JRTAIN WALL. FSCOM-4 18% E AAMA 1995 FIRE SAFETY IN HIGH-RISE CURTAIN WALLS AMA Aluminum Curtain Wall SeriesTABLE OF CONTENTS REFERENCES FIRE SAFETY IN HIGH-RISE CURTAIN WALLS Introduction History . “The Nature of Fire and Smoke . Fire and Smoke Behavior in High-Rise Buildings Heat Transfer ...... : Heat Transfer in High-Rise Buildings .. Heat Transfer Protection . ‘The Codes . Exterior Fire Propagation in Glazed Curtain Wall... DESIGNING FOR FIRE SAFETY Detection ..... ‘Compartmentalization ‘Sprinkler Systems CONCLUSION ....REFERENCES Nicholas, J.D., “Fire Protecting Joints: Fire Bariers versus Fire Stops,* Building Standards/September- October, 1991. Kim, Won K. (Senior Fire Protection Engineer, Professional Loss Control, Houston, Tx.), unpublished thesis, 1991 Bletzaker, RLW., ‘Fire Safety In Big Buildings," News in Engineering, Ohio State University, July 1971, Page 193 Nicholas, J.D., “Making Joint Systems Fire Resistive,” NFPA Journal/March-Apri, 1991 High Rise Building Fire Safety, Bardy, UC Berkeley, lectures delivered at China Productivity Center, March 25.29, 1991. Rockwool Insulations Contain Fire in Aluminum Curtain ‘Walls, Leavit, Building Standards, July-August, 1968. 10, 1" 2 13. 14, Nicholas, .D., “Spectying Joints and Joint Systems for Elevated Concrete Slabs, The Construction ‘Spectier/Apri, 1990. Berl, W.G,, and Halpin, B.M., ‘Fire-Rolatod Fatalities; An ‘Analysis of Their Demography, Physical Origins and Medical Causes," Pages 26-54, Fire Standards and Safety, ST 614- Fire Standards and Safety, AF. Robertson, ed, ASTM, Philadelphia, PA, 1976, Page 20. P.G. Haag & JA. Kern , "Fire Protection Study for the ity of Chicago,” National Loss Control Service Corp., Chicago, iL, 1971. NFPA offices, R, Salomon, October, 1994, Internal Statistics and Quotes. Dronnen, Robert C., High Rise Curtain Wall Adds to Fire Fighting Challenges, Fire Engineering, June, 1994. 15 Kiem, Thomas J., Three Major Highrise Fires Reveal Fire Containment Test of Glass Spandrel Curtain Wall Protection Needs, Fire Fighting, NFPA Journal, with Recessed Thermafiber Insulation for GTE Building, ‘September/October, 1992. by P.S, Quigg for Supe Thermal Systems, August, 1990. 16. Bolas and Beitel, Between the Cracks, Fire Journal, May/June 1988. Preventing Vertical Fire Spread in Aluminum Curtain Walls, Bolles and Bette, Building Standards, Jan-Feb, 1988. Nicholas, s.D., ‘Fire Resistive Joints" Joint Sealing and, Bearing Systems for Concrete Structures/October, 1991. REFERENCE STANDARDS: "ASTM E 84-94, Test Method for Surface Bi ‘Characteristics of Building Materials ASTM E 119-88, Method for Fire Tests of Building Construction and Materials ASTM E 1999-91, Test Method for Cyclic Movement and Measuring the Minimum and Maximum Joint Widths of Architectural Joint SystemsFIRE SAFETY IN HIGH-RISE CURTAIN WALLS PREFACE ‘The purpose of this report is to provide some history ond information regarding the present body of ire protection knowledge ‘8 i impacts crtain wall construction. Litle public research using ‘controled testing has been done to daie to provide the curtain wall ‘nda wath performance baahnes ound in enginenring fis ee designs, It is our Intent to encourage the development of euch data and make if available for public use through further reports INTRODUCTION ‘The advent of high-rise glass and metal curtain walls was, {followed almost immediately by a concer for the fire ‘worthiness of these tall building facades. In the decades, since this type of envelope became popular, there has been considerable study of fire safety aspects, sometimes as a result of actual fires. Laboratory testing has also been conducted with the aim of improving the fire performance of these structures. |i general, tall buildings are among the safest type of structures. Statistics from the National Fire Protection, ‘Association (NFPA) support this fact. Less than 1 percent ‘of the fatalities due to fires occurred in high-rise buildings and an equally small number of major fires reported damages over $250,000 in tall buildings. Studies of many recent fires indicate that more attention should be paid to limiting the spread of fire, smoke and ‘gases between floors. Analysis of major fires in the past and data compiled from laboratory testing of curtain wall designs indicate that steps can be taken to make high- rise buildings stil safer. For example, the importance of curtain wall construction details’ should not be overlooked, In addition, architects and curtain wall designers must pay greater attention to new products. and procedures that enhance there safety of metal and glass walls. Dr. Tibor Harmathy, former head of the Fire Research Section of the National Research Council of Canada has stated, "A competent design team which maintains. constant surveillance over the results of up-to-date research can always increase the level of fire safety far beyond that attainable by simple compliance with building code regulations, usually without any additional expenditures, and sometimes at substantial savings to the builder." Understanding and practicing this, Philosophy is crucial to developing the best fire Protection envelope for a given structure.’ This document: Q Addresses these issues and others particularly as they relate to aluminum curtain walls; Reviews the nature of fire hazards; © Focuses on the points of vulnerability requiring special attention; © Emphasizes the system approach in evaluating Potential fire performance of high-rise buildings. The we are ‘endangered by on a single system. Unfortunately, a growing trend in building construction is sprinkler trade-offs" — the practice of relying solely upon automatic sprinklers and underwriting their cost by eliminating other fire safety features. HISTORY This discussion will be directed toward curtain wall construction in high-rise buildings, structures with 10 or more stories. Fires ically occur in all buildings, including high-rises. Fire safety goals in tall buildings are to: Contain the fre at ts point of origin rotect and remove occupants from danger Limit fire and smoke damage, and 4 Prevent structural failure, The vartety of fires occurring in high-fse buildings over the yours Instat the efeciveness of compartmertalzation ‘and sprinklers, as well as the risks associated with the movernent of fire and smoke between floors. ‘The majority of building fires are brought under control before becoming fully developed. Of 2,222 high-rise building fires analyzed from the National Fire Incident Report System in 1988, all but 305 were confined to first, materials ignited and 181 of those were confined to the room of origin. Of the remaining 124 extensive fires, 76 ‘were contained within the fire rated compartment or the floor of origin.* ‘fire which occurred in 1970 and was contained by fire resistive partitions is discussed by Professor Richard Bletzacker. ‘At 919 Third Avenue the fire started in the {ith floor. This floor had a number of tenants and was, therefore, subdivided by resistive partitions between each tenant space. In this case there was no evidence of design or construction deficiencies and the fire was, confined to the tenant space where it initiated. Forty eight, 2 percent of the total high-rise fires, (or 39, ‘percent of the extensive fires) reported in 1988 spread to ‘additional floors.’ Even though this number is relatively small the of these fires must not be underestimated, as illustrated by the following examples: 1. The 1988 fire in the sbty-wo story steel framed First Exterior glass panels began to break providing an additional ‘souros of axygen to feed the combustion The fre Spread from the thiteenth to the sbteenth floor via exterior venting where the severe fire broke windows, preheated combustibles on the interior, and eventually ignited their contents, Flames also spread through the joint, between the floor/celing slab and the curtain wall."®2. The 1981 Hilton Hotel fire in Las Vegas, Nevada, resuited in 8 fatalities. The fire originated on the eighth floor east tower elevator lobby and developed rapidly due to the combustible interior finishes and furnishings. ‘The fire spread up the exterior of the building, a 30-floor reinforced concrete structure, via radiant heat from the flame front, taking approximately 25 minutes to spread from the eighth to the thirteenth floor. 3. The Occidental Center Tower, the first high-tise building erected in Los Angeles, had a fire in 1977. The ‘exterior curtain wall contained glazed terrazzo tile and tempered glass. The fire was incendiary in origin using a flammable liquid to rapidly create a large fire. Fire- fighters who recelved the alarm three minutes after heat detectors on the twentieth floor were activated found that the fire had already broken windows and entered the twenty-first floor, AG. Drennan, MS. CFPS Fe Preecon & Salty Constr Curtain wall gep post-ire 4, The 1991 fire in the One Meridian Plaza, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, illustrated both the success of sprinkler ‘systems to control fires and the risk of a fire spreading between the floors through unprotected penetrations. ‘This fire began when solvent soaked rags spontaneously ignited on the twenty-second floor. The fire spread from the twenty-second to the thirtieth floor as a result of a ‘combination of unprotected penetrations, power outages. and the improper setting of pressure reducing valves on. the buildings standpipe system. However, the thirtieth floor had been fully retrofitted with a sprinkler system and when the fire reached this floor the sprinkler system activated, bringing the fire under control.” 5. The Market Street (Philadelphia, 1992) fire was reported to have moved from the nineteenth to twentieth floors directly through the gap between the floor slab and curtain wal.'