Applied

Mechanics

MUHAMMAD HARIS
SIDDIQUI
 UNIT – 1: Introduction to statics:

Engineering Statics is the gateway into engineering mechanics, which is the application of
Newtonian physics to design and analyze objects, systems, and structures with respect to motion,
deformation, and failure. In addition to learning the subject itself, you will also develop skills in
the art and practice of problem solving and mathematical modeling, skills that will benefit you
throughout your engineering career.

The subject is called “statics” because it is concerned with particles and rigid bodies that are in
equilibrium, and these will usually be stationary, i.e. static.

The chapters in this book are:

 Introduction to Statics— an overview of statics and an introduction to units and problem

solving.
 Forces and Other Vectors— basic principles and mathematical operations on force and
position vectors.
 Equilibrium of Particles— an introduction to equilibrium and problem solving.
 Moments and Static Equivalence— the rotational tendency of forces, and simplification
of force systems.
 Rigid Body Equilibrium— balance of forces and moments for single rigid bodies.
 Equilibrium of Structures— balance of forces and moments on interconnected systems of
rigid bodies.
 Centroids and Centers of Gravity— an important geometric property of shapes and rigid
bodies.
 Internal Loadings— forces and moments within beams and other rigid bodies.
 Friction— equilibrium of bodies subject to friction.
 Moments of Inertia— an important property of geometric shapes used in many
applications.

Scalars and vectors

are two kinds of quantities that are used in physics and math.

Scalars are quantities that only have magnitude (or size), while vectors have both magnitude and
direction. Explore some examples of scalars and vectors, including distance, displacement,
speed, and velocity.

Does vectors have a location in space? does it vary with time?

A vector stores only two parameters of information - length and direction. It doesn't tell you
anything about it's origin/location. It can vary with time if it's given as a function of time, for
example if the vector symbolises speed of an accelerating object, then it does vary on time, if the
speed is constant then it doesn't vary on time.
Vector Addition:

 Vectors are added geometrically and not algebraically.

 Vectors whose resultant have to be calculated behave independently.
 Vector Addition is nothing but finding the resultant of a number of vectors acting on a
body.
 Vector Addition is commutative. This means that the resultant vector is independent of
the order of vectors.

A+B = B+A

Triangle Law of Vector Addition

he triangle law of vector addition is a law that is used in vector algebra to determine the resultant
sum vector when two or more vectors are added. Suppose we have a car that is moving from
point A to B as shown in the figure below. Once it reaches point B, it starts moving again till
point C. Now, to determine the net displacement of the car, we use the concept of vector
addition. The net displacement of the car is given by the vector AC which can be calculated
using the triangle law of vector addition as:
AC=AB+BC

Similarly, if we have two vectors P and Q as given below and we need to find their sum, then we
can move the vector Q in a way without changing its magnitude and direction such its tail is
joined to the head of the vector P. Then, the sum of the vectors P and Q using the triangle law of
vector addition is given by,

R=P+Q
Triangle Law of Vector Addition Formula

Consider two vectors P and Q such that the angle between them is θ and their resultant sum
vector using the triangle law of vector addition is given by the vector R. The formula for the
magnitude |R| and direction ϕ of the resultant vector R using triangle law for the addition of
vectors is given by,
|R| = √(P2 + Q2 + 2PQ cos θ)
ϕ = tan-1[(Q sin θ)/(P + Q cos θ)]
Triangle Law of Vector Addition Proof

Before getting on to the proof of the triangle law, let us first see the statement of the triangle law
of vector addition:

Statement: If two vectors acting simultaneously on a body are represented both in magnitude
and direction by two sides of a triangle taken in an order then the resultant sum vector (both
magnitude and direction) of these two vectors is given by the third side of that triangle taken in
the opposite order.

