Development of Computer Organization

Computers are comprised of hardware and software that works together to communicate with its
surrounding. In this article will conclude what have human achieve for last ten years to develop a
machine that will help the load of human work that grow exponentially as economy and demand grow.
Therefore, computer still need development to create much more reliable and faster computer to help
more complex task that human encounter now days. The articles mostly concentrates on how the
development of hardware and execution of software at low level. The Output of this article is that the
readers are well informed about how the computer development in last 10 years and how does a computer
actually help human works.

What is Computer Organization

Computer organization alludes to the operational units and their interconnects that realize the
engineering determinations. Illustrations of organizational qualities incorporate those equipment subtle
elements straightforward to the software engineer, such as control signals; interfacing between the
computer and peripherals; and the memory innovation utilized. Before we jump further to the computer
organization and it development, we have to know the five basic Operations of a Computer System:

1. Inputting : The process of entering data and instructions into the computer system

2. Storing : Saving data and instructions to make them readily available for initial or additional
processing whenever required.

3. Processing : Performing arithmetic operations (add, substract, multiply, divide, etc) or logical
operations (comparisons like equal to, less than, greater than, etc) on data to convert them into useful
information.

4. Outputting : The process of producing useful information or results for the user such as a printed report
or visual display

5. Controlling : Directing the manner and sequence in which all of the above operations are performed.

After we know the five basic operations of a computer organization, we can jump further. In this
introduction, we will discuss about Control Processing Unit(CPU), Memory, and Input/Output or I/O.

Three Crucial Part in Computer

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

The brain of any computer system is the CPU. It controls the functioning of the other units and
process the data. The CPU is sometimes called the processor, or in the personal computer field called
“microprocessor”. It is a single integrated circuit that contains all the electronics needed to execute a
program. The processor calculates (add, multiplies and so on), performs logical operations (compares
numbers and make decisions), and controls the transfer of data among devices. The processor acts as the
controller of all actions or services provided by the system. Processor actions are synchronized to its
clock input. A clock signal consists of clock cycles. The time to complete a clock cycle is called the clock
period. Normally, we use the clock frequency, which is the inverse of the clock period, to specify the
clock. The clock frequency is measured in Hertz, which represents one cycle/second.

A typical CPU has three major components: (1) register set, (2) arithmetic logic unit (ALU), and
(3) control unit (CU). The register set differs from one computer architecture to another. It is usually a
combination of general-purpose and special purpose registers. General-purpose registers are used for any
purpose, hence the name general purpose. Special purpose registers have specific functions within the
CPU.

The ALU provides the circuitry needed to perform the arithmetic, logical and shift operations
demanded of the instruction set. The control unit is the entity responsible for fetching the instruction to be
executed from the main memory and decoding and then executing it. The CPU can be divided into a data
section and a control section. The data section, which is also called the datapath, contains the registers
(known as the register file) and the ALU. The datapath is capable of performing certain operations on
data items. The register file can be thought of as a small, fast memory, separate from the system memory,
which is used for temporary storage during computation. The control section is basically the control unit,
which issues control signals to the datapath. The control unit of a computer is responsible for executing
the program instructions, which are stored in the main memory. It can be thought of as a form of a
“computer within a computer” in the sense that it makes decisions as to how the rest of the machine
behaves.

Memory

A memory word is a collection of bits to form a multi-bit unit that carries information. A word
can be defined to be 8-bit, 16-bit, 32- bit or 64-bit. Other word sizes are possible, but not common.
Memory capacity is measured in kb, Mb, Gb, Tb when measured on a chip. However, these memory bits
could be organised in different way. The number of unique words in a memory module determines how
many bits of address information is required to uniquely specify each location uniquely. When using
memory, we could be reading or fetching information from memory. This is a READ operation. We could
also be storing information to the memory.

There are different types of memory chips. ROM is read-only. They are now very rare, because
flash memory can act as both read-only and read/write memory. RAM is the most common memory used.
These are both read and write. They are called random access memory because you can go to any location
individually and perform a read/write operation, only to that location. There are two types of RAMs:
static and dynamic. Static RAM are those that are generally used for cache memory. They are fast but
expensive. The memory density is lower than the dynamic RAM. Static memory are large and expensive
because each memory bit is made of a simple latch (a special type of flipflop) which requires 6
transistors.

Dynamic RAMs are generally used for main memory or for the video RAM on a GPU. These are
slower than static RAM in access and they are dynamic meaning that it uses a capacitor as the storage
mechanism. By storing a small charge on the capacitor, it remembers whether the memory bit is ‘1’ (say
with charge) or ‘0’ (no charge). DRAMs are high density because each memory only requires one
transistor. Therefore they are also cheaper than static RAMs. There are also many types of DRAMs. Most
common are the SDRAM or synchronous DRAM. These use a clock signal to synchronise all read/write
operations.