* 6. Other examples of fires moving up a building through unprotected interior penetrations Include the: 1975 Summerand Fire at the Isle of Man, British fsles, which resuted in 50 deaths; 1973 Avianca Building fire in Bogota, Colombia, which resulted in four deaths; and, 1988 Alexis Nihon Plaza fire in Montreal, Canada Examples of fires moving up the outside of the building through windows and broken glass include the 1975 fire in the Espanadale Apartment Building, Chicago, Ilinois, and the 1973 fire in the Pima County Administration Building, Tucson, Arizona. ‘The above examples illustrate the critical importance of ‘sound construction techniques for high-rise building fire safety. THE NATURE OF FIRE AND SMOKE Fire is created by combustion which is a chemical reaction, with cxygen as an essential ingredient. For combustion to cour, fst, Iiquids must be vaporized and solid fusts Ccomverted to a gaseous state by heat. The speed of the reaction is dependent on the availabilty of molecules of ‘gaseous fuel and oxygen tr ‘together. When the proportions are right, ignition can occur, ether from an ignition source or by seitigntion when the ‘mbture reaches a high enough temperature, ‘Once a fire begins, its spread rate is determined by the supply of oxygen. In a tightly sealed compartment, fire will be extinguished when the oxygen is consumed. However, this situation rarely occurs in a building. Air supplied from many sources feeds the fire which continues to spread as sufficient heat is produced to convert other solids to a gaseous state, igniting them. ‘Combustion produces flame, heat, gases and smoke. ‘The flame may be localized, but the effects of heat, gases, and smoke which are particulary life threatening Usually permeate the building. Two of the fire-fightor’s objectives, controlling spread of flame and evacuation of ‘occupants, are seriously hampered by the emission of ‘gaseous products. Fire-fighters must be able to see the fire to fight it effectively and occupants must have sufficient visibilty to find safe exits from the building. ‘Smoke's serious psychological effect can be devastating, ‘often producing disorientation or panic causing injury oF ‘death. Where in fact, the occupants could have been safe from the heat and flames, studies of test results and actual fres show that occupants are often unable to use the stairs to evacuate from the upper floors, even when the fire occurs much lower in the building, because ‘smoke inhibits finding or using them. ‘The gases produced by fire can be very complex because of the variety of building contents, fumishings and decorative materials. Many such products are treated with flame-inhibiting chemicals which decompose in a fire, generating a number of different toxic gases as do some natural and many man-made materials.However, the role of these gases in causing deaths has ‘not yet been clearly determined. In Group A occupancy buildings (Uniform Building Code, Standard Building Code, and BOCA in chapter 3: ‘Use or Occupancy Classification) where code requires fire separation assemblies to have two or three hour ratings, itis known that the contribution of the actual building construction materials to a fire is relatively small. Furnishings and finishes however, may contribute heavily to the fuel load. In addition, modem furnishings contain synthetic, ‘materials whose rate of combustion may be significantly higher than that of previously used materials. ‘Smoke which comprises gases, airbome solids and liquid particles is ‘generated during a fire by the degradation of building materials and furnishings as a result of combustion. In a tall building, smoke inhalation is responsible for as much as 80 percent of fire deaths ‘and therefore can be more life threatening than the actual flames. These deaths mainly occur in a room. ther than the fire's point of origin. Visible smoke contains particles of carbon and hydrocarbons as well as invisible gases which can cause imrtation, coughing, pain and sometimes death. Smoke | spread as the gases expand from the heat. Large curtain wall bullding under construation FIRE AND SMOKE BEHAVIOR IN HIGH-RISE BUILDINGS ‘Superheated gases and smoke spread through a building due to temperature and pressure differentials. This phenomenon, ‘the stack effect, is responsible for fire permeating the infrastructure via inadequately protected openings. This catastrophic effect kills and Injures thousands of people while costing billions of dollars in damage and interrupted services each year. ‘The very nature of a high-rise building creates conditions for the spread of fire and smoke which are not found in other building types. An analysis of the normal pattems, of high-rise interior environment, which may vary from. ‘summer to winter will indicate the possible effect of these pattems on fire spread. Inthe man-made interior environment, inside temperature differs from outside temperature. The difference in air density between the outside and the inside creates, pressure variances. In winter the air inside the building is heated and, since warm air is lighter than cold air ‘outside, it rises to the upper floors. An equal amount of air must be drawn into the building at the lower levels to replace the air escaping at the upper levels. In thesummer this ‘stack effect” is reversed and it is not as pronounced as in the winter because of the smallor ifference between inside and outside temperatures. ‘The major forces propagating smoke in between floors are: The stack effect, buoyancy, expansion, and wind. ‘The stack effect within the’ structure, previously discussed, accelerates the smoke movement. ‘Smoke also has a