

 ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit) –

This unit consists of two subsections namely

1. Arithmetic section - to perform arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction,

multiplication, and division
2. Logic Section - to perform logic operations such as comparing, selecting, matching, and
merging of data.

 Memory or Storage Unit: -

1. This unit stores instruction, data, and intermediate results of processing.

2. It supplies information to the other units of the computer when needed.
 3. also known as internal storage unit/ main memory/ primary storage / Random access
memory (RAM).

 Control Unit: -

1. It is responsible for controlling the transfer of data and instructions among other units of a
computer.
2. It manages and coordinates all the units of the computer.
3. It obtains the instructions from the memory, interprets them and directs the operation of the
computer.
4. It communicates with Input/Output devices for transfer of data or results from storage.
5. It does not process or store data.

Input Devices: -

 Keyboard  Mouse  Joy Stick  Light pen   Scanner  Graphic Tablet  Microphone  Magnetic
Ink Card Reader (MICR)  Optical Character Reader (OCR)  Bar Code Reader  Optical Mark Reader

Output Devices: -

 Monitors  Graphic Plotter  Printer and impact printer  sound box

[Note: - A pen drive is a storage device, not an input or output device.)

Memory

Memories consist of a number of cells (or locations) each of which can store a piece of information.
Each cell has a number, called its address, by which programs can refer to it. If memory has n cells, it
will have addresses 0 to n − 1.

Memory is primarily of three types -

 Cache Memory: - It is a very high-speed semiconductor memory that speeds up the CPU. It acts as
a buffer between the CPU and the main memory. It is used to hold those parts of data and programs
which are most frequently used by the CPU. Cache memory is faster than main memory but has
limited capacity. It consumes less access time as compared to main memory. It stores the program
that can be executed within a short period of time. It stores data for temporary use.

 Primary Memory/Main Memory (RAM): - it holds only those data and instructions on which the
computer is currently working. It has limited capacity and data get lost when power is switched off. It
is generally made up of semiconductor devices. It is divided into two subcategories RAM (volatile
memory) and ROM (non-volatile memory). Faster than secondary memories.

 Secondary Memory: - This type of memory is also known as external memory or non-volatile. It is
slower than the main memory. These are used for storing Data/Information permanently. These are
magnetic and optical memories. It is known as backup memory. A computer may run without
secondary memory but not without Primary memory. Contents of secondary memories are first
transferred to main memory, and then CPU can access it. For example: disk, CD, DVD etc. These are
magnetic and optical memories.
RAM

 RAM constitutes the internal memory of the CPU.

 It is read/write memory.
 It is called random access memory (RAM).
 RAM is volatile, i.e., data stored in it is lost when we switch off the computer or if there is a
power failure.
 Hence a backup uninterruptible power system (UPS) is often used with computers.
 RAM is small, both in terms of its physical size and in the amount of data it can hold.

It is of two types –

 Static RAM (SRAM): - SRAM memory retains its contents as long as power remains applied.
However, data is lost when the power gets down due to its volatile nature. SRAM chips use a matrix
of 6 transistors and no capacitors. SRAM need not have to be refreshed on a regular basis. SRAM
uses more chips than DRAM, thus making the manufacturing costs higher. It has long data lifetime.
High power consumption. Large size. Used as cache memory.

 Dynamic RAM (DRAM) :- DRAM, unlike SRAM, must be continually refreshed in order for it to
maintain the data. DRAM is used for most system memory because it is cheap and small. All DRAMs
are made up of memory cells. It has short data lifetime. Used as RAM. lesser in size. Less expensive.
Less power consumption.

ROM
 It stands for Read Only Memory.
 The memory from which we can only read but cannot write on it.
 This type of memory is non-volatile.
 The information is stored permanently in such memories during manufacture.
 A ROM, stores such instructions as are required to start a computer when electricity is first
turned on, this operation is referred to as bootstrap.
 ROM chips are not only used in the computer but also in other electronic items like washing
machines and microwave oven.
 Various types of ROM are Masked ROM, programmable ROM, Erasable and Programmable
ROM, Electrically Erasable and Programmable ROM.

