"TAIN WALL CW-RS-1 ] cura AAMA Rev. 1/96 ~ THE RAIN SCREEN PRINCIPLE AND PRESSURE-EQUALIZED WALL DESIGN AAMA Aluminum Curtain Wall Series ‘ . x . ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~This issue of Aluminum Curtain Walls is devoted principally to the exposition of an important development in curtain wall design, the “rain screen principle" and its application ‘The rain screen principle may be defined as a theory governing the design of a building enclosure in such a way as 10 prevent ater penetration due to rain; in other words, a scientific approach to eliminating wator leakage, What is referred to as the “rain screen’ is the exposed outer skin fF surface element of the wall, backed by an air space and so designed that it shields the wall joints from wetting. It is made resistant to water penetration, not by sealing its joints and ‘openings but by eliminating the pressure diferences-or equalizing the pressures-occurring on its inner and outer surfaces, while the primary wall joint seals are removed from this outer wall face to the inner part ofthe wall, where they are kept dry. Thus, instead of the joint seals being subjected to both water and wind pressure, a two-stage protection is provided, the rain screen shielding against water penetration and the joint seals only against air penetration, ‘The theories involved are not new, but are, in fact, based on long ecognized natural laws. The potential significance of the rain ‘screen principle in curtain wall design, however, has become recognized only within the past several years and its design implications are stil not well understood by many. Itis the purpose of the following article to clarify the basic theory and illustrate ts applications, to provide an instructive report on the state ofthe art, This booklet was developed by representative members of AMA as advisory information and published as a public Service, AAMA disciaims all labilty forthe use, apolcation ‘or adaptation of matenals published herein Copyign® 1996 ‘American Architectural Manufacturers Association 1540 East Dundee Road; Suite 310, Palatine, llinols 60067 347/202-1350 [ROURE) Force Ang ove Wate Tvaigh an OpingTHE RAIN SCREEN PRINCIPLE AND = PRESSURE-EQUALIZED WALL DESIGN One of the most reliable ways of eliminating water leakage in metal curtain walls and windows is to apply the rain screen principle in their design, providing pressure equalization. Yet there seem to be relatively few designers who have a clear understanding of the full implications of this design theory, and probably most architects will confess to only a general concept Of the meanings of these terms. Even the few acknowledged experts who have pioneered in the application of these principles point out that they stil have much to learn about them. Itis the purpose of this article to clanfy these principles and to explore their implications in aluminum curtain wall design; in short, to report on the state of the art. For the benefit of the uninitiated, the basic theories will be reviewed, but those who are already acquainted with these fundamentals will ikely be more interested in the discussion of their application and the attendant considerations. It should be recognized, to begin with, that the terms “rain soreen principle” and “pressure-equalized design,” though closely related and, in fact, interdependent, are not strictly synonymous. The “rain screen” is only the outer skin or surface of a wall or wall element-the part exposed to the weather. The “rain screen principle” is a principle of design which prescribes how penetration of this screen by rain water may be prevented. Thus the use of the rain screen principle is, essential to achieving a pressure-equalized design, and conversely, a pressure-equalized design depends on this principle. It must be understood, too, that the provision of true pressure equalization may be difficut, and in some cases impractical With certain types of windows and glazing systems itis a rather simple matter, requiring litle if any additional expense. In metal curtain wall, however, the achievement of pressure equalization may become a complex problem, involving careful and often ingenious detailing, and often if may not be feasible. Pressure equalization should not be confused, as some designers may do, with the more “conventional” and long accepted “theory of secondary defense," depending on a drainage system within the wall-a theory which, when properly applied, has also proven to be dependable. It is noteworthy, to9, that in Europe the more cumbersome but perhaps more descriptive term “two-stage method of weathertightening” is, widely used in place of the term “pressure equalization method.” The reasons for this will become apparent later. Historical Background Briefly, the rain screen principle is a theory governing the design of a building enclosure in such a way as to prevent water penetration due to rain. Although in rare instances this principle has been applied to the design of roofing systems, most its applications have been in walls and windows, and the concern ofthis discussion willbe limited to these areas. This is not a new principle. It is based on long-recognized fundamental laws of physics. But the recognition of how these gmaprinciples may be effectively applied in modern buildings ¥'to prevent leakage has developed-or perhaps been rediscovered-only recently. As will be seen, the rain screen principle has actually been used for many years in some of the Older types of wall construction, but probably its use in these cases has been intuitive rather than scientifically inspired. In modern times, it