buoyancy force due to its relatively high temperature and reduced density. The greater air density in the fire compartment creates a postive ait pressure on the fire side of a partition. This buoyancy- induced pressure causes the smoke to move through, openings in the compartment. These openings include the joints between the curtain wall systems and floor/ceiling slabs, windows, doors, elevators, interior ‘construction joints and through-penetrations created for service items such as plumbing, electrical, heating, ventilation, and air conditioning systems. In addition, smoke can expand, particularly, in a ‘compartment having few openings and a large air pressure difference between the fire compartment and its ‘surroundings, However, when many doors and windows are open, the effects of expansion may be negligible. ‘The oxygen rich atmosphere and venting effect caused by these openings may draw the fire towards the adjacent compartment. Wind is also a frequent and important factor in smoke movement. When a fre-induced window break occurs on the leeward side of the building, the smoke is drawn from the fire compartment due to the negative pressure created by the wind's vacuum effect. Conversely, when broken windows are on the windward side, the wind can force the smoke throughout the original fire compartment and into other compartments. If the design of the building is such that all floors have fairy uniform openings, a neutral plane exists at somewhere between 1/3 and 2/3 of the height of the building. In winter, gases will normally exhaust above this plane and infiltrate below it. Wind may affect the pattern of air movement because of positive and negative pressure on the exterior but will not affect the basic direction of the flow. The effect of mechanical air handling systems on building pressure will depend on the balance of supply and exhaust which may, or may not, change the level of the neutral plane. Because such effects may be quite complex, varying between summer and winter conditions, each situation requires its own analysis. ‘These basic building air movements provide the mechanism for spreading smoke when a fire occurs. ‘Obviously, fe on the lower floors of a high-rise building ‘can create severe smoke problems on the floors above, while floors below the fire are seldom affected by smoke, as outdoor air is being drawn in at these levels. All ‘openings must be sealed with fire resistive materials to prevent the spread of flame and smoke to adjacent ‘areas. A relatively small firo may emit tremendous ‘amounts of smoke. This is even truer today because of the newer types of finishes and furnishings. “The air movement pattems within the building provide the paths by which fire can travel as long as fuel is available. With the contents of the building suppiying the fuel and the stack action supplying the oxygen, a fire can ‘quickly achieve high intensity and spread with lightning speed. As the pressure within the fire compartment increases, gases and smoke are forced through all available openings, however inconspicuous. Ducts or ‘other spaces concealed in walls or ceilings become for fire spread and are vulnerable to Gestruction if their enclosures fall under intense heat. The initial building construction may completely conform to fire safety codes and regulations but in subsequent repairs or modifications these requirements may be ‘overlooked creating conditions that faciitate fire and smoke infitration. ‘The proper solution to the complex problem of smoke control and removal is debatable, and experts agree that much more research is needed. HEAT TRANSFER Fire and smoke are very dangerous; however, heat creates both of these entities. Understanding heat transfer can aid in the design of safer curtain walls and buildings. There are three fundamental modes of heat transfer: conduction, convection and radiation. For the purposes of this document, these types of heat transfer shall be defined in terms of heat. Conduction is the heat energy transfer rate within a homogeneous substance without bulk motion of the matter. Convection is the diffusion of heat energy through a liquid or gas by the ‘mation of its molecules. Radiation is the emission and propagation of wave energy from a heat source. Heat transfer is the cause of “lash-over,* the rapid transition from a localized fire to total involvement. There are two periods defining fire growth in terms of threatening a room, pre-flash-over and post-fash-over. Prefash-over fires have not been characterized as major risk. However, much of this depends upon the ‘compartment characteristics in terms of its contents, finishings, and ventilation. According to ‘Fire Safety in Tall Buildings” the three characteristics separating pre- flash-over from post-flash-over are: 4. A sudden, rapid rise in room temperature to over 550°C. 2. A change from the fire being a localized or two- ‘dimensional phenomenon (as at a single burning object or fire moving up a wall) to a three-dimensional one involving the whole room uniformly. 