Input / Output
 In computing, Input/Output or I/O is the communication between an information processing
system, such as computer, and the outside world, possibly a human or another information processing
system. Inputs are the signals or data received by the system and outputs are the signals or data sent from
it. I/O devices are the pieces of hardware used by human(or other system) to communicate with a
computer. For instance, a keyboard or computer mouse is an input device for a computer, while monitors
and printers are output devices.

An I/O interface is required whenever the I/O device is driven by a processor. Typically a CPU
communicates with devices via a bus. The interface must have the necessary logic to interpret the device
address generated by the processor. An alternative method is via instruction-based I/O which requires
that a CPU have specialized instructions for I/O. Both input and output devices have a data processing
rate that can vary greatly. With some devices able to exchange data at very high speeds direct access to
memory (DMA) without the continuous aid of a CPU is required.

I/O performance has not increased as quickly as CPU performance, partially due to neglect and
partially to physical limitations. This is changing, with faster networks, better I/O buses, RAID drive
arrays, and other new technologies. I/O controller functions are control and timing, CPU communication,
Device communication, Data buffering, and Error detection.

There are a lot of example of I/O devices. In Human readable are screen, printer, keyboard, etc.
Second is in Machine readable are magnetic disk, tape system, cameras, audio speakers, sensors,
actuators, etc. Third is in Communication (Communicating with remote devices) is modems, network
interface card (NIC), etc.

Development Time Line

2011
When we talk about Central Processing Unit (CPU) in this year, Intel is an inevitable company
that always been an argument that this company is the pioneer of making CPU and winning the market.
Whilst a company called Advances Micro Devices or commonly known as AMD were not as popular as
intel. In the other hand memories in this year also demand a development to support a new CPU and to
fulfill needs of human works to make faster and reliable memory.
The second generation of Intel CPU that they publish are known as Sandy Bridge micro
architecture. They started the development of Sandy Bridge since 2009 then it was published to the
public as second generation of intel for Celeron, Pentium, Core i3, Core i5, Core i7 platform. It is
manufactured in the 32 nanometer process and has a soldered contact with die. Thus it comes with an
Integrated Heat Spreader (HIS).
Sandy Bridge is more compatible then its predecessor, in terms of spec it improve its 3 integer
Arithmetic Logical Unit (ALU) with 2 vector ALU and 2 Address Generation Unit (AGU). More than that in
Clarkdale micro architecture as sandy Bridge predecessor, it has two separate dies, one of them for
GMCH use and one for the processor. Whilst integration of integrated graphic and memory controller or
known as GMCH and the processor it self into a single die inside its package, it is affectively reduces
memory latency.
Random Access Memory also make a development in this year as an example Hynix in 2011
successfully create 16 GB of ram 40 nm in DDR3 or Double Data Rate 3. Then Hynix in this year also
release a 2 gb ram 30 nm in DDR4 or Double Data Rate 4 modules at 2400 MT/s. it needs 1.2 V on a
process. In the other hand Samsung also release the competition of a 2 Gb DDR4 module base on
process of 30 and 39 nm, and it has transfer rate of 2133 MT/s. Samsung claims that it consumes 40%
less energy then its predecessor.

2012

Talking about CPUs, in 2012 only AMD issued CPUs, it was the first line of desktops in
the A10 series, namely A10-5700 and A10-5800K on October 1, 2012. So what makes this CPU
special? This AMD A10-5700 CPU or Central Processing Unit has 4 Clocks with a Base Speed of
3.4GHz and 4 Threads while the A10-5800K also has 4 Clocks but with a faster base speed of
3.8GHz and 4 Threads so you can say both CPUs This is quite fast, then the AMD-10-5700 and
5800K CPUs also have HAS-FMA3 and HAS-F16C and HAS-FMA4 which function to increase the
speed of doing tasks such as adjusting image contrast or adjusting the volume that the CPU
does not have much on its clock, and The A10-5800K's strength that the A10-5700 doesn't have
is that the A10-5800K has an unlocked multiplier that makes the A10-5800K easy to overclock,
allowing you to get increased performance in games and other applications.