appears to have been the Norwegians who, about 35 years ago, first initiated a scientific investigation of the mechanism of water leakage, being first concerned only with the performance of their traditional out-swinging wood casement windows, then later with walls. Subsequently, the scientists at the Canadian National Research Council's Division of Building Research, being impressed by the work of the Norwegian Building Research Institute, also began a serious study of wall leakage, following similar lines of investigation. Probably the first significant publication on the subject to reach this country was a small booklet entitled “Curtain Walls,” by Qivind of the Norwegian Building Research Insttute, published in 1962. In this treatise, the principles of what was then referred to as the “rain barrier” were explained and discussed. In the following year there appeared the first Canadian publication on the subject, a small pamphlet by G.K. Garden of the National Research Council of Canada, entitled, “Rain Penetration ang Its Control.” It was in this paper that the terms “rain soreen” and “rain screen principle” frst appeared This publication, designated as CBD40, is stil considered a prime reference source and copies are still available. Subsequently, Mr. Garden and his associates in the Division of Building Research have published a number of supplementary Papers and articles dealing in more detail with many aspects, of the subject of leakage and its prevention. It is to these publications, and to discussions with those responsible for them, that the author is particularly indebted for much of the information presented here, Action of Rain Water on a Wall Surface Before examining what causes water to enter a wall, and how the rain screen principle may be applied to prevent it, it would be well to review briefly how rain water acts on a wali surface, and what are the most vulnerable parts of the wall. An important factor, of course, is the absorptivity of the exposed wall material. On a masonry wall, unless its surface is well protected by a sealer, an appreciable amount of the water is absorbed, in blotter fashion. This absorption is generally distributed over the entire masonry surface: the joints, if properly pointed, are no more vulnerable than the remainder of the surface. Subsequently, uniess there are weaknesses in the wall which permit through penetration, this absorbed water evaporates as the wall dries out. The advent of thinner wall veneers in modern times has increased the probability that absorbed water will penetrate to the interior surfaces and provisions must be made to control this penetration. On non- Porous materials such as metal and glass the action is quite different, and more critical. None of the rain water striking such materials is absorbed; it all has to be controlled if leakage is to be prevented. A substantial fm of water flows down the wall surface and, if wind is present, as is often the ‘case when i's raining, the water flows laterally, and on parts ofthe buiiding facade it may flow upward as well. The taller the building, the greater will be the accumulated flow over the lower parts of its walls. Lateral flow under wind pressure is greatest near the windward corners of the building, and Upward flow is maximum at or near the top of the building facade facing the wind. If there were some practical and acceptable method of providing an unbroken impervious membrane on the face of the building there would be no leakage problems. All of the water stking the wall would either flow to the ground or be blown away from the surface around the corners or over the top. But unfortunately no such cure-all has yet been found, ‘and is unlikely that it wil be, in the foreseeable future. We still have to deal with points of vulnerability, joints and openings. Under wind pressure much of the lateral flow becomes concentrated at vertical iregulartes in the wall surface, either projections or depressions, and some of these vertical irregularities are joints. The smoother the wall surtace and the greater the distance between such joints, the greater will be the water concentration at the joints. Generally, the flow of water in vertical joints is much greater that the average flow ‘over the wall, and vertical joints have therefore been found to be prime contributors to leakage."* Mechanics of Water Leakage and Alternative Preventive Measures Perhaps the clearest way to explain the mechanics of water leakage is to use a simple analogy relating to fire. In order to produce a flame, three ingredients are essential: there must be fuel, heat and oxygen. If any one of these three essentials is lacking there can be no fie, In precisely the same way, water leakage depends also upon three essentials: there musi be 1) water, 2) an opening, and 3) some kind of force to mave the water through the opening. Again, if any of these three essentials is removed, no leakage will occur. This basic fact must be Kept in mind in considering the alternative methods of preventing leakage. ‘The conventional approach to stopping water leakage due to rain has long been the elimination of the opening. It has seemed obvious that ths is the one essential to leakage which could be controled; that the presence of both the water and the force of wind must be accepted as inevitable. But the rain screen principle challenges this assumption, focusing attention instead upon the elimination ofthe third essential, force. Recognizing that it any one of the three essentials is lacking there can be no leakage, the possibilty of eliminating each of these three must be objectively