Motherboard
 It is considered as the backbone of a computer since it serves as a single
platform to connect all of the parts of a computer together. Popular
Motherboard Manufacturers are Intel , ASUS , AOpen ,ABIT , Biostar ,
Gigabyte , MSI 2the Max , ASRock.

Memory Storage

The storage capacity are expressed in terms of Bytes.

Following are the main memory storage units:

Units Description
Bit (Binary Digit) A binary digit is logical 0 & 1 representing a
passive or an active state of a component in an
electric circuit.
Nibble A group of 4 bits is called nibble.
Byte A group of 8 bits is called byte. A byte is the
smallest unit which can represent a data item
or a character.
Word A computer word like a byte, is a group of fixed
number of bits processed as a unit which varies
from computer but is fixed for each computer.
Moreover, A computer stores the information in
the form of the computer words.

A few higher storage units are the following:

Unit Description
Kilobyte (KB) 1 KB = 1024 Bytes
Megabyte (MB) 1 MB = 1024 KB
GigaByte (GB) 1 GB = 1024 MB
TeraByte (TB) 1 TB = 1024 GB
PetaByte (PB) 1 PB = 1024 TB

Port
A computer port is a physical docking point using which an external device can be connected to the
computer. Moreover, through docking which information flows from a program to computer or over
the internet.

Types of Ports: -

1. Serial port: -
 Used for external modems and older computer mouse.
 Two versions: 9 pin, 25 pin model.
 Data travels at 115 kilobits per second.

2. Parallel port: -

 Used for scanners and printers

 Also called printer port.
 25 pin model.
 Also known as IEEE 1284-compliant Centronics port.

3. PS/2 Port :-

 Used for old computer keyboard and mouse

 Also called mouse port.

 Most of the old computers provide two PS/2 port, each for mouse and keyboard

4. Universal Serial Bus (or USB) Port

 Can connect all kinds of external USB devices such as external hard disk, printer, scanner, mouse,
keyboard etc.

 Introduced in 1997.

 Most of the computers provide two USB port as minimum.

 Data travels at 12 megabits per seconds

5. VGA Port

 Connects monitor to a computer's video card.

 Has 15 holes.

6. Power Connector

 Three-pronged plug

 Connects to the computer's power cable that plugs into a power bar or wall socket.

7. Firewire Port

 Transfer large amounts of data at a very fast speed.

 Connects camcorders and video equipment to the computer

 Data travels at 400 to 800 megabits per seconds

 Invented by Apple

 Three variants: 4-Pin FireWire 400 connector, 6-Pin FireWire 400 connector and 9-Pin FireWire 800
connector

Hardware

It represents the physical and tangible components of the computer i.e., the components that can be
seen and touched.

Software

It is a set of programs, which is designed to perform a well-defined function.

There are two types of software.

 System Software: - it is a collection of programs designed to operate, control and extend the
processing capabilities of the computer itself. System software are generally prepared by computer
manufacturers. This software comprises of programs written in low level languages. System software
are difficult to design and manipulate. Some examples of system software are Operating System,
Compilers, Interpreter, Assemblers etc.

 Application Software:- Application software are the software that are designed to satisfy a
particular need of a particular environment. Application software may consists of a single program,
such as a Microsoft's notepad for writing and editing simple text. It may also consists of a collection
of programs, often called a software package, which work together to accomplish a task, such as a
spreadsheet package. Examples of Application software are following –

Payroll Software , Student Record Software ,Internet , Income Tax Software , Railways Reservation
Software , Microsoft Office Suite Software , Microsoft Word , Microsoft Excel , Microsoft PowerPoint.
(Note – Google is neither an application nor an system software, rather it is a search engine.)