3, A marked propensity of the fire to spread from the ‘compartment of origin.HEAT TRANSFER IN HIGH-RISE BUILDINGS Heat spreads through a building differently than gases ‘and smoke. The origin of the fre radiates, conducts and convects heat to the adjacent compartments raising thelr intial room temperatures until spontaneous combustion ‘occurs creating a flash-over. Flash-over greatly increases the danger to occupants exiting and for fire-fighting Personnel entering the structure, This fact highlights the Reed to contain the fire to its point of origin by ‘compartmental design. ‘Analyzing a compartment design having a curtain wall as ‘one or more of its boundaries Is difficult for many reasons. For example, the fire resistance of the curtain wall is usually different than the room. Further, the curtain wall can be a complex composite of glass, metal, ‘conerete or other materials each having different thermal properties. Consider glass, a good insulator of ‘conductive energy but radiant and convective energy are hardly affected. In addition, the juncture between the floor stab and the curtain wall creates a perimeter joint that must also be considered. A sound approach is one that dissects each element of the compartment and then examines their interaction. For ‘example, a perimeter joint system might have passed ASTM E 119 and ASTM E 1399 when tested with a precast concrete panel, but replacing the panel with a curtain wall may affect its fire resistance. So could changing the systems installation method or fastening technique. Lastly, understanding the test methods and the data generated is paramount to a proper risk assessment. HEAT TRANSFER PROTECTION Curtain walls can be protected from heat transfer at the floor intersections, the perimeter joint, by using materials, that insulate the mullions and panels. However, this may Rot be enough. I the insulation selected does not engulf the mulions or recover after cyclic movement of the Perimeter joint, the potential for failure is stil possible. Materials that are properly assembled to permit flexibility during perimeter joint movement should be used in curtain walls where movement is anticipated before and/or during a fire. ‘The variety of curtain wall materials makes it impractical to specttically address them all in terms of fire protection, The critical issue is the performance of the wall in its assembled form, There are test standards that address Performance issues involving flash-over and flame penetration for walls and joints (Le... ASTM E 118). It is {upto the designer to understand the ertical performance ‘of the materials and ensure the design will meet standards that define an appropriate degree of fire resistance. ‘Aluminum stick curtain wall and insulation after fre THE CODES While building codes specity a room's abilty to contain a fire, there are no such specifications for smoke Containment. in addition, there are no test standards specifically developed to measure smoke and toxic gases penetrating fire resistive construction during a fire, ‘The use of non-permeable building materials and non- Permeating fire resistive joint treatment materials limits ‘smoke and toxic gas migration. Most building codes do not contain requirements for toxicity but there should be concem for this problem. Concems about smoke and limiting toxic gas infitration, can be satisfied to a reasonable degree through discussions with the certified test facility involved in the ‘evaluations of assemblies for smoke penetration Performance, evaluating construction materials past Performance, and considering the overall design. Flame spread tests, ie. ASTM E 84, ‘Test Method for ‘Surface Buming Characteristics of Building Materials," ‘evaluate the density of smoke from and the spread of flames on individual materials. ASTM E 84 is required for rating many building materials (e.g. interior or exterior building panels.) Flame spread tests are sometimes misunderstood or misused in an attempt to address containment of smokeand fire in fire resistive design. Flame spread tests do ‘not measure heat or smoke transition through the tested material. In his paper, "Making Joint Systems Fire Resistive.* J. Nicholas expiains how stringent ASTM E 119 requirements, which address containment, reveal flame spread information as largely superfluous. in evaluating fire barrier performance. ‘Alithese tests generate important information for fre safe design and are required by the codes for various purposes, — Building with ledge to prevent flame spread EXTERIOR FIRE PROPAGATION IN GLAZED CURTAIN WALL Research into exterior vertical spread of fire in conjunction with metal frame curtain walls is further advanced than research into smoke control. A study Conducted as long ago as 1971, done for the city of Chicago, Ilinois, by the National Loss Control Service Corporation showed that 10 percent, or 5 out of 51 high- rise building fires studied, spread outside the windows to the upper floors. The report noted that ‘significant spread, ‘occurred inside buildings only when well recognized fire protection principles of vertical floor opening protection were violated." But *building codes for the most part have not recognized the problem of vertical flame spread. up the outside of buildings via