re-examined. Consider for a moment the possibilty of eliminating the presence of water on the walls of bilings. By means of wide overhangs, projecting floors or shading devices the wall can be partially protected from wetting, and by setting windows in deep recesses their wetting can be reduced. But until that questionable Utopia of the completely enclosed, air conditioned city is realized wo aren't very likely going to Keep the whole wall dry. Most walls will continue to get very wet: there's litle likelinood, in the predictable future, of being able to eliminate that first essential, the presence of water {As for the second essential, the opening, very substantial and often successful efforts have been directed at its elimination. There are some very good sealing materials now. Even the best of these materials, though, may be improperly used, and joint failures are by no means uncommon. If the seal is located Where it must prevent the passage of both water and air, for an indefinite period, it must be perfect. There are no sealing materials that can be unconditionally guaranteed to do this. The fact must be faced that all joints cannot be permanently kept impervious to leakage; we can't fuly depend on being abie to eliminate the second essential, the opening, It seems, then, that one cannot rely upon removing either ofthe first two essentials to leakage, the water and the opening. But how about eliminating the third one, the force? By applying the rain screen principle this can be done, and always with greater assurance of permanency that results from efforts to eliminate the opening, ‘Types of Force and Their Control: The Rain Screen Principle There are various forces which must be considered, and some ‘of them do not result from wind action. In some circumstances Coniy one or two of these forces may be present, but in a windy gy rainstorm all of them will likely be acting to move the surface water through any available opening. For each type of force there must be a counter measure, i it is to be eliminated. Appropriate methods of counteracting most of these forces are well known and have long been used, but the means of Combatting the others, which are usually the most ertical, is provided only by applying what is known as the rain screen principle All of the forces are illustrated schematically in Figure 1 Probably the most familiar of these is the force of gravity (A). This has long been recognized in joint design, a knowledge of the means of controling itis elementary, and leakage due to gravity action usually occurs only because of ignorance or carelessness on the part of the designer. Another force is, kinetic energy (B). Under the influence of wind, raindrops approach the wall surface with considerable velocity, and their momentum alone may carry them through openings of sufficient size. Cover battens, splines or internal batfles can be Used to prevent rain entry due to this type of force. A third factor-not, strictly speaking, a force-which sometimes contributes to leakage, as a result of improper design, is the surface tension of water, which causes it to cling to and flow along soffit areas, as indicated at (C). The preventative to this action, of course, is the use of a drip at the outer edge of the overhang. Still another generally recognized but too often ‘overlooked force is capillary action (D), which is likely to occur whenever the space separating two wettable surfaces is small The way to control water flow by capillaity is to introduce a discontinuity, or air gap, in the joint, of greater width than the tS capillary path, as shown in Figure 2. All of these first fourforces and characteristics, then, are well recognized and quite readily controled by conventional design methods. Its the other two types of force shown in Figure 1, the forces ‘caused by wind action, which are the most eriical and most difficult to combat. Air currents (E) may resutt from differences in wind pressures over the wall surface, or from convection within wall cavities, and these may carry water into the wall ‘Also, when water is present on one side of an opening, and the air pressure on that side is greater than that on the other side, the water will be moved through the opening, no matter how small, in the direction of the pressure drop (F). Such pressure differentials may be caused even by gentie winds. It is this latter type of force, differential pressure, which causes most ofthe leakage at wall joints. As previously mentioned, the Conventional approach to combatting It has been to attempt to eliminate all openings by tight sealing, but the more effective and more reliable approach is to eliminate the pressure differential across the opening-to equalize the pressures on its ‘opposite sides. It is this approach that is known as the rain soreen principle. In applying this principle, the prime requisite, therefore, is to provide an air space within the wall, behind the exterior facing, in which the air pressure will be af least as high, at all points and at all times, as the outdoor air pressure opposite; to provide pressure equalization on the two sides of the exterior facing, or rain screen. Of course, it the air pressure in this space should be higher than the outdoor pressure, leakage is automatically prevented. Pressure equalization is accomplished by not tightly sealing the joints in the exterior facing, but purposely leaving many or all of them open. To quote ‘the 1962 Norwegian publication, “The only practical solution [to preventing water leakage) is to design the exterior rain-proof finishing so open that no super-pressure can be Created over the