Data and Information

Data is a collection of facts, numerical values, and series, often in an
unorganized manner but when these facts and values and arranged in a
meaningful way, they become an Information. Data are raw facts, whereas,
Information are cooked(organised) messages.
Operating system
 An operating system is a program that acts as an interface between the software and the
computer hardware. It is an integration set of specialized programs that are used to
manage overall resources and operations of the computer. It monitors the execution of
all other programs that reside in the computer, including application programs and other
system software. Examples:- MS Windows, MS DOS, Ubuntu OS, Mac OS, Apple IOS, Linux
OS, UNIX OS, Android OS, Chrome OS, Fedora OS.

 Different types of operating system :-

1. Batch Operating System

2. Multitasking/Time-Sharing OS
3. Multiprocessing OS
4. Real-Time OS
5. Distributed OS
6. Network OS
7. Mobile OS

Internet
 Internet is a world-wide / global system of interconnected computer networks.
 Internet uses the standard Internet Protocol (TCP/IP)
 Every computer in internet is identified by a unique IP address.

Intranet
 Intranet is system in which multiple PCs are networked to be connected to each other.
  Usually, each company or organization has its own Intranet network and members/employees of
that company can access the computers in their intranet.

 Each computer in Intranet is also identified by a IP Address which is unique among the computers
in that Intranet.

Internet vs Intranet
1. Internet is general to PCs all over the world whereas Intranet is specific to a few PCs.
2. Internet is wider access and provides a better access to websites to large population
whereas Intranet is restricted.
3. Internet is not as safe as Intranet as Intranet can be safely privatized as per the need

Basics of Computer Networks

Computer network is an interconnection between two or more hosts/computers. The connectivity

can be physical by using cables or virtual using wireless network.

Types of Networks are: -

1. Local Area Network (LAN): -

 Local Area Network (LAN) provides data communication within shorter distance and
connects several devices such as computers and printers.
 This type of network contains computers that are relatively closer and are physically
connected with cables and wireless media.
 Any network that exists within a single building, or even a group of adjacent buildings, is
considered as LAN.

2. Wide Area Network (WAN): -

 Wide Area Network is connecting two or more LANs together, generally across a wide
geographical area.
 E.g., A company may have its corporate headquarters and manufacturing plant located in
one city and marketing office in another city. Each site needs resources, data and programs
locally, but it also needs to share data with other sites. To accomplish this, the company can
attach devices that connect over public utilities to create a WAN.

3. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) :-

 A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a computer network that connects computers

within a metropolitan area, which could be a single large city, multiple cities and
towns, or any given large area with multiple buildings. A MAN is larger than a local
area network (LAN) but smaller than a wide area network (WAN).

Network Topology
  A network topology is the physical and logical arrangement of nodes and
connections in a network. Nodes usually include devices such as switches,
routers, and software.
 Types of Network topology are –
a. Bus topology –
1. Uses a trunk or backbone to which all of the computers on the network connect.
2. Systems connect to this backbone using T connectors or taps.

Advantages Disadvantages
Cheap and easy to implement Network disruption when computers are
added or removed
Require less cable A break in the cable will prevent all
systems from accessing the network.
Does not use any specialized network Difficult to troubleshoot
equipment.

b. Ring Topology –

1. data travels in circular fashion from one computer to another on the network.

Advantages Disadvantages
Cable faults are easily located, making Expansion to the network can cause network
troubleshooting easier disruption
Ring networks are moderately easy to install A single break in the cable can disrupt the
entire network.

c. Star Topology –

Star topology is a network topology in which each network component is

physically connected to a central node such as a router, hub or switch.
 Advantages Disadvantages
Easily expanded without disruption to the Requires more cable.
network.
Cable failure affects only a single user. A central connecting device allows for a single
point of failure.
Easy to troubleshoot and isolate problems. More difficult to implement

d. Mess topology –

Mesh topology is a type of networking in which all the computers are interconnected
to each other.

Advantages Disadvantages
Provides redundant paths between devices Requires more cable than the other LAN
topologies
The network can be expanded without Complicated implementation.
disruption to current uses.