windows although such an avenue of spread is becoming increasingly apparent. Flames impinging on vision glass will cause glass to crack within 15 minutes. In addtion, as heat and pressures build, the glass may fall out. This serves as a Telease valve, ‘venting the heat and lowering the temperature next to the wall by as much as several hundred degrees. However, glass breakage will also add ‘oxygen to help fuel the fire as well as allow the fire to vent to the outside of the building, exposing the upper vision ltes to flames and increasing the possibilty offre spreading to the upper floors. AA fire rated spandrel separation of three feet or greater between floors has been shown to inhibit exterior fire spread to the upper floors for up to 30 minutes. This allows extra time for fire-fighting personnel to respond. If this spandrel separation between vision lites does not exist, some building codes may require an approved flame barrier above the vision ite extending 30 inches in a horizontal plane beyond the exterior wall These design considerations are _not_ always architecturally acceptable and would generally not be required if the building is equipped with an automatic sprinkler system. moDESIGNING FOR FIRE SAFETY In terms of fire resistance, remember redundancy provides safer construction. DETECTION ‘Automatic waning and detection systems are a critical factor in limiting fre spread and loss of life and property. They should always be a part of any fire protection plan along with the following considerations.) COMPARTMENTALIZATION This type of fire resistive construction is passive and begins with the architect's approach to building design. Compartmentalization divides building into sections, which can be isolated from each other. The concepts to restrict the fire to its point of origin in a given compartment. For this reason, code groups and fire authorities have recommended that 10,000 sq, ft. be the ‘maximum compartment size, Itis desirable that in the event of a fre, the effects of this, ‘menace be confined to the floor of origin. The curtain, wall system and the joints between it and the floor slabs play an important role in preventing fire from spreading to the floor above. An effective compartment is designed to contain smoke and fire and minimize structural ‘damage allowing firefighters time to access the building without being overcome by smoke or fearing eminent collapse. Many codes address the fire resistive nature of the building construction and the sealing of through- Penetrations and joints used to accomplish ‘compartmentalization. However, when a compartment includes a curtain wall, there is little code in place to help, the industry's effors in fire safety. ‘A conclusion can be drawn by combining the resutts of ‘a number of full scale tests along with investigations of actual fires such as those outlined in this document.®"* ‘The design of the curtain wall together with the Placement and design of fenestration openings are Critical determinants of whether the structural members can be adequately protected from fire damage. Therefore, the curtain wall must be protected from any structural displacement which could critically limit any attempt to contain the fire. There are many fire resistive materials available to prevent smoke and flame migration through joints ‘between the curtain wall and floor/celling slabs. However, these materials must be evaluated as part of a dynamic system because curtain wall systems may experience ‘movement such as thermal expansion and contraction or live load deflection. If the fire resistive materials rely on compression rather than mechanical means. for placement, the contact pressure exerted by the material ‘when compressed (compression sel) becomes another consideration crtical to long-term performance. This Pressure could decrease with age or temperature Variation and the force needed to secure the material might be overcome by the materials weight. ‘Consequently this could cause the compartmentaiization, to be jeaporidized."* ‘Southwest Reseach Inc.’s- Intermediate scale two-story furnace {or testing foam core curtain wail panels ‘Acceptable mechanical attachment mechanisms include but are not limited to stifeners, pins, screws, etc. While mechanically attached fire resistive materials are not subject to compression deflection, compression set, ‘could affect thelr performance, For example, if a material becomes rigid with age and is over stressed at its. ‘mechanical attachment, it could rip or tear. Failure of any fire resistive assemblies creates openings. ‘for smoke and toxic gases to permeate the floors above the fire. Then, the fire also has access to the unprotected spandrel portion of the curtain wall system. Modified versions of two ASTM tests may be used a8 part of the overall risk assessment of fre resistive assemblies used in joints between the curtain wall and floor slab. These tests are E 119, ‘Method for Fire Tests of Building Construction and Materials," and E 1399, ‘Test Method.for Cyclic Movement and Measuring the Minimum and Maximum Joint Widths of Architectural Joint Systems," which includes fire barriers.