If we talk about the internal CPU in smartphones or what we are familiar with as System
on Chip (SoC), Qualcomm in 2012 has made a big move, Qualcomm Incorporated (NASDAQ:
QCOM) on 27 September 2012 announced the addition of two Snapdragon ™ S4 mobile
processors. new: MSM8225Q and MSM8625Q. Both are members of the Snapdragon S4 Play
processor tier, which is specially optimized for various smartphone users who are looking for
faster applications and a better user experience. The Snapdragon S4 Play processors will now
offer OEM dual-core and quad-core CPUs and performance for entry-level smartphones, with
the more advanced version featuring higher bus bandwidth, support for larger screen
resolutions, HD video and an enhanced user experience. . The MSM8225Q and MSM8625Q
processors incorporate a quad-core CPU and are software-enhanced compatible variants of the
hugely successful Snapdragon S4 Play MSM8225 and MSM8625 processors, both of which
feature dual-core CPU and dual SIM support.

2013

In 2013, to be precise November 20, a company that makes System on Chip, namely Qualcomm
Technologies, introduced a new mobile processor for its flagship series (800 series), namely the
Qualcomm Snapdragon 805 processor, the Qualcomm Snapdragon 805 is designed to deliver mobile
devices with the highest-performance video experience, imaging, and graphics in Ultra HD (4K)
resolution, on the device and via an Ultra HD TV. Featuring the new Adreno 420 GPU, with up to 40
percent more graphics processing power than its predecessor, the Snapdragon 805 processor is the first
mobile processor to offer system-level Ultra HD support, 4K video recording and playback, and an
enhanced dual camera Image Signal Processor. (ISP), for superior performance, multitasking, power
efficiency and a mobile user experience.
The Snapdragon 805 processor is the latest and highest performing Snapdragon processor from
Qualcomm Technologies to date, featuring Blazing fast web browsing and applications and outstanding
performance: Krait 450 quad-core CPU, the first mobile CPU to run at speeds up to 2.5 GHz per core,
plus superior memory bandwidth support of up to 25.6 GB / s designed for delivers unprecedented
multimedia performance and web browsing. Smooth and crisp gaming and user interface supporting
Ultra HD resolutions: the mobile industry's first end-to-end Ultra HD solution with on-device display
simultaneously with output to HDTV; featuring Qualcomm Technologies' new Adreno 420 GPU, which
introduces support for hardware tessellation and shader geometry, for advanced 4K rendering, with
more realistic scenes and objects, user interface, graphics, and a visually stunning mobile gaming
experience with power the lower one. Fast and seamless connected mobile experience: Dedicated and
efficient integration with Qualcomm® Gobi ™ MDM9x25 or Gobi MDM9x35 modem, empowering a
superior seamless connected mobile experience. The Gobi MDM9x25 chipset announced in February
2013 has seen significant adoption as the first embedded mobile computing solution to support LTE and
Category 4 carrier aggregation with superior peak data rates of up to 150Mbps. In addition, Qualcomm's
most advanced Wi-Fi for mobile, 2-stream dual-band Qualcomm® VIVE ™ 802.11ac, enables wireless 4K
video streaming and other media intensive applications. With a low-power PCIe interface to the
QCA6174, high-end tablets and smartphones can take advantage of faster mobile Wi-Fi performance
(over 600 Mbps), extended operating range and concurrent Bluetooth connections, with minimal impact
on battery life.

2014

On February 11, 2014 in Taiwan, a technology company called MediaTek announced a mobile
chipset or what we know as System on Chip, namely MT6595, this System on Chip is the world's
first 4G LTE octa-core chipset, with the latest support. Cortex-A17 CPU from ARM. The MT6595
uses the big.LITTLE ARM architecture with MediaTek's CorePilot technology to deliver a
Heterogeneous Multi-Processing (HMP) platform that unlocks the full power of all eight cores.
The advanced scheduling algorithm with interactive power management and adaptive thermal
provides superior multi-tasking performance and excellent continuous performance per watt
for a premium mobile experience.

The SoC is also the world's first mobile SOC with integrated low-power hardware support for
new H.265 Ultra HD (4K2K) video recording & playback, in addition to Ultra HD video playback
support for H.264 & VP9. and this SoC is also the World's First Multimode Wireless Charging
Receiver IC.

