CHAPTER – 6

TREATMENT OF WATER

Sishir Dahal
5th June, 2023
 INTRODUCTION
• Water from any source may contain various suspended, colloidal and
dissolved impurities which may be harmful or useful for drinking purposes.
• The removal of undesirable matters is called treatment.
• The degree of treatment depends upon quality standard.
• Various components are established in treatment plant with well-equipped
lab for test as per treatment requirement.
• Treatment plant should be located near the city at the safe point
INTRODUCTION
 INTRODUCTION
• Various process of treatment to remove various impurities are shown
in the table:
Process Removal of
Screening Large suspended and floating matter like leaves, fish, living organisms, dead
bodies, tree branches, bushes etc.
Plain Sedimentation Suspended matters, few colloidal and dissolved impurities (silt, sand, clay etc.)
Sedimentation with Very fine suspended and colloidal impurities
Coagulation
Filtration Microorganisms, very fine suspended and colloidal impurities.
Aeration Taste and odour, dissolved gases etc.
Disinfection Pathogenic organisms by killing them
Softening and hardening Hardness and softness
De- chlorination Excessive chlorine
Miscellaneous Iron, Manganese and other harmful constituents
 INTRODUCTION
Objective of Treatment
• To kill all pathogenic germs, which are harmful to human health.
• To remove the unpleasant and objectionable taste and odours from the
water
• To remove dissolved gases ,colour of water
• To make water fit for domestic, industrial, and commercial uses.
• To remove micro organism and colloidal matters
• To remove hardness of water
 SCREENING
• The process followed by passing water through screens to remove large
suspended matters like sticks, branches of tree, leaves, dead animal
body, debris, pebbles , ice and other small suspended matters is called
screening.
• The following two types of screens generally used in screening
a. Coarse screen
b. Fine screen
Coarse Screen
• Coarse screens are generally placed in front of the fine screens at the
inlet to remove large suspended and floating matters generally from
surface sources.
• These screens are generally called trash racks or bar screen and consists
of bar grills of 25 mm diameter.
 SCREENING
Coarse Screen…
• If openings are of 50 to 150 mm it is called as coarse screen and if 20 to
50 mm it is called medium screens.
• Mostly bar screens are kept inclined so that they can be cleaned easily
with a rake and to increase flow areas of openings.
• Trash racks are kept inclined so that they can be cleaned easily with
intake structures.
• For the purposes of cleaning the are placed
on a slope of 3 to 6 vertical to 1 horizontal.
 SCREENING
Coarse Screen….
• Head loss through clogged racks and screens is generally below 80 cm.
 SCREENING
Fine Screens
• It is used to remove smaller suspended impurities
at the surface or ground water intakes, sometimes
alone or sometimes following
a bar screen.
• It is generally used alone in the case of ground water intakes such as in
spring intake.
• In case of surface intakes, fine screens are usually arranged with rotary
perforated with holes of about 6 mm diameter and called rotary drum
strainer.
• Microstrainer also can be used for this purpose where some device is
setup to clean continuously so that fine screens do not clogged up.
 SCREENING
Fine Screens
• Fine screens normally get clogged and are to be cleaned frequently. So
they are avoided nowadays for surface intakes and fine particles are
separated in sedimentation.
 Plain Sedimentation
• It is the process in which water is retained in a tank or basin so that the
suspended particles in the water may be settle down under the action of
gravity.
• The main purposes of plain sedimentation is to remove large amounts of
suspended solids of present in raw water.
• Plain sedimentation done after screening and before sedimentation with
coagulation and located near the filters units and in case of variation of
demand it can be used as the storage reservoirs.
• Water contains two types of suspended impurities:
a. Inorganic solid with specific gravity 2.65
b. Organic solids having specific gravity of 1 to 1.4
• Most of the suspended solids in water specific gravity grater than 1 and
remains in suspension because if turbulence of flowing water but it can be
removed by sedimentation
 Theory of Sedimentation
• The principle of sedimentation or settling is that if water is retained in
quiescent condition for certain period by reducing velocity, the particles will
settle down due to gravitational forces then the sediment (called sludge)
and floating matters (called scum) can be easily removed.
• The retention tank or basin is called sedimentation tank or sedimentation
basin or settling basin or settling tank and the time period for which water is
retained in the tank is called retention period or detention period time or
retention time.
• Maximum retention period in sedimentation tank is taken as about 2 to 6
hrs.
• The sedimentation is affected by velocity of flowing water, size, shape and
specific gravity of particle, viscosity of water, detention time, effective depth
and length of settling zone, inlet and outlet arrangements.
 Settling Velocity of Discrete Particles
• Any particle which does not change in shape, size and weight during rising
and settling in any fluid is called discrete particle.
• If the specific gravity of the particle is more than the fluid, it will move
vertically downwards due to the gravitational force.
• When a discrete particle is falling through a quiescent (non turbulence) fluid,
it will accelerate (falling velocity increases) until the frictional resistance or
drag becomes equal to gravitational forces acting upon particle.
• The after this, the vertical velocity of settlement remains constant or uniform
which is called settling velocity.