In the figure given below, consider two vectors P and Q whose magnitudes are given by the sides
OA and AB, respectively. Now, the sum of these vectors using the triangle law of vector addition
is given by the resultant vector R (side OB of the triangle) whose magnitude and direction are
 |R| = √(P2 + Q2 + 2PQ cos θ)
 ϕ = tan-1[(Q sin θ)/(P + Q cos θ)]

Now, extend the side OA till point C such that BC is perpendicular to OC and the angle between
vectors P and Q is θ. Also, the direction of the resultant vector R is given by the angle ϕ. In right-
angled triangle OBC, we have

OB2 = OC2 + BC2

⇒ OB2 = (OA + AC)2 + BC2 --- (1)

In the right triangle ABC, we have

cos θ = AC/AB and sin θ = BC/AB

⇒ AC = AB cos θ and BC = AB sin θ

⇒ AC = Q cos θ and BC = Q sin θ --- (2)

Substituting values from (2) in (1), we have

R2 = (P + Q cos θ)2 + (Q sin θ)2

⇒ R2 = P2 + Q2cos2θ + 2PQ cos θ + Q2sin2θ
⇒ R2 = P2 + 2PQ cos θ + Q2(cos2θ + sin2θ)
⇒ R2 = P2 + 2PQ cos θ + Q2 [cos2θ + sin2θ = 1]
⇒ R = √(P2 + 2PQ cos θ + Q2) → Magnitude of the resultant vector R

Now, to find the direction of R, we have in right traingle OBC,

tan ϕ = BC/OC

⇒ tan ϕ = Q sin θ/(OA + AC) [From (2)]

⇒ tan ϕ = Q sin θ/(P + Q cos θ) [From (2)]

⇒ ϕ = tan-1[(Q sin θ)/(P + Q cos θ)] → Direction of the resultant vector R

Hence, we have proved the formulas for the triangle law of vector addition.

What is Parallelogram Law of Vector Addition?

The parallelogram law of vector addition is the process of adding vectors geometrically. This
law says, "Two vectors can be arranged as adjacent sides of a parallelogram such that their tails
attach with each other and the sum of the two vectors is equal to the diagonal of the
parallelogram whose tail is the same as the two vectors".
Consider the vectors P and Q in the figure below. To find their sum:
 Step 1: Draw the vectors P and Q such that their tails touch each other.
 Step 2: Complete the parallelogram by drawing the other two sides.
 Step 3: The diagonal of the parallelogram that has the same tail as the
vectors P and Q represents the sum of the two vectors. i.e., P + Q = R.

☛Note: Here, the vector R is called the resultant vector (of P and Q).
Parallelogram Law of Vectors Formula

Consider two vectors P and Q with an angle θ between them. The sum of vectors P and Q is
given by the vector R, the resultant sum vector using the parallelogram law of vector addition. If
the resultant vector R makes an angle β with the vector P, then the formulas for its magnitude
and direction are:

 |R| = √(P2 + Q2 + 2PQ cos θ)

 β = tan-1[(Q sin θ)/(P + Q cos θ)]

We will see the proof of these formulas in the section below.

Parallelogram Law of Vector Addition Proof

Let us first see the statement of the parallelogram law of vectors:

Statement of Parallelogram Law of Vector Addition: If two vectors can be represented by the
two adjacent sides of a parallelogram drawn from a point, then their resultant sum vector is
represented completely by the diagonal of the parallelogram drawn from the same point.

Now, to prove the formula of the parallelogram law, we consider two

vectors P and Q represented by the two adjacent sides OB and OA of the parallelogram OBCA,
respectively. The angle between the two vectors is θ. The sum of these two vectors is represented
by the diagonal drawn from the same vertex O of the parallelogram, the resultant sum
vector R which makes an angle β with the vector P.
Extend the vector P till D such that CD is perpendicular to OD. Since OB is parallel to AC,
therefore the angle AOB is equal to the angle CAD as they are corresponding angles, i.e., angle
CAD = θ. Now, first, we will derive the formula for the magnitude of the resultant vector R (side
OC). Note that
 |P| = P
 |Q| = Q
 |R| = R
In right-angled triangle OCD, by Pythagoras theorem, we have
OC2 = OD2 + DC2
⇒ OC2 = (OA + AD)2 + DC2 --- (1)