MediaTek's competitor, Qualcomm, also released SoCs for the 800 series, namely the 808 and
810 on April 7, 2014. Snapdragon 810 and 808 processors, which are designed to deliver the
best connected mobile computing experience in video, images and graphics. The Snapdragon
810 and 808 processors are Qualcomm Technologies 'highest performance platforms to date,
complementing Qualcomm Technologies' line of 64-bit LTE capable chipsets for premium
mobile computing devices.

the Snapdragon 810 and Snapdragon 808 processors integrate Qualcomm Technologies 4th
Generation Cat 6 LTE Advanced multimode modems along with support for Qualcomm RF360 ™
Front End Solutions, and support 3x20MHz Carrier Aggregation, enabling speeds of up to 300
Mbps in the widest range of spectrum spread configurations to date. this. The two processors
are designed in a 20nm technology node with Cat 6 LTE, advanced multimedia features and 64-
bit capabilities, all tightly integrated and optimized for extremely low power consumption that
doesn't sacrifice performance, making them the first premium grade 64-bit processors to
enable LTE Advanced. globally with one design.

2015

In this year, Microsoft stole the game by bringing up a new operating system. Windows 10 is released
on 15 July 2015 as part of its Windows NT family operating system. This operating system was created as a
th

successor to Windows 8.1 which released nearly two years earlier. While critics has negative sentiment to the
Windows 8 version, Windows 10 is like a heal for Microsoft. The user interface of the Windows 10 is more
desktop-oriented rather than tablet-oriented like Windows 8 version. The start menu is far less jarring,
providing modern tools and layouts sprinkled with enough familiarity that users won't feel alienated. There's a
host of new security and productivity features, with more being added all the time, and the migration to
Windows 10 is far smoother than anything experienced in the past.

In august 2015, Intel launched a processor microarchitecture a codename called “Skylake”. Redesigned using
the same 14 nm manufacturing process technology as its predecessor, Skylake was claimed bring greater CPU
and GPU performance and reduced power consumption. Skylake is the latest Intel platform on which Windows
earlier than Windows 10 will be officially supported by Microsoft. Some of the Skylake microarchitecture
based processors are branded as "6th-generation Core".

AlphaGo is the first computer program to defeat a professional human Go player, the first to defeat a Go world
champion, and is arguably the strongest Go player in history. It was developed by DeepMind Technologies
which was later acquired by Google.AlphaGo use a Monte Carlo tree searcg algorithm to find its moves based
on knowledge from the machine learning proccess. In October 2015, AlphaGo defeated Fan Hui, European Go
Champion, five games to nil.

2016

JEDEC Solid State Technology Association announced the groundbreaking High Bandwidth Memory 2 on
12 January 2016. The improvements were include a new pseudo channel architecture to enhance effective
th

bandwidth and clarifications and enhancements to the test features. JESD235A also defines a new feature to
alert controllers when DRAM temperatures have exceeded a level considered acceptable for reliable operation
so that the controller can take appropriate steps to return the system to normal operation.

Just the next day of the release of The JEDEC High Bandwidth Memory, a software and multicore processors
services company, Fixstars Solutions Inc, introduced the world’s first 13 terabyte solid-state drive. The
Fixstars 13TB SSD is based on NAND flash from Toshiba, which holds a minority stake in Fixstars. It uses a
proprietary controller from Fixstars that is designed for faster sequential read and write speeds. Fixstar 13TB
SSD was aimed at enterprise users, but for those who interested can pay for a whopping US$13,000.

Massachusetts Institute of Technology together with University of Innsbruck in Austria created first five-atom
quantum computer. This new computer was considered could make today’s encryption obsolete. Using laser
pulses to keep the quantum system stable by holding the atoms in an ion trap, the new system promises
scalability as well, as more atoms and lasers can be added to build a bigger and faster quantum computer able
to factor much larger numbers. That, in turn, presents new risks for factorization-based methods such as RSA,
used for protecting credit cards, state secrets and other confidential data.
2017

In 2017, AMD launched its next-generation Ryzen CPUs. Ryzen new generation was released in the early
of 2017 on 2 of March. This new generation of Ryzen was Featuring up to 8 cores and 16 threads. Ryzen
nd

was the first brand new architecture from AMD in five years, and without very much initial fine-tuning or
optimization, it ran generally well for reviewers. Compared to Piledriver-powered FX chips, Zen-powered
Ryzen chips ran cooler, much faster, and used less power. Along with that AMD also revealed a new
generation graphics card. Radeon Vega Frontier Edition was launched with several features, such as 64
compute units, an estimated 12.5 teraflops of single precision processing power, 16GB bandwidth cache
and 8K display support. Together with them, in that year, AMD also announce the Zen computer
processor microarchitecture.

Not want to lose the game easily to AMD, Intel launched a brand new Intel Core i9 to the public in May
2017. Total of five Core i9 models was brought up to the surface with specification from 10-core/20-
thread up to 16-core/32-thread.

25 September in this exact year, Apple Inc released a new macOS with a version of 10.13. Called macOS
th

High Sierra, this new version focused on performance improvements and technical updates rather than
user features.