• The impelling or driving force at the uniform velocity is equals to the
effective weight of the particle in fluid.
• Mathematically
π𝑑 3
F = (ρ𝑠 -ρ)gV = (ρ𝑠 -ρ)g ……………………….1
6
 Settling Velocity of Discrete Particles
Where,
F = impelling or driving force; ρ𝑠 and ρ is mass density of particle and water
respectively.
V = volume of spherical particles of diameter’ d ‘
Again as per Newtons law or frictional resistance or drag, the force is given by;
ρ𝑣 2
𝐹𝑑 = 𝐶𝑑 A ……………………….2
2
Where,
𝐶𝑑 = Drag coefficient depends upon Reynold’s numbers’ R ’
π𝑑 2
A= Project area of the particle = for spherical particle
4
 Settling Velocity of Discrete Particles
• At uniform settling velocity ‘v’ ; F = 𝐹𝑑 . Then from considering equation 1 & 2
π𝑑 3 ρ𝑣 2
(ρ𝑠 -ρ)g = 𝐶𝑑 A
6 2
π𝑑 3 π𝑑 2 ρ𝑣 2
Or (ρ𝑠 -ρ)g = 𝐶𝑑
6 4 2
4g d(ρ𝑠 −ρ) 4g d(S−1)
Or v = = where S = specific gravity of particle
3𝐶𝑑 ρ 3𝐶𝑑
This is called Hazen’s equation and applicable for particle diameter ’d’ > 0.1 to
1 mm and Reynold’s number ‘𝑅𝑒 ′> 1 to 1000.
The nature of settling is called transition settling
Here,
24 3 ρ𝑣𝑑
𝐶𝑑 = + + 0.34 and 𝑅𝑒 = where μ = dynamics viscosity of water
𝑅𝑒 𝑅𝑒 μ
depends upon temperature = ρϑ ; ϑ = kinematic viscosity of water.
 Settling Velocity of Discrete Particles
• Hazen further indicated that for particles having diameter ‘d’ <͇ 0.1 mm and
Reynold’s number 𝑅𝑒 <͇ 1, Stoke’s law is applicable. Mathematically
𝐹𝑑 = 3 π μ v d ……………………………………….3
Now,
Form equation 2 & 3;
ρ𝑣 2 π𝑑 2
3πμvd= 𝐶𝑑 A and projected area A = for spherical particle.
2 4
We get,
ρ𝑣 2 24 24
3πμvd= 𝐶𝑑 A or, 𝐶𝑑 = =
2 ρ𝑣𝑑/μ 𝑅𝑒
Now putting this value in equation above we get,
4𝑔𝑑
V= 24 (𝑠 − 1)
3 𝑅𝑒
 Settling Velocity of Discrete Particles
2 𝑔𝑑
Or 𝑣 = 𝑅𝑒 (𝑆 − 1)
18
𝑔𝑑 ρ𝑣𝑑 𝑔 𝑑2
Or 𝑣2 = (𝑆 − 1) or v = (𝑆 − 1)
18 μ 18 ϑ
• This is Stoke’s equation. Since kinematic viscosity ‘ϑ’ of water depends on
temperature. Alternatively, if temperature’ T’ is introduced in place of ϑ, it
2 3𝑇+70
can be expressed as, V = 418(S-1)𝑑 mm/sec.
100
• Where, d is diameter of particle in mm and T is temperature of water in °C
• These equations are valid for d <͇ 0.1 mm and 𝑅𝑒 <͇ 1. In this range settling of
particle is laminar so it is termed as laminar settling of particles.
• If the nature of settling of particle is turbulent, (i.e. 1000 < 𝑅𝑒 < 10000) and
‘d’> 1 mm’ the value of 𝐶𝑑 ͌ 0.4 , then Hazen’s equation becomes.
2 4𝑔 𝑆−1 𝑑
𝑣 = or v = 3.33𝑔𝑑(𝑆 − 1) , this equation is called Newton’s
3 𝑋 0.4
Equation
 Settling Velocity of Discrete Particles
Q.N – 1: Find the settling velocity of silica particles of size a) 0.015 cm b) 0.0025
cm with specific gravity 2.65 in water at 20°C. Take kinematics viscosity of
water at 20 °C as 1.007 centistokes.
 Types of sedimentation Tanks
A. Fill and draw type sedimentation
tanks
• retention period of normally 24
hours for sedimentation of particles
• During rest period, the heavy
suspended particles settle down at
the bottom of the tank. The clear
water is then drawn off.
• This cycle is continued. These tanks
are also called intermittent type or
quiescent type tanks.
• These tanks need more detention
period, more labor and supervision.
• More than one tank is required and
head loss is high; hence, these
tanks are not used nowadays.
B. Continuous Flow Type
• Raw water is admitted continuously through inlet and allowed to flow
slowly in the tank for continuous settlement, cleaning and clear water
continuously flows out through outlet.
• These tanks work under the principle that by reducing the velocity of
flow of water, large amounts of particles present in water can be made to
settle down.