In the right triangle CAD, we have

cos θ = AD/AC and sin θ = DC/AC

⇒ AD = AC cos θ and DC = AC sin θ

⇒ AD = Q cos θ and DC = Q sin θ --- (2)

Substituting values from (2) in (1), we have

R2 = (P + Q cos θ)2 + (Q sin θ)2

⇒ R2 = P2 + Q2cos2θ + 2PQ cos θ + Q2sin2θ
⇒ R2 = P2 + 2PQ cos θ + Q2(cos2θ + sin2θ)
⇒ R2 = P2 + 2PQ cos θ + Q2 [cos2θ + sin2θ = 1]
⇒ R = √(P2 + 2PQ cos θ + Q2) → Magnitude of the resultant vector R

Next, we will determine the direction of the resultant vector. We have in right traingle ODC,

tan β = DC/OD

⇒ tan β = Q sin θ/(OA + AD) [From (2)]

⇒ tan β = Q sin θ/(P + Q cos θ) [From (2)]

⇒ β = tan-1[(Q sin θ)/(P + Q cos θ)] → Direction of the resultant vector R

Vector Subtraction

We can do vector subtraction just like how we do the subtraction of scalars. We subtract the
corresponding components of vectors while subtracting vectors. The graphical interpretation of
vector subtraction can be understood by using the parallelogram law and triangle law of addition.

Let us learn more about vector subtraction along with geometrical interpretation and examples.

What is Vector Subtraction?

The vector subtraction of two vectors a and b is represented by a - b and it is nothing but
adding the negative of vector b to the vector a. i.e., a - b = a + (-b). Thus, subtraction of vectors
involves the addition of vectors and the negative of a vector. The result of vector subtraction is
again a vector. The following are the rules for subtracting vectors:

 It should be performed between two vectors only (not between one vector and one scalar).
 Both vectors in the subtraction should represent the same physical quantity.

Let us understand how to subtract vectors graphically in the upcoming sections.

Vector Subtraction by Parallelogram Law

Suppose that a and b are two vectors. How can we interpret the subtraction of these vectors
graphically? That is, what meaning do we attach to a - b? To start with, we note that a - b will be
a vector which when added to b should give back a. i.e.,

(a - b) + b = a

But how do we determine the vector a - b, given the vectors a and b? The following figure
shows vectors a and b (we have drawn them to be co-initial).
Using the parallelogram law of vector addition, we can determine the vector as follows. We
interpret a - b as a + (- b), that is, the vector sum of a and −b. Now, we reverse vector b, and
then add a and -b using the parallelogram law:
This shows the vector subtraction a - b as the addition of a and −b.

Vector Subtraction by Triangle Law

Now, we will interpret the subtraction of vectors using the triangle law of vector addition.
Denote the vector drawn from the end-point of b to the end-point of a by c.
Note that b + c = a. Thus, c = a - b. In other words, the vector a - b is the vector drawn from the
tip of b to the tip of a (if a and b are co-initial).

Note that both ways (using parallelogram law and triangle law) are described above give us the
same vector for a - b. This becomes clearer from the figure below:
The vector PT is obtained by adding a and −b using the parallelogram law. The vector RQ is
obtained by drawing the vector from the tip of b to the tip of -a. Clearly, both vectors are the
same (as their magnitudes and directions are the same).
How to Subtract Vectors?

Here are multiple ways of subtracting vectors:

 To subtract two vectors a and b graphically (i.e., to find a - b), just make them coinitial first
and then draw a vector from the tip of b to the tip of a.
 We can add -b (the negative of vector b which is obtained by multiplying b with -1) to a to
perform the vector subtraction a - b. i.e., a - b = a + (-b).
 If the vectors are in the component form we can just subtract their respective components in
the order of subtraction of vectors.
Here is an example.

Example: If a = <4, -2, 3> and b = <1, -2, 5> then find a - b.

Solution:

a - b = <4, -2, 3> - <1, -2, 5>

= <4 - 1, -2 - (-2), 3 - 5>

= <3, 0, -2>

Therefore, a - b = <3, 0, -2>.

Properties of Vector Subtraction

Here are some important properties of vector subtraction.