2018
This year, this ninth generation processor was formally introduced by Intel. The Core i5 processors,
Core i7 processors, and the flagship processors that would normally appear first, the Core i9, are among them.
For its abilities, the Intel Core i9 needs to be illuminated. As the world's best gaming processor, what is special
about the Core i9 gaming processor is touted. Then, from the previous Intel generation, the Core i9 is reported
to be able to improve the FPS of games by 10 percent. There is also a Turbo Boost Technology 2.0 feature that
can boost the ability of a single core to achieve its full potential (5.0 GHz).Then Intel is here to pamper
innovative actors together with the growing volume of maker material by presenting the new technologies
embedded in Core i9. When capturing games, this processor will increase its multimedia capability by 41
percent, making videos 34 percent faster than before, and a 15 percent increase over the previous version.

The Core i9-9900K type has 8 cores and 16 threads depending on the specs, with speeds ranging from
3.6 GHz for regular use, up to a limit of 5 GHz for heavy processes such as design and gaming. Fitted with an
Intel UHD 620 graphics processor, the L3 cache Core i9-9900K also has a bandwidth of 16 MB. The Core i7-
9700K type of 8 cores and 8 threads, which has a 12 MB L3 cache and a 3.6 GHz - 4, 9 GHz clock, was also
released by Intel (turbo). Then there is a 6 core Core i5-9600K with 6 threads and a 12 MB L3 cache, with a
3.7 GHz - 4.5 GHz clock (turbo).

In addition, Intel inaugurated the Intel Core X series at the same time. There are 7 product lines,
including i7-9800X, i9-9820X, i9-9900X, i9-9920X, i9-9940X, i9-9960X, and i9-9980XE, for Intel Core form
X. With Turbo Boost Max Technology 3.0, Intel Core type X is reported to have 8 to 18 cores in order to
improve its performance better than the standard series.

2019
The Core i10 Comet Lake processor was unveiled by Intel in 2019 as a part of further
enhancement of what the Core i8 Whiskey Lake provides. The Core i10 Comet Lake has the advantage of
6-Core / 12-Thread processor core setups while retaining the TDP level at 15 watts. Of note, this is
preferable to the previous generation, where only 4-Core / 8-Thread was achieved by the processor
cores. The Central i10 Comet Lake's speed has also been increased to DDR-2666 MHz from DDR4-2400
MHz. The Memory / Ram speed also grew to 2933 MHz.
The performance of the Intel Core i10 Comet Lake processor can improve this improvement
relative to its predecessor. Intel has also implemented Intel Adaptix technology on Comet Lake that
helps manufacturers to remove all the output of the Comet Core i10 process from MegaHertz regardless
of the form factor used. Manufacturers should also consider the type of workload being performed and
set as high as possible the level of output of the processor while retaining a steady temperature. Intel
claims that this strategy is said to be capable of rising productivity by 8 percent - 12 percent faster.
Intel also noticed that the Core i7 10710U, the highest version of the COre i10 Comet Lake, is
able to offer 16 percent better performance than the Core i7 8565U, which is the Core i8 Whiskey Lake's
highest variant. Compared to its ancestor, Office 365 efficiency has also improved by 45 percent and all
that is done when retaining battery life.

2020
Intel released the 11th Generation Intel Core processor which is named Tiger Lake and is supported
by Intel graphics Iris Xe. This Intel Iris Xe graphic can strengthen a thin and light laptop based on Windows
and Chrome OS. This enables customers around the world to be more productive and have fun now and in the
future. With Intel Iris Xe graphics, Intel claims to be able to speed up office productivity by 20%. One of them
supports 2.7x faster photo editing and 2x faster video than before.

This 11th generation processor is also the first CPU processor to be embedded with Dolby Vision for
hardware. It is also equipped with Wi-Fi 6 and Thunderbolt 4 which supports four ports. Includes universal
connectivity as well as single access such as charging, external monitors, and extended storage. Tiger Lake is
also claimed to be based on Intel's new SuperFin process technology. This technology supports frequencies of
up to 4.8GHz which can save power when starting the engine, accelerator, and optimizing software.

The Intel Core i7-1185G7 is considered superior in all things needed. Complete with Intel Iris Xe.
Additionally it supports a base frequency of 3.0 GHz, single-core boost of 4.8 GHz, and overall boost up to 4.3
GHz.
The appearance of the Intel Core Tiger Lake was also followed by 150 PC designs from several other well-
known brands including Acer, Asus, Dell, Dynabook, HP, Lenovo, LG, MSI, Razer, Samsung, and others.