• The velocity of flow of water in these tanks is reduced by providing
sufficient length of travel for water in the tank.
• Further, the velocity of flow of water in these tanks is so adjusted that the
time taken by particles of water to move from inlet to outlet is slightly
more than that required for settling of suspended particles in water.
B. Continuous Flow Type ….
• Continuous flow type sedimentation tanks may be rectangular, circular or
square in shape.
a. Horizontal Flow Type
b. Vertical Flow Type
A. Horizontal Flow Type
• In a horizontal flow tank the direction of flow of water in the tank is
substantially horizontal.
• It can be further classified into:
1. Rectangular tanks with longitudinal flow
2. Circular tanks with radial flow.
1. Rectangular tanks with
longitudinal flow
• These tank are rectangular in plan
and allow water to flow slowly in
horizontal direction through a
long tank.
• Provided with or without baffles
• Baffle is provided near the inlet to
enable flowing water to spread
out evenly and prevent the direct
currents
• Sometimes baffle is also provided
near the outlet to prevent the
floating matter or scum escaping
the effluent
• Baffles walls are provided to prolong the path of travel for the flowing water
to obtain more detention period in comparatively smaller settling tank.
• These tanks have lengths commonly upto 30m but larger upto 100m have
also been used.
• Length to width ratio 3:1 to 5:1
• Narrower tank is usually preferred because it has less chance of settling up
cross currents and eddies due to wind action, temperature change and other
factors.
• Width of tanks is usually limited to about 12 m .
• Depth adopted vary from 2.5 to 5 m and 3 m being mostly adopted.
• The floor of the tank with mechanized removal of sludge is provided with a
slope of 1 % from the outlet end towards the inlet end where a sludge hopper
with a sludge withdrawal pipe is provided.
• The side slopes of the sludge hopper ranges from 1.2 : 1 to 2 : 1 (vertical to
horizontal).
• In a tank with non- mechanized ( or manual) removal of sludge, the floor is
provided with a cross slope of about 10 % from the sides towards the
longitudinal center line, and a longitudinal slope of at least 5 % from the
outlet end towards the inlet end where the sludge with drain is located.
2. Circular tanks with radial flow
• Circular settling basins have the same functional zones as the long
rectangular basin, but the flow regime is different.
• When the flow enters at the centre and is baffled to flow radially towards
the perimeter, the horizontal velocity of the water is continuously
decreasing as the distance from the centre increases.
• Thus, the particle path in a circular basin is a parabola as opposed to the
straight line path in the long rectangular tank.
• Sludge removal mechanisms in circular tanks are simpler and require less
maintenance.
• These are of two types :
a. Circular tank with central feed
b. Circular tank with peripheral feed
2. Circular tanks with radial flow…
a. Circular tank with central feed
• In circular tank with central feed water enters the tank at the center and
leaves at its periphery. It is commonly used
2. Circular tanks with radial flow…
a. Circular tank with peripheral feed
• In circular tank with peripheral feed, water enters the tank from periphery
and leaves at the center. It is not common
Dorr Clarifier
• Circular continuous flow type
sedimentation tank
• Raw water enters continuously through
vertical inlet pipe and emanates from
multiple ports of influent diffuser
• A circular baffle is provided to reduce
the velocity of incoming water
• Water flowing slowly in the radial
direction approaches a peripheral weir
over which in flows into effluent
channel
• Sludge deposited at the bottom is
continuously removed by sludge
removing mechanism
B. Vertical Flow Type
• These tanks may be square or circular in
shape at the top and have hopper
bottom. So it is also called hopper
bottom tank.
• The flow of water in this tank is vertical.
Water enters into the tank through
centrally placed pipe and by the action of
deflector box, it travels vertically
downwards.
• The sludge is collected at the bottom and
removed from the sludge pipe with
pump.
• The clear water flows out through a
circumferential weir discharging into the
draw off channel.
 Ideal sedimentation Tanks
• If the time taken by water particle to move from the inlet to the outlet is equal to
time taken by a suspended particle to settle down in a tank, then it is called ideal
condition.
• Ideal case of sedimentation tank could not found in real or practically.