joints or seams in the finishing. This effect is achieved by providing an air space behind the exterior finishing, but with connection to the outside air. The surges of air pressure created by the gusts of wind wil then be equalized ‘on both sides of the exterior finishing. ‘As will be seen later, this is not simply a ventlated space, in which air currents may occur due to pressure differences within the space. To be effective it must be confined air space, and it is this essential that imposes many of the design ‘complexities encountered in the application of the rain screen principle, The fundamental concepts of the rain screen and a pressure- equalized wall system are illustrated schematically in the sketches of Figure 3. In al of these sketches the outdoor side of the wall is at the left. Sketch A indicates how, with the larger pressure on the outside, water is normally drawn through any opening in the outer skin by the difference in pressure. In Sketch B, the pressures on the two sides of this outer surface are made equal and, provided that the opening (or joint) is designed to prevent leakage by gravity, kinetic energy, surface tension of capillary action, water cannot pass through it. All of the ‘moving forces” are eliminated ori FIGURE +The Lamtoroet Wat controlled. But in order to produce and maintain pressure behind the outer skin, the air on that side must be contained; there must be an inner air barrier, as shown in Sketch C. This, continuous interior barrier serves also, of course, to help control the environment within the building. The pressure- ‘equalized wall consists essentially, then, of an outer open skin (the rain screen) and an inner tight wall, with an air space between the two. The pressure within this air space is maintained equal to that on the outdoor side by connecting the space with the outdoors and sealing the joints in the inner bartier against air flow. Thus the pressure differential between the outdoors and the building interior occurs, not at the outer wall face but at the inner air barrier. Consequently this barrier must be more than simply an impervious film; it must be structurally capable of withstanding pressures due to wind loads. But because the inside barrier Is protected from wetting, the seals at its joints do not have to protect against the flow of both air and water. To make the construction generally acceptable as a building wall, insulation must be added on the indoor side of the air space, as shown in Sketch D. It should bbe noted that the air barrier may be a continuous membrane placed on either side of the insulation or either side of the interior wall element; it can be the interior finish of the wall, provided this contains no open joints. Figure 4 illustrates diagrammatically the ideal leakproof wall ‘employing the rain screen principle. The essential elements are: 1) an exterior rain screen or deterrent barrier to water penetration, 2) a confined air space, open to the outdoors, 3) insulation,’ and 4) an interior barrier which prevents the passage of air and vapor and is capable of withstanding wind pressures. As it should be assumed that some minor leakage ‘may, on occasion, occur through the rain screen, the air space should always be drained to the outside. The basic objective is, to provide the major deterrent to water leakage at the outside face of the wall, and the seal against air and vapor passage (on the indoor side of the air space, where the “primary seal" Is, exposed to litle if any water; not to attempt to seal against both water and air at the same place. It is for this reason that such a system is usually referred to in Europe as the two- stage method of weathertightening, The Rain Screen Principle in Wood and Masonry Walls As already observed, the application of the rain screen principle in wall construction is not new. It has been used, either consciously or instinctively, in some of the older types of wall construction, as illustrated in Figure 5. In conventional Wood frame walls, wood shingles serve as an admirable rain screen, with joints open to the weather, permitting the space between the shingles and the sheathing to be pressure- equalized, Wood siding in the form of clapboards provides the same function if the joints atthe lower edges are left at least partially ‘open, as they should be, rather than being sealed shut with paint. The brick veneer wall over wood frame construction, ©and the cavity masonry wall are other classic examples. in both cases the outer withe of brick, if adequately vented and properly flashed at its base, forms a rain screen with a pressure-equalized space behind it. These types of wall construction are well known to be free of water leakage problems, Figure 6 shows the joint details in the precast concrete facing panels on the walls of a new municipal concer hall in Canada, {as reported in Canadian Building Digest (CBD) No. 97. This illustrates how the rain screen principle is being employed on ‘some of the larger monumental structures. Quoting from the report, “As they were aware of the rain screen, or two-stage weathertightening principle, the designers specified that all joints in the precast cladding should be left open. The horizontal joints were sloped toward the exterior and the verticai joints were halt-lapped, but a 1/2-inch wide clear space was maintained between’ all panels. In the first four years this building has been in service, there has been no indication of rain penetration, nor even of partial penetration of the open joints. ‘An interesting experience with another concrete-faced building is described in the same publication. In