 Any vector subtracted from itself results in a zero vector. i.e., a - a = 0, for any vector a.
 The subtraction of vectors is NOT commutative. i.e., a - b is not necessarily equal to b - a.
 The vector subtraction is NOT associative. i.e., (a - b) - c does not need to be equal to a -
(b - c).
 (a - b) · (a + b) = |a|2 - |b|2.
 (a - b) · (a - b) = |a - b|2 = |a|2 + |b|2 - 2 a · b.
How To Do Multiplication of Vectors?
A vector has both magnitude and direction. We can multiply two or more
vectors by dot product and cross product. Let us understand more about each
of the multiplication of vectors.
Dot Product
The dot product of vectors is also called the scalar product of vectors. The
resultant of the dot product of the vectors is a scalar value. Dot Product
of vectors is equal to the product of the magnitudes of the two vectors, and the
cosine of the angle between the two vectors. The resultant of the dot product
of two vectors lie in the same plane of the two vectors. The dot product may
be a positive real number or a negative real number.
Let a and b be two non-zero vectors, and θ be the included angle of the
vectors. Then the scalar product or dot product is denoted by a.b, which is
defined as:

a.b = |a| |b|| cos θ.

Here, |→a||�→| is the magnitude of →a�→, |→b||�→| is the magnitude
of →b�→, and θ is the angle between them.
Cross Product
Cross Product is also called a Vector Product. Cross product is a form of
vector multiplication, performed between two vectors of different nature or
kinds. When two vectors are multiplied with each other and the multiplication
is also a vector quantity, then the resultant vector is called the cross product
of two vectors or the vector product. The resultant vector is perpendicular to the
plane containing the two given vectors.
We can understand this with an example: if we have two vectors lying in the
X-Y plane, then their cross product will give a resultant vector in the direction
of the Z-axis, which is perpendicular to the XY plane. The × symbol is used
between the original vectors. The vector multiplication or the cross-product of
two vectors is shown as follows.

→a×→b=→c
Here →a→ and →b→ are two vectors, and →c→ is the resultant vector. Let θ
be the angle formed between →a→ and →b→ and ^n^ is the unit
vector perpendicular to the plane containing both →a→ and →b→.

mass (m)
Mass (symbolized m) is a dimensionless quantity representing the amount of
matter in a particle or object. The standard unit of mass in the International
System (SI) is the kilogram (kg).

Mass is measured by determining the extent to which a particle or object

resists a change in its direction or speed when a force is applied. Isaac
Newton stated: A stationary mass remains stationary, and a mass in motion at
a constant speed and in a constant direction maintains that state of motion,
unless acted on by an outside force. For a given applied force,large masses
are accelerated to a small extent, and small masses are accelerated to a large
extent. The following formula applies:

F = ma

where F is the applied force in newtons, m is the mass of the object or particle
in kilograms, and a is the resulting acceleration in meters per second squared.
The mass of an object can be calculated if the force and the acceleration are
known.

Mass is not the same thing as weight. Weight has meaning only when an
object having a specific mass is placed in an acceleration field, such as the
gravitational field of the earth. At the earth's surface, a kilogram mass weighs
about 2.2 pounds, for example. But on Mars, the same kilogram mass would
weigh only about 0.8 pounds, and on Jupiter it would weigh roughly 5.5
pounds.

When expressing large or small masses, prefix multipliers are used.The table
below shows the most common alternative mass units and their relationship to
the kilogram.

Unit To convert to Conversely,

(and symbol) kilograms, multiply by: multiply by:

metric ton (T) 1000 0.001

gram (g) 0.001 1000

milligram (mg) 10 -6 10 6
microgram 10 -9 10 9
(µg)

nanogram (ng) 10 -12 10 12

picogram (pg) 10 -15 10 15

UNIT – 2: Force System

Defining Force, Its Formula, Unit and Effects

Force is defined as an external cause that changes or tends to change the state
of the body once applied. If the body is in motion, it comes to rest, and if at rest,
then it will come to motion. It can also cause a change in the direction, shape,
size, etc., of the body. Pushing or pushing a door with force is an example. Force
is a vector quantity, meaning it has both magnitude and direction. Newton's
second law defines force as the "product of a body's mass and acceleration."