• The ideal rectangular horizontal flow sedimentation tank is considered divided Into
four zones:
1. Inlet zone
• Incoming flow is uniformly distributed over the cross section of the tank
2. Settling zone
• The concentration of each size particle is uniform throughout the cross section
3. Outlet Zone
• Clarified effluent is collected and discharged an out let weir
4. Sludge Zone
• provide for the collection of particles removed from suspension
Ideal sedimentation Tanks
Ideal sedimentation Tanks
 Ideal sedimentation Tanks
We have
𝐿 𝐻
• 𝑉ℎ = and 𝑉𝑠 = where t = detention period of the tank
𝑡 𝑡
Now
𝑉ℎ 𝑉𝑠 𝐻 𝑄 𝐻 𝑄
= or 𝑉𝑠 = 𝑉ℎ ꭓ = ꭓ =
𝐿 𝐻 𝐿 𝐵𝐻 𝐿 𝐵𝐿
𝑄
𝑉𝑠 =
𝐵𝐿
𝑄
If the smaller particle having settling velocity 𝑉𝑠 ’ < enters the tank at height H it
𝐵𝐿
will not settle in the tank, but if this particle enters the tank at some level h as
shown in figure above
𝑉ℎ 𝐿 ℎ
= or 𝑉𝑠 ′ = 𝑉𝑠
𝑉𝑠 ′ ℎ 𝐻
 Ideal sedimentation Tanks
Removal efficiency of sedimentation tank
• Let 𝑉𝑠 ′ is the settling velocity of smaller particle less than SOR (𝑉𝑠 ′ < (Q/BL) and
if out of 𝑋𝑜 particles, X particles settle down and are removed; the ratio of
removal of this particles X/ 𝑋𝑜 is called the removal efficiency of sedimentation
tank for discrete particles of same size is given by
𝑋 𝑉𝑠 ′
= where Q/BL is SOR represents the settling velocity of the slowest
𝑋𝑜 𝑄/𝐵𝐿
particles which are 100 % removed
 Design of Sedimentation Tank
1. Flow velocity
• The velocity of flow of water in sedimentation tanks should be sufficient
enough to cause hydraulic subsidence of suspended impurities.
• It should remain uniform throughout the tank and it is generally not allowed
to exceed 20 cm/min to 40 cm/min. Generally 30cm/min.
• it is essential that when once the particle has settled and reached the sludge
zone, it should not be scoured or lifted up by the velocity of flow of water
over the bed.
• Camp has given the following expression for the displacement velocity
8β𝑔 𝑠−1 𝑑
• V= where, β = 0.04 for unigranular sand ; and 0.06 or more for
𝑓
non- uniform ( interlocking) sticky materials
f = Weishbach- Darcy friction factor
= 0.025 to 0.03 for setting tanks
 Design of Sedimentation Tank
1. Flow velocity
• In terms of the settling velocity, Vs , the displacement velocity can also be
expressed by the relation applicable for fine, light and flocculent solids ,
Vd= Vs(8/𝑓)1/2
Taking f = 0.025, the above equation reduces to
Vd= Vs(8/0.025)1/2 = 18 Vs
• A more useful or practical relation used is, Vd = 10 Vs
𝐴 𝐵𝐿 𝐿 𝑉𝑑∗𝑡𝑑
• = = = = 10 when 𝑡𝑑 = 𝑡𝑜 ( for ideal case)
𝑎 𝐵𝐻 𝐻 𝑉𝑠 ∗𝑡𝑜
A = Surface area
a = cross section area
𝑡𝑑 = time taken by water particle to move from inlet to the out let
𝑡𝑜 = time taken by suspended particle settle down
 Design of Sedimentation Tank
2. Detention Period
• Detention time is the theoretical time taken by a particle of water to pass
between entry and exit of a settling tank.
• If V is volume of the basin, Q is the discharge rate and 𝑡0 is the detention
period, we have
𝑉 𝐿𝐵𝐻
𝑡0 = =
𝑄 𝑄
• The value of detention period depends upon the type of suspended
impurities in water, and vary from 4 to 8 hours.
 Design of Sedimentation Tank
3. Flowing through Period
• It is the average time required for a batch of water to pass through the
settling tank
• It is always less than the detention period due to short circuit effects.
• How close this will approximate the detention period will depend upon the
design of the tank
• The flowing through period of an existing tank can be determined by placing
sodium chloride in the influent and testing for the chloride content of the
effluent.
 Design of Sedimentation Tank
4. Displacement efficiency(η)
• It is defined as the ratio of flowing through period to the detention period
𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑡𝑑
η= =
𝐷𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑡𝑜
• It varies from 0.25 to 0.5 in plain sedimentation tank
• A well designed tank should provide a flowing through period of at least 30
% of the detention period .
• Actual detention period used in practice should be more than twice the
theoretical detention period
 Design of Sedimentation Tank
5. Surface overflow rate
• The quantity of water passing per unit ( or per day) per unit horizontal area
is known as the overflow rate or surface loading or hydraulic loading and
expressed in terms of m3/m2/day.
• The increase in surface area of a sedimentation tank will increase in the
settling or removal efficiency of the tank.
• The settling of particles indicates that all the particle having settling velocity
Vs equal or grater than SOR will be settle or removed.
• Commonly adopted value of SOR for plain sedimentation tank is 15 to 30
m3/m2/day.
 Design of Sedimentation Tank
6. Tank Dimension
• The surface area of the basin is determined on the basis of the overflow rate
or surface loading rate.
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟
A=
𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟/𝑚2
• The length to width ratio of rectangular tanks should preferably be from 3:1
to 5:1. The depth of basin is kept between 2.5 to 4 m, with a preferred value
of 3 m, inclusive of the allowance for sludge storage
• The cross-section area is such as to provide a horizontal velocity of flow 20
to 40 cm per min, and normally above 30 cm per minute.
• Bottom slopes may range from 1 % in rectangular tanks to about 8 % in
circular tanks.