° Various development efforts are underway of specific test methods that will allow rating and certification of curtain walls. Design adaptability is one of the greatest advantages of the curtain wall system. With this however, the architecVengineer must be wiling to take an equally adaptive approach to making the curtain wall an effective fire barrier. Properly designed dynamic fire resistive assemblies utilizing materials such as mineral wool, ‘ceramic wool, intumescent, endothermic matting, etc) are critical to the fire resistive performance of the curtain wall system as part of a compartment, Additionally, the appropriate attachment and reinforcement of fre safing materials at vulnerable points such as fenestration openings must be considered an integral part of the initial design process rather than as an afterthought. In light of the above, there are some basic tested approaches to fire containment that can be applied to many curtain wall designs. First, structural supports, such as curtain wall anchorage, should be protected ‘with fire resistive materials. ‘Addressing this issue, the designer needs to remember the curtain wall may be attacked by fire from either the interior or exterior (leap frogging from fenestration, openings). one United States Gypsum Company full scale furnace for testing curtain wall assemblies 8o ‘The second design criteria is to assure that the curtain wall will contain the fire to the compartment of origin. This includes preventing breaches at the joint between the curtain wall and the floor/root slab. Therefore, proper installation of dynamic fire resistive materials so as to limit the fire's spread and smoke migration Is critical, ‘These materials must be appropriately secured in place while being compatible with the design of the curtain wall, This requires taking into account the effect of heat, flames, and gas pressure on the portion of the curtain wall in contact with the fire. However, fire resistive materials alone, between the floor slab edge and the ‘curtain wall system, do not afford fire protection."* They must be part of a fully qualified system which includes the material protecting the curtain wall Thirdly, consideration should be given to the differential movement designed to occur between the curtain wall ‘and other parts of the building. Any fire barrier system Used in joints or otherwise incorporated into the curtain wall must be designed to withstand such movement over the life of the building and still maintain its full fire resistive contribution to the integrity of the compartment. ‘Currently, there has not been enough full scale fire test data generated to allow extrapolation from component testing to predict total system performance. These components include but may not be limited to the curtain wall system, floor/roof siab, and perimeter joints. One ‘way to evaluate a system design is to build a two story test specimen and expose it to @ controlled fire.** When standard approaches to fire resistive designs of these ‘complex intersections are accepted, it will be much easier to standardize the test procedures and interpret, results from smaller scale tests. In the future, an interpolation process could be used to determine the effectiveness of new designs from a base of qualified curtain wall system data. This process is already used by ‘some independent laboratories certified for fire testing. ‘Another possibilty in tall buildings, when subject to the stress of an earthquake, are breaches in compartmental- ization, Though these may be relatively small, they may ‘allow passage of smoke and flame from floor to floor to a much greater degree than under normal circumstances. The following must be addressed by the design Professional when attempting to confine a fire to its point Of origin in a true fire rated compartment comprising a curtain wall as one containment element. The fire resistance of the following must be established: © Curtain wall system comprised of the perimeter joint between curtain wall and floor/roof slabs and the spandrel panel itso © Allintersections between interior fire rated walls and floors; All through-penetration-openings. Curtain walls and their intersections with the building interior should not be a weak link. These issues need to be addressed before compartmentalization of modem high-rise buildings can be realized as an effective fire protection design practice. SPRINKLER SYSTEMS ‘Automatic sprinklers are highly effective elements of total systems design for fire protection in buildings. When, sprinklers are present, the chances of fatalities in a fire ‘and the average property loss per fire are both cut by ‘one-half to two-thirds, compared to fires where sprinklers, ‘ate not present. What's more, this simple comparison nderstates the potential value of sprinklers because it lumps together all sprinklers, regardless of type, ‘coverage, or operational status, and is limited to fires, reported to fire departments. if unreported fires could be included and if complete, well maintained, and properly installed and designed’ systems could be isolated, sprinkler effectiveness would be seen as even more