Example: The fact that a push or a pull is referred to as a force should be

emphasised as a primary focus of your instruction at this level. There are several
instances of forces in our daily lives. For example: weight force (the weight of
something). It is the force exerted by a bat on a ball, and the power of the
hairbrush on the hair during brushing.

Definition of Force
Force is defined as the pushing or pulling of an item. Push and pull are caused
by the interaction of two things. Force may also be expressed using terms like
stretch and crush.

A force is an external agent that may change the condition of rest or motion of
a body. It has a magnitude as well as a direction. The direction of the force is
the place where force is applied, and the application of force is the location
where force is applied.

The Formula of Force

The vector product of mass (m) and acceleration (a) expresses the quantity
of force. The equation or the formula for force may mathematically be stated in
the form of :
 F=ma
Where

m
= mass,

a
= rate of acceleration

It is expressed in Newtons (N) or kilograms per square metre per second

(Kgm/s2)
.

Unit of Force
The force applied on an object is measured in terms of Newton and dyne. Force
is measured in dyne in the centimetre gram second system of unit (CGS unit). It
is represented in Newton (N) in the standard international system of units (SI
unit).

Dyne and Newton are related to one another. We can convert the value of force
in dyne and newton using the relationship between them. The value of dyne in
terms of newton and vice versa is as given below:
1 dyne =

10−5 10−5
newton

1 Newton =
105 105
dyne

Newton: 1N can be defined as the force required to move an object with a mass
of 1 kg at an acceleration of

1 m/s2
. It is represented by letter N. Mathematically, we write:

1N=1kg×1m/s2

1 Dyne: It is the force required to course an object with a mass of 1 gram at an

acceleration of 1 cm/s . Mathematically we write:
2

1 dyne=1g×1cm/s2

Two Forces System

In order to evaluate that what happens in case two different forces act on a similar
object, it is quite important to learn both the direction and the magnitude or the extent of
bot the forces in order to compute the outcomes.
When there are two different forces and they act on a single point unit, the resultant
(also known as net force) can be analyzed followed by parallelogram rules for addition
of vectors. Free-body illustrations can also be used as a suitable method to record the
movement of the forces acting on a given object.
It is important to note that the forces generally act in a particular direction and they have
different sizes which depends upon the factor that how effective the push or pull factor
is. Now because of all these dimensions or one can even say features, forces can be
categorized as vector quantities.
What do you mean by rectangular components of a vector? Explain how
a vector can be resolved into two rectangular components in a plane.

Rectangular components means the components or parts of a vector in any two

mutually perpendicular axes. This could be understood by an example as illustrated
below.
Let a vector quantity ‘R’ inclined at an angle θ� from the x-axis. By convention,

we can split the vector ‘R’ in two rectangular components. As shown in the figure,

the vector ‘R’ is split into two components;

Rx along x-axis and Ry along y-axis. This is an extremely important and useful
property of vectors. Using it, we can solve complex problems very easily. Also,

we can write the values of these components as;

Rx=Rcosθ
Ry=Rsinθ

METHODS OF FINDING THE RESULTANT

FORCES:
 Parallelogram law of forces

 Triangle law of forces

 Polygon law of forces

TRIANGLE LAW OF FORCES:

Triangle law of forces states that if two concurrent forces are acting
simultaneously on a body and are represented in magnitude and direction by
the sides of a triangle taken in order, then the third side of the triangle
represents their resultant of the forces in magnitude and direction taken in
opposite order.
GRAPHICAL METHOD:
Draw vector OA and AB to some scale to represent P and Q respectively.
Then close the triangle by joining OB. Measure OB and convert it into force
unit by using the same scale. This gives the value of R.

ANALYTICAL METHOD:
Consider the triangle OAB, θ is the angle between P and Q and α be the
angle between P and R.