• The slopes of sludge hoppers range from 1.2: 1 to 2 :1 ( vertical horizontal
7. Inlet and outlet structure
 Design of Sedimentation Tank
7. Inlet and outlet structure
Inlet Devices:
• Inlets shall be designed to distribute the water equally and at uniform
velocities. A baffle should be constructed across the basin close to the
inlet and should project several feet below the water surface to dissipate
inlet velocities and provide uniform flow.
Outlet Devices:
• Outlet weirs or submerged orifices shall be designed to maintain
velocities suitable for settling in the basin and to minimize short-
circuiting. Weirs shall be adjustable, and at least equivalent in length to
the perimeter of the tank. However, peripheral weirs are not acceptable
as they tend to cause excessive short-circuiting.
 Design of Sedimentation Tank
8. Sludge Zone:
• The zone in the bottom of the tank in which sludge is retained before
being removed is called sludge zone.
• The depth of the sludge zone depends upon the quantity of sediments in
the raw water and the de-sludging period.
• Depth of sludge zone is taken as 0.5 to 1.0 m
 Design Criteria of Sedimentation Tank/Design Details
• Detention Period: For plain sedimentation: 4 to 8 hours, and for
coagulate sedimentation: 1 to 4 hours
• Velocity of Flow: Not greater than 30 cm/min (horizontal flow)
(generally 15 – 30 cm/min)
• Tank Dimensions: L:B = 3 to 5:1. Generally L = 30 m (common);
maximum 100 m. Breadth = 6 to 10 m.
• Circular: Diameter not greater than 60 m. Generally 20 to 40 m.
• Effective depth 2.5 to 4.0 m (3 m).
• SOR: For plain sedimentation: 15 to 30 m3/d/m2 tank area; for
thoroughly flocculated water: 30 to 40 m3/d/m2 tank area.
 Design Criteria of Sedimentation Tank/Design Details
• Free board 0.1 m – 1.0 m
• Provision of storing of sludge : sludge storage allowed upto depth
0.5 to 1 m .
• Detention period :
For circular t = C/Q
For rectangular
t = LBH/Q
For circular tank with a bottom slope of 1 verticle to 12 horizontal ,
C= 𝑑 2 (0.011d + 0.785 H) , t = C/Q
 Numericals
1. A settling tank is designed for an discharge of 72m3/m2/day. What
percentage of particles of diameter 0.025 mm with 2.65 specific gravity will
be removed at water temperature 20°C
2. Compute the dimensions of a continuous flow rectangular settling tank for a
population of 25000 persons with a daily per capita water allowance of 112
liters. Assume the detention period as 6 hours.
3. Find the dimension of a). Rectangular and b). Circular sedimentation tank
from the following data. Volume of water to be treated = 5 million liters per
day, detention period = 4 hrs and velocity of flow = 15 cm/min.
4. A rectangular sedimentation tank is to treat 20 MLD of water . The
detention basin of width to length ratio of ¼ is proposed to trap all particles
larger than 0.05 mm in size, assuming a specific gravity of particles at 20 °C
is 2.65, compute the tank dimensions. If the depth of the tank is 3.5 m,
calculate the detention time.
 Sedimentation with Coagulation
General Properties of Colloids
• Colloidal particles are so small that their surface area in relation to mass is very large.
• Electrical Properties: All colloidal particles are electrically charged. If electrodes from
a D.C. source are placed in a colloidal dispersion, the particles migrate towards the
pole of opposite charge.
• Colloidal particles are in constant motion because of bombardment by molecules of
dispersion medium. This motion is called Brownian motion (named after Robert
Brown who first noticed it).
• Tyndall Effect: The Tyndall effect, also known as Tyndall scattering, is light scattering
by particles in a colloid or particles in a fine suspension.
• Adsorption: Colloids have high surface area and hence have a lot of active surface for
adsorption to occur. The stability of colloids is mainly due to preferential adsorption
of ions.
Purpose
• Colloidal particles are difficult to separate from water because they do not settle by
gravity and are so small that they pass through the pores of filtration media.
• To be removed, the individual colloids must aggregate and grow in size.
• The settling down and removal of such fine suspended particles and colloidal matters
can be achieved by chemically assisted sedimentation called sedimentation with
coagulation. The chemicals added are called coagulants; the formed insoluble
gelatinous precipitate is called floc; the process of adding coagulants to raw water
and mixing it thoroughly is known as coagulation and the process of formation of floc
is called flocculation.
• If the content of suspended solids in raw water is greater than 50 mg/l, the
sedimentation with coagulation is used to effect more complete removal of the
suspended matters.
Coagulants (types and their chemical reactions)
The following chemicals are used as coagulants:
1. Aluminum sulphates or alum
2. Iron salts
3. Chlorinated copperas
4. Sodium aluminate
• The dose of coagulants depends upon turbidity, colour, pH, temperature
and the time of the settlement.
1. Aluminum Sulphates or alum
• commonly used coagulants; for coagulation in water in which alum is
added, water should contain some alkalinity.