impressive. When measured by the average number of civilian deaths per thousand 1983-1992 fires (and with the limitations cited above), the reduction associated with ‘automatic suppression’ equipment is 49 percent for manufacturing properties (from 2.0 to 1.0 deaths per thousand fires), 53 percent for selected heath care properties that care for the aged or the sick (from 3.8 to 1.8), and 67 percent for hotels and motels ((rom 7.7 to 26" ‘Sprinkler system diagram‘When measured by the average number of dollars lost ‘per 1983-1992 fire (and again with the limitations cited above), reductions associated with automatic Suppression equipment are llustrated by the fellowing: 42 percent for stores and offices (from and average of {$19,300 to an average of $11,200 per fire), 54 percont for ‘manufaoturing properties (Irom $30,400 to $13,900 per fire), 86 percent for selected health care properties that ‘care for the aged or the sick (from $2,800 to $1,000 por fire), and 62 percent for public assembly properties (from ‘$16,900 to $6,400 pr fr)."* When sprinklers do not produce satisfactory results, the reasons usually involve one of more of the following: (1) Partial, antiquated, poorly maintained, or inappropriate systems; (2) Explasions or flash fires that overpower the system botore it can react; or (3) Fires very close to people oF to sensitive, valuable property such that fatal Injury or expensive damage, respectively, can occur before @ system can react. “Poor maintenance’ refers primarily to the problem of valves belng shut off and inadvertently left shut of. "inappropriatet systems are ‘systems whose design Is not adequate for the current level of hazard in the building. "* Effective “comparmentalization Is synergistically ‘complemented by sprinkler systems. Casa studios confirm that when a fire has been able to move through ‘@ buliding which does not contain active sprinklers on all ‘floors, the fire tonds to devastate the unprotected areas. ‘and be extinguished upon reaching the floors with active sprinklers. Of the 37 ‘cases of tall-bullding fires coed In *Fire Safety In Tall Bulldings* (deta taken from National Fire Protection Association and chosen to illustrate a variety of causes and outcomes), in 20 cases there was no sprinkler system, in two cases only a partial sprinkler system existed, and in three cases the sprinklers were confined to the basemont area. itis likely ‘hat, had each of these buildings been equipped with a ‘complete automatic sprinkler system, most of these fires ‘would have been controlled or extinguished much faster ‘and with a great reduction of loss of fe and property. {n the 1901 fire in the 38story One Meridian Plaza Bullding, which appeared to start on the twenth-second ftoor, buried out of control for 18-1/2 hours before being stopped by the thirtieth floor sprinklers. Originally bult in 1972, the building only had sprinklers in three basement levels. and on levels 30, 31, 84, 35 and 37. During the previous two years the Gwnors had just stared to install ‘sprinklers. Even with failure of the building's electrical ‘system and backup generators, this is stil another example of the value of sprinklers in high-ise ‘construction. ‘Automatic sprinkler systame are designed to control the fire until such time as ft can be extinguished by fire ‘suppression personnel, This ideally eliminates the Possibility of the room of origin reaching a state of flash- ‘over which Is defined by the fire beyond a localized burning condition to full room invoWement. The exterior wall design, its intersection with the coiling plenum, and window opening locations must be considered when designing and locating sprinkler ‘systems to prevent flash-over, Systems which are not properly maintained, or which do ‘not have a reliable water supply may not aways be ‘expected to be effective. Sprinkler systoms are designed to be highly reliable by using equipment and materials which are designed for use on those systems. Special provisions are Included to ensure thet the materials have @ fire endurance which will ensure Continuous operation of the system during a fire. System piping should be braced to resist breakage or damage from earthquakes.”* Its also important to be aware that the effectiveness of sprinkler systems during or immediately after seismic ‘activity may be reduced, During an earthquake the water supply may be disrupted or the storage tanks damaged ‘or the electrical supply and subsequent back-up systems may be rendered inoperable, These possiblities could limit the effectiveness of the sprinkler systems. CONCLUSION Perhaps the best method of controlling fie spree: in tall buildings is the combined use of well maintained automatic detection systems, complete ‘compartmentalization including the curtain wall, and automatic sprinklor systems. 4 DETECTION ¢ provides early waming to building occupants 4% allows for immediate notification of the fre department ‘COMPARTMENTALIZATION + contains fire, smoke, and toxic gases to ‘compartment of origin + structural supports must be protected ‘SPRINKLERS: 4 most efficiont at controling fires 4 must be effectively maintained ALT LIBRARY 10