this case a preformed back-up bead was placed in the hall-lapped and caulked vertical joints, preparatory to later pointing the joints with an elastomeric sealant. But due to cold weather the installation of the sealant had to be delayed for six months, and the sections of back-up bead were placed with gaps of 2 to 3 inches at frequent intervals, with the upper end of each length turned inward, in shingle fashion, to shed water. No rain penetration was observed during the six months’ delay, but within a few ‘months after the joints were fully sealed leakage “became a serious problem." Rudimentary Applications in Metal Wall Joints and Windows The foregoing example illustrates how the rain screen principle may be applied to a wall faced with panels of precast a Joints Between Metal Panels Joints Between Thin Metal Facings FIGURE 7 Apptcations of he Run erven Prine n deat Detar concrete. As shown in Figure 7, it may be applied also, of course, to double-faced metal panel wails and, in some degree, even to joints between thin metal panels. As itis the vertical joints which are generally most vuinerable to leakage, only vertical joints are shown in these examples. Because an intermediate air space is essential, it’s easier to provide Pressure equalization in the joints between thick panels, Where there is some distance between the outer and inner faces, than to provide it in joints between thin panels. But even where pressure equalization may be impractical on this, account, as in the two lower examples in the Figure, the principle of protecting the primary seal from direct exposure to water can stil be observed, and this alone will greatly imorove the durability of the seal The lower rail detail of an outward-projecting aluminum window, shown at A in Figure 8, represents one of the eariest commercial uses in this country of the pressure equalization principle in window design. The manufacturer of this window found, some years ago, that by deliberately opening a gap between the lower lip of the ventilator frame flange and the window frame sill, instead of attempting a tight seal along thisedge, the weather-sealing performance of the window under sever leakage tests, was greatly improved. Other window manufacturers have subsequently adopted this principle in the design of various types of windows, and a detail of one of these windows is shown at B in Figure 8. Pressure Equalization in Metal Curtain Walls Even though experience with the application of the rain screen principle in metal curtain wall design has, to date, been rather limited in the United States, there is no doubt that itis one of the most important design principles yet advanced, The designers of some of the major wall jobs, being convinced that it offers the best assurance of leakproof construction, have carefully detailed these walls to provide pressure equalization ‘As the principle becomes more widely recognized and better understood, more and more pressure-equalized designs are appearing, both in walls and windows, and other less sophisticated applications of certain aspects of the rain screen principle are becoming evident. But a truly pressure-equalized design requires meticulous attention to details, and is seldom achieved easily, even by wellinformed experts. In many instances designers having a general concept of the principles involved, but not being fully Cognizant of al oftheir implications, have produced what were ‘thought to be pressure-equalized designs, only to find, under dynamic testing, that the walls or windows leaked badly. And it is generally agreed that for designs of this type, which are inherently sensitive to wind pressure fluctuations, dynamic testing is much more critical, and therefore more meaningful, than static testing. Since the interior air bartier is an essential element in such designs, it is imperative, of course, that this barrier, however provided, be incorporated in the test ‘specimen, ‘To appreciate the many implications of pressure-equalized design, and the reasons why some essential requirements may easily be overlooked, the basic principles must be re- ‘examined. The prime requirement, it must be remembered, is that the pressure within the air space behind the rain screen be at least as high, at all exterior openings and at all times, as the ‘outdoor pressure at these openings. Obviously, if it were lower, water would be drawn into this space. But wind pressures vary Continuously and considerably over the face of a building, and the larger or taller a facade, the greater will be the variation Positive pressures near the ground are much less than those near the top of even a medium-height building, and those near the center of the facade are usually greater than those near the corners. Projecting elements such as mulions, column covers, and even horizontal rails have a profound effect on the “micro pattern” of pressures. Under most wind conditions there will likely be positive pressure on one side of such projecting elements and negative pressure on the other. Consequently, & horizontal rail section extending between two mulions may be subjected to pressure at one end and suction at the other. It is the necessity of providing for such variables and unknowns as these which, in large degree, complicates the design of an effective pressure equalization chamber behind the outer skin of the building Segmentation of the Air Space When itis remembered that the air pressure within the space behind the rain screen is obtained by providing openings to the outside, the implications of this ever-changing pattern of wind pressures on the exterior skin of the building