• If bicarbonate alkalinity is present in water the floc formed is given by:
•
• If raw water contains little or no alkalinity, then either lime(hydrated lime) or
soda ash is added for alkalinity. Then

• Amount of alum required depends upon turbidity and colour of raw water.
Usual dose is 5 mg/l for relatively clear water 30 mg/l for highly turbid
water. Average dose for normal water is 14 mg/l but amount should be
determined by jar test.
2. Iron Salts
• The various iron salts used as coagulants are ferrous sulphates, ferric
sulphates and ferric chlorine.
A. Sulphates [𝑭𝒆𝑺𝑶𝟒 .4𝑯𝟐 𝑶]
• It is also known as copperas and used as coagulant in conjunction with lime.
When ferrous sulphates is added first(with bicarbonate alkalinity)

When lime is added first

A. Sulphates [𝑭𝒆𝑺𝑶𝟒 .4𝑯𝟐 𝑶] …
• In above equation, 𝐹𝑒(𝑂𝐻)2 is unstable and absorbs dissolved oxygen and
forms the stable floc.

• The effective range of pH value for coagulation with ferrous sulphates and
lime is 8.5 and above
B. Ferric Sulphates [𝑭𝒆𝟐 (𝑺𝑶𝟒 )𝟑
• It is also used as a coagulant in conjunction with lime and the reaction is:

The effective range of pH for coagulation with ferric sulphates is 4 to 7 and

above 9.
C. Ferric chloride[𝑭𝒆𝑪𝒍𝟑 ]
• It is used as a coagulant in conjunction with lime or without lime.
Reactions:
When used without lime

When used with lime

• The effective range of pH for coagulation with ferric chloride is 3.5 to 6.5 and
above 8.5.
3. Chlorinated Copperas [𝑭𝒆𝑪𝒍𝟑 . 𝑭𝒆𝟐 (𝑺𝑶𝟒 )𝟑 ]
• The mixture of ferric chloride and ferric sulphate is called chlorinated
copperas and prepared by adding 1 part chlorine to 7.8 part ferrous
sulphate.

• This chlorinated copperas when added to water forms a tough floc which is
removed in sedimentation.
• The effective range of chlorinated copperas is from pH of 6 to 8.
• It is effective to remove color but very corrosive and common in sewage
treatment.
4. Sodium Aluminate [𝑵𝒂𝟐 𝑨𝒍𝟐 𝑶𝟒 ]
• when dissolved and mixed with water, it reacts with salts of calcium and
magnesium and forms the precipitate of calcium and magnesium aluminate.

• Similar chemical reactions take place in case of Mg salts. The effective range
of pH for coagulation with sodium aluminate is 6 to 8.5.
• This removes temporary and permanent hardness but very costly and not
used in public water supplies and used to treat boiler water.
Operations involved in sedimentation with coagulation;
1. Feeding the coagulant
2. Mixing of coagulant
3. Flocculation
4. Sedimentation
Feeding the Coagulant
• The coagulant may be fed to raw water either in powder form(called dry
feeding) or in solution form (called wet feeding).
• Coagulant feeding is done using dry feeding or wet feeding devices.
• The choice between wet and dry feeding depends on:
A. Characteristics of coagulant and convenience of its application
B. Dosages of coagulant: High dose-dry feed and vice versa.
C. Size of the treatment plant: Large size-wet feeder is used and vice versa
Mixing of coagulant
• After the addition of coagulants to raw water, they are thoroughly and
vigorously mixed so that the coagulants get fully dispersed into the entire
mass of water.
• Various mixing devices are as follows but the first two types are common:
i. Mixing basin with baffle walls
ii. Mixing basin with mechanical means
iii. Mixing channels
iv. Hydraulic jump method
v. Compressed air method
vi. Centrifugal pumping method
Plan

Section
Flocculation
• From the mixing basin, water is taken to the
flocculator for flocculation.
• In a flocculator, slow stirring of water is
brought about to permit build up of the floc
particles.
• There are various types of flocculators but
the mechanical flocculators are most
commonly used.
• Mechanical flocculator consists of a tank
provided with paddles for stirring of water
hence it is called paddle flocculator.
• Depending upon the direction of flow of
water in the tank, the mechanical
flocculator may be longitudinal flow
flocculator or vertical flow flocculator.
• A longitudinal flow flocculator consists of a
rectangular tank provided with paddles
revolving on a horizontal shaft.
• A vertical flow flocculator consists of a
circular tank provided with paddles
revolving on a vertical shaft.
Flocculation
• The paddles are moved by electric motor. The water coming from mixing
basin enters the flocculator through an inlet and leaves through outlet to
sedimentation tank.
• In longitudinal flow flocculator inlet and outlet are provided near the top of
tank in opposite ends but in vertical type, inlet is provided at the bottom and
outlet is provided near the top in opposite end.
Sedimentation/Clarification
• The water from the flocculator is taken to the sedimentation tank also
called or clarifier.
• The detention period for sedimentation tank is about 2 to 3 hrs.
• The surface overflow rate is from 30 to 40 𝒎𝟑 /𝒎𝟐 /day.
• The cleaning of his tank is usually carried out at an interval of 3 to 6
months
Dorr Clariflocculator
• It incorporates all four units ( feeder, flash mixer, flocculator and clarifier) in a
single unit.
 Jar test
• The jar test is a common laboratory procedure used to determine the
optimum operating conditions for water or wastewater treatment.
• The lab-scale results are used to optimize the performance of systems such
as water treatment plants by determining the concentration of coagulant to
be added to the source water.
• This method allows adjustments in pH variations in coagulant or polymer
dose, alternating mixing speeds, or testing of different coagulant or polymer
types, on a small scale in order to predict the functioning of a large scale
treatment operation.
• The jar testing apparatus consists of six paddles which stir the contents of
six 1 liter containers. One acts as a control while the operating conditions
can be varied among the remaining five containers.
• An rpm gage at the top center of the device allows for the uniform control
of the mixing speed in all of the containers.
Jar test apparatus
 FILTRATION
• The resultant water after sedimentation will not be pure and may contain
some very fine suspended particles and bacteria in it.
• To remove or to reduce the remaining impurities still further, the water is
filtered through the beds of fine granular materials such as sand, anthracite,
etc.
• The process of passing the water through beds of sand or other granular
materials is known as filtration.
• For removing bacteria, color, taste, odors and producing clear and sparkling
water, filters are used; by sand filtration 95 to 98% suspended impurities are
removed.
 THEORY OF FILTRATION
The following are the mechanisms of filtration
1. Mechanical straining – Particles larger than the pore space of the filtering
medium are strained out mechanically.
2. Sedimentation – Adsorption of colloidal and dissolved inorganic matter in the
surface of sand grains in a thin film
3. Biological Action – Biological action due to the development of a film
of microorganisms layer on the top of filter media, which absorb organic
impurities.
• Organic matters such as algae, plankton also caught by voids between sand
grains
• These matters are used by bacteria for survival and convert them into harmless
compounds from biological metabolism.
• Biological activities are the highest in schmutzdecke
4. Electrolytic Action
 SLOW SAND FILTER
• Earliest type of gravity filter developed
by James Simpson in 1829 in England.
• SSF consists of fine sand, supported by
gravel.
• This earliest type of gravity filter has a
slow rate of filtration (≤ 1/20th of that
of RSF or PF).
• It captures particles near the surface of
the bed and is usually cleaned by
scraping away the top layer of sand that
contains the particles.
• Pre-treatment of water is not needed
for < 20 NTU turbidity and can be
directly fed to filter but if water has
high turbidity, plain sedimentation or
sometimes sedimentation with
coagulation is done before feeding into
SSF.
SSF consists of following:
1. Enclosure Tank: It is open and water tight rectangular tank made of masonry or
concrete. The depth is 2.5 to 4.0 m, surface area is 50 to 1000 𝒎𝟐 or more (depends
upon filtration rate), filtration rate is 100 to 200 lph/𝒎𝟐 . The floor is provided at
cross slope of 1 in 100 to 1 in 200 towards central drain.
2. Filter Media: Consists of 90 to 110 cm thick sand layer with effective size (D10) of
sand 0.25 to 0.35 mm (0.3 mm is common) and coefficient of uniformity (Cu) of 3-5.
Finer the sand better will be the removal of turbidity and bacterial removal efficiency
but lowers the filtration rate. The sand should not contain >2% of Ca and Mg.
3. Base Material: The sand layer is supported on base material of 30 to 75 cm thick
gravel bed. The gravel beds are provided four layers of each about 15 cm thicknesses
with size 3 to 6 mm, 6 to 20 mm, 20 to 40 mm and 40 to 65 mm from the top. Mid
layers between top layer and bottom layer are called intermediate layers.
4. Under Drainage System: It consists of central main drain with diameter 20
cm(approx.) and lateral drains 2 to 3 m apart and starts from 50 to 80 cm
distance of walls of tank. Lateral drain consists of earthenware or perforated
pipes of 7.5 to 10 cm diameter laid with open joint or patented drain in slope.
5. Appurtenances: For efficient working, vertical air pipes, depth controlling device,
head loss measuring device, rate maintaining devices etc. are installed. The
arrangements are made to regulate the inflow to the filter tank so that a constant
depth of water( 1 to 1.2 m) is maintained above the sand layer.
Principles of Slow Sand Filtration
• In a slow sand filter, impurities in the water are removed by a combination of
processes: sedimentation, straining, adsorption, and chemical and bacteriological
action.
• During the first few days, water is purified mainly by mechanical and physical-
chemical processes.
Working of slow sand filter
• The water from the sedimentation tanks
enters the slow sand filter.
• This water is uniformly distributed over the
sand bed without causing any disturbances ,
the water passes through the filtering media
at an averages rate of 100 to 200 lit/𝑚2 /hr.
• This rate of filtration is continued until
maximum filter head of 75 cm or 60 to 85 %
of the thickness of he sand bed. In the
beginning the filter head is only 10 to 15 cm.
• During filtering as the filtering media gets
clogged due to impurities which stay in the
pores, the resistance to the passage of the
water and loss of head also continuously
increases.
• When loss of head reaches its permissible
limit the working of filter is stopped.
Cleaning of slow sand filter
❖ First drain the tank and Scrap the top layer ( 15-30mm)
❖ Wash scraped sand and store for future use
❖ Fill filter with water from below to avoid to prevent air entrap
❖ Keep stand for 12 hrs. and run with 1/5 normal for 12 hours to help
formation of biological layer.
❖ During this period the filtered water is diverted to the wash water drain and
it is not taken into use.
❖ Thereafter the filtered water is diverted to the clear water storage tanks, but
the rate of filtration is kept 1/3 of the normal rate for another 3 to 4 days.
❖ The slow sand filter requires after one to three months depending upon the
impurities present in the raw water
According to DWSS Nepal
• Design period : 10 to 15 year
• Filter beds indicated
1. Minimum 2 nos.
2. Area up to 20 𝑚2 : 2 nos.
3. Area 20 to 249 𝑚2 : 3 nos.
4. Area 250 to 649 𝑚2 : 4 nos.
5. Area 650 to 1200 𝑚2 : 5 nos..
6. 1201 to 2000 𝑚2 : 6 nos.
 SSF Efficiency
According to DWSS Nepal
1. Bacteria removal efficiency of slow sand filter is about 98 to 99 % of
bacterial load from raw water. It can be achieved up to 99.9 % when
pretreatment is done.
2. It can remove turbidity to the extent of about 50 ppm.
3. 20 to 25 % of color can be removed
4. Not highly efficient for the removal of colloidal matter
 RAPID SAND FILTER
Working Mechanism:
❖ All four process acts in RSF: Straining, sedimentation, adsorption, and
bacterial or biochemical. Only effective process is adsorption due to coarse
sand and low retention time.
❖ Rapid sand filters are the most commonly used filters in large water supply
schemes.
❖ Back washing is frequently used
❖ Deep penetration of impurities due to ineffective upper layer.
❖ Suitable for aerated flocks of irons and coagulated waters.
 RAPID SAND FILTER
Rapid sand consists of the following parts.
Enclosure tank
• Open and watertight rectangular tank constructed of bricks or stone masonry or
concrete.
• Depth : 2.5 to 3.5 m
• Surface area or plan area : 10 to 50 m2
• Length to width ratio of tank : 1.25 to 1.35
• Rate of filtration : 3000 to 6000 liters per hour per square meter of filter area.
Filter Media
• Filter media consists of sand layer 60 to 75 cm thick.
• Effective size of sand varies from 0.45 to 0.70 mm.
• Uniformity coefficient [Cu] of filter media varies from 1.3 to 1.7 and commonly 1.5.
• The thickness of the sand bed can be checked against breakthrough of the
floc through the sand bed by calculating the minimum thickness required by
Hudson formula as given by :
𝑄𝑑 3 ℎ
• = 𝐵𝑖 ∗ 29323
𝐿
where Q = rate of filtration in m3/hr/m2
d = sand size in mm;
L = thickness of sand bed in m, and
h = terminal loss of head in m;
Bi = break through index whose value ranges between 4 *10−4 to 6 *
10−6 depending on response to coagulation and degree of pretreatment in
filter influent.
Base Material
• Filter media is supported on the base material (gravel) of 45 to 60 cm thick bed.
• Gravel bed is graded and it laid in different layers each of 15 cm thick.
• Support bed: Graded gravel
2-6 mm= 15 cm
6-12 mm= 15 cm
12-20 mm = 15 cm
20-50 mm =15 cm
• The required depth (l) in cm of a component of gravel layer of size d (mm) can be
computed by following equation
l = 2.54 . K . (log d)
K can be taken as 12
d = gravel size in mm
Under drainage system
• Rapid sand filter under drainage system acts two purposes; i). To collect
filtered water ii). To provide uniform distribution of backwash water
• Commonly used drainage systems are (i) Perforated Pipe System and (ii)
Pipe and Strainer System.
Perforated Pipe System
• Figure shows the plan of rapid sand filter
with the under drainage system which
eventually collects the filter water from a
number of lateral drains.
• The central drains as well as lateral drains
are usually made of cast iron, asbestos
cement, concrete etc.
• The lateral drains are provided at a spacing
of 15 to 30 cm with perforations.
• This system is economical and simple in
operation. However , more quantity of
water in high velocity needs for the back
washing of filter.
Pipe and strainer system System
• System also consists of a central drain or manifold to which a number of lateral drains are
connect on either side as figure .

• Holes are drilled at top of the laterals and each hole is provided with strainer.
• The strainers are either screwed or fixed on the top of the laterals drains.
• Generally spacing of strainer placed at 15 to 30 cm C/C
Appurtenances:
• Wash water trough, air compressor, rate control device, head loss indicator
meters, valves, etc. are used.
Wash water trough :
• Wash water troughs are provided in the upper portion of the filter tank to
collect the back wash water.
• Troughs may be of RCC, asbestos cement, plastic, cast iron and steel , out of