∠BAC = θ and ∠BOC = α

∠OBA = θ – α

Using the sine rule, we get

 [frac up=”P” down=”sin (θ – α)”] = [frac up=”Q” down=”sin α”] = [frac
up=”R” down=”sin (180°- θ)”]

[frac up=”P” down=”sin (θ – α)”] = [frac up=”Q” down=”sin α”] = [frac

up=”R” down=”sin θ”]

POLYGON LAW OF FORCES:

Polygon law of forces states that if number of coplanar concurrent forces
acting simultaneously on a body be represented in magnitude and direction
by the sides of a polygon taken in order, then the closing side of the polygon
will represent force in magnitude and direction, taken in opposite order.

Let us consider a body in which four coplanar forces are acting as sown in
figure. The resultant can be found bot graphically and analytically.
GRAPHICAL METHOD:

Draw vectors da, ab, bc and cd to some scale to represent forces F1, F2,
F3 and F4 simultaneously. The vectors are drawn parallel to the forces
starting from a point.

Then close the polygon by joining dd’. Measure dd’ and convert it into the
force unit using the same scale. This gives the value of Resultant.

If the forces F1, F2, F3 and F4 acting simultaneously on a particle be

represented in magnitude and direction by the sides da, ab, bc and cd of a
polygon respectively, their resultant, FR is represented by the closing side
dd’ taken in opposite order.

ANALYTICAL METHOD:

Let four force F1, F2, F3 and F4 acting at a point O making angles θ1, θ2,
θ3 and θ4 with the X-axis respectively. Let R be the resultant force acting at
angle θ with the X-axis.

Resolving the forces along the X-axis, i.e. horizontally, we get

ΣFx = F1 cos θ1 – F2 cos θ2 – F3 cos θ3 + F4 cos θ4

Resolving the forces along the Y-axis, i.e. vertically, we get

ΣFy = F1 sin θ1 + F2 sin θ2 – F3 sin θ3 – F4 sin θ4
Now we have only two forces which are acting at right angles. These are
ΣFx and ΣFy.

R = √{ (ΣFx)² + (ΣFy)² }

tan θ = [frac up=”ΣFy” down=”ΣFy“]

Thus the value of R gives the magnitude and that of θ gives the direction.

What is the definition of a couple?

A screwdriver is twisted by the equivalent of a couple of hand forces, whereas an
automobile's steering wheel is spun by a pair of hand forces. In contrast, a
wrench is operated by a force exerted at only one end, resulting in an
imbalanced force on the element being tightened in addition to the turning
moment.

A couple is a pair of equal parallel forces pointing in opposite directions in

mechanics. The only thing a couple can do is cause or prevent a body from
turning. The amount of either force is multiplied by the perpendicular distance
between their action lines to compute the turning effect, or moment, of a pair.

The Couples' Characteristics

 The couple does not induce translational motion because the two forces
that make up the couple are equal and opposing.
 When it is applied to a body, the net resultant force is zero.
 Because the algebraic sum of the moments of the two forces around any
point in their plane is not zero, it causes pure rotational motion in the body.
  The size and direction of a couple's moment about any point on its plane
are both constant.

The Couple's Moment

The moment of the pair is described mathematically as the product of the force
and the perpendicular distance between the two forces' lines of action. The arm
of the Couple refers to the perpendicular distance between the lines of action of
two forces. That is, the product of the applied force and the arm of a pair of
forces equals the moment of force.

As a result, the moment of a pair of forces is equal to,

Τ=F×D

(Image will be uploaded soon)

The moment of a pair of forces will be bigger if the formula for the moment of a
pair of forces is followed.
 The force's magnitude is bigger, and
 The arm of the pair of forces is longer, indicating that the perpendicular
distance between the two forces' lines of action is greater.

The Newton-Meter is the SI unit for Couple Moment (N m). The dimensional
formula for the Moment of Couple is
[ML2T−2]
.

Couple Moments of Various Types

A couple of moments can be divided into two categories:
Positive moment: When the body rotates in an anticlockwise direction under the
impact of a Couple, the moment is said to be positive.

Negative moment: The moment is considered to be negative when the force

pair spins in a clockwise direction.