should become readily apparent. Assume, for example, that an air chamber is provided within a 6-toot long horizontal rail member, with openings to the outside at each end, If at one end the exterior wind pressure is 20 psf when at the other itis Cniy 10 psf the pressure within this space will be about 15 psf Air will then flow through the member. Instead of having pressure equalization, there will be a negative pressure at the end subjected to the 20 psf outside pressure, and any water present there will be drawn info the opening at that end. One basic requirement regarding the design of the air chamber behind the skin thus becomes obvious: to prevent the entrance of water It cannot be a large space with a number of widely spaced openings to the outside. Instead, it must be of limited size; it should be subdivided into relatively small areas, and each compartment would ideally have only one opening to the exterior. Often, though, the provision ofa single opening is impractical several openings are usually provided, but they should not'be widely separated. Generally, itis advisable to place these openings in the soffit areas of horizontal members, where they are protected from heavy wetting and may be shielded by interior baffles if necessary, but if carefully detailed they may sometimes be placed in vertical members. The minimum dimension of such openings must be such that they will not be bridged by water in a heavy rainstorm, causing a pressure diferential or capillary action-certainly no less than +4". it mullions or column covers are used as alr chambers, they should be blocked off horizontally at height intervals of ‘not more than two stories, to minimize chimney action, Regarding the importance of segmentation, or Comipartmentation, Messrs. Dalgliesh and Garden of Canada's NRC have this advice: “By compartmentation ofthe caviy, the range of pressure differences acting on any cavity Compartment may be greatly reduced. It is proposed that unt further pertinent information becomes available verticalclosures should be provided at each outside comer of a building and at 4-foot intervals for about 20 feet from the ‘comers. Horizontal closures should be used near the top of the wall It is also considered advisable that both vertical and horizontal closures be positioned up to 30 feet on centers over the total wall area. It should be noted that these cavity ‘closures (or partitions) need not provide a complete air seal but must be sufficient to allow the appropriate pressure difference between cavity compartments to develop. It is possible to follow a similar approach to deal with the problem Of achieving pressure equalization in spaces or cavities where ‘abrupt variations occur at projections and recesses.” Importance of the Interior Air-Vapor Barrier In addition to segmentation, there is also the necessity of confining the air within the equalization chamber by an effective structural barrier on the interior side. Obviously, if pressure within the chamber is to be maintained there can be rot substantial leakage to the interior of the building where, under storm conditions, the pressure is much lower than on @ windward wall. Failure to recognize the importance of both ‘continuity and structural capacity of the interior air barrier is another common cause of the malfunction of supposedly pressure-equalized wall designs. ‘A not uncommon evidence of the oversight of this requirement by the designer is the provision, in window sill condensation gutters, of weep holes leading directly into a pressure equalization chamber. The logic of this practice may be seriously questioned, as it results in a deliberate penetration of the air barrier, reducing the pressure within the chamber and of necessity decreasing its effectiveness. Practical Limitations in Design In theory, the joints in the exterior wall surfacing, or rain soreen, should be deliberately left open, the air pressure in the space behind this screen should be equal to or higher than that on the exterior at all such openings, and the air-vapor barrier behind the air space should be tightly and continuously sealed, But for practical reasons this ideal situation is seldom attainable, and some degree of intelligent compromise becomes not only acceptable but often advisable. In practice the theoretical requirements reduce to relative values. Water leakage is minimized, it not entirely eliminated, by minimizing the pressure differential across the joints in the exterior skin Some of these joints may be left open, but usually the ‘openings to the air space are provided in other locations, as mentioned; most of the joints in the rain screen will contain a deterrent seal-a seal that will tend to prevent the entrance of water but is not relied upon for this function. The pressure within the air space Is essentially the same as the exterior pressure, and the air-vapor barrier on the inside is relatively airtight, f the pressure equalization chamber is to effectively serve its purpose, the critical essential is that the total area of ‘openings to the exterior be many times larger than the aggregate area of all openings connecting the chamber to the interior of the building. How much greater has not yet been definitely determined, but experience indicates that a ratio of ten to one is probably minimal. Design Examples Figures 9 and 10 illustrate schematically, without the complexity of precise detailing, how pressure equalization has been provided in two metal curtain walls. The design shown in Figure 9 is representative of a proprietary “stick system” wallwhich has been widely used for a number of years, with remarkable freedom from leakage problems of any kind. The wall illustrated in Figure 10 is essentially similar to one installed on an important high-rise building in Canada, Other pressure-equalized walls have been buill or are now in the Drocess of design or construction, but these two representative ‘examples should serve to illustrate in concrete fashion the application of the principles discussed, Glazing Details The pressure equalization principle may be applied also to glazing details by providing the same essentials: an outer deterrent seal, a pressure-equalized air space surrounding the glass at its edges, and a continuous inner air-vapor seal. Such applications may be a litle more difficult when using relatively thin single-thickness glass than when using insulating glass, because of the small rabbet space in which to provide an effective air chamber. Tne importance of continuity of the interior air barrier must be recognized. When outside glazing stops are used the provision of such a barrier poses no great problems, provided special care is taken to seal the corner joints of the window ‘frame. When inside stops are used the design becomes a litle more complicated, The commonly used snap-on stops, with their loosely fiting butt joints at the comers, do not provide an effective air seal. But by employing a special retainer member on the inside of the glass, sent in a suitable sealant and carefully sealed at the corners before installing the snap-on stop, an effective inside barrier can be provided, Figures 11 and 12 illustrate glazing details in which pressure ‘equalization is provided. Figure 11 shows a representative sil detail of a pressure-equalized vertically pivoted window in which insulating glass is used. Windows of essentially similar design are commercially available in the United States and Canada. Figure 12 shows suggested methods for pressure- equalizing single thickness glazing, using either inside or outside applied stops. Summary Undoubtedly, the most consistently troublesome problem experienced in the past wih curtain wall construction has been the reliable prevention of water leakage. Over the years some excellent sealants have become available and these, along with improved designs, have greatly reduced this problem. It seems clear, however, that the rain screen principle offers one of the most logical ang dependable approaches to the solution of this problem. The use of this principle does not eliminate the need for sealants; in efet it Simply moves them from the erfeal outer face ofthe wall 0 ihe inner part ofthe wall, where they are fuly protected from weather effects and can be expected to provide much greater Gurabity. crac =e accrion « mY‘The successful use of the rain screen principle in providing a pressure-equalized design requires: 1) a clear understanding of the implicit requirements, 2) thoughtful, and perhaps ingenious detailing, and 3) watchful supervision during installation to see that the essentials are provided. The substance of the rain screen principle is to minimize or eliminate the forces which move water through an exterior ‘opening, rather than eliminating the opening itself. To do this, it necessitates: 1) an exterior rain bartier, or deterrent to water penetration, not tightly sealed but with protected ‘openings to the outdoors, 2) a back-up air space in which the air pressure is essentially equal to the outdoor air pressure, and 3) a relatively impervious structural barrier to air and vapor on the indoor side of this air space. Stated in another way, the objective is to provide a deterrent to leakage at the outer wall surface, and a primary seal in a relatively dry location; to avoid subjecting the seal to both water and an ait pressure differential. Even when pressure equalization may be impractical, the observance of this aspect of the principle-the protection of the seal from critical exposure to ‘water—will greally improve joint performance. Although the validity of this design principle is unchallenged, its application is seldom easy. There are, and will ikely continue to be, certain areas in which it is impractical, and other details which can merely be improved to some degree dy recognition of the primary objectives. Pressure ‘equalization, or the “two-stage method of weathertightening" has already been used very successfully in many wall designs. It seems likely that, with the accumulation of more stil-needed information, and more experience, it will, in the not-too-distant future become the generally accepted approach to weatherproof wall construction. ‘Acknowledgment: For their generous assistance in providing information essential to the preparation of this article, the author is particularly grateful to Mr. James A. Sasaki, Mr Viadar Alter and Mr. A.A. Sakhnovsky. References: For further information on the subject, the reader is relerted to the folowing: 4. Birkeland, @, “Curtain Walls,” Handbook 118, Norwegian Building Research institute, 1962. 2. Garden, G.K., “Rain Penetration and its Control,” CBD40, National Research Council, Canada, 1963. 3. Garden, G.K., ‘Joints Between Prefabricated Components," Proceedings of Seminar on Building With Prefabricated Components, Montreal, 1963, 4. Garden, G.K., “Glazing Design,” CBDSS, National Research Counc, Canada, 1964 5, Garden, G.K., and Dalgliesh, W.A., “Influences of Wind Pressures on Joint Performance,” Technical Paper 264, National Research Council, Canada, 1968. jan. Garden, G.K. “Look at Joint Performance,” CB097, National Research Council, Canada, 1968. ESHA RE Te commen | semessaonter seme BERS. "SH Dota fr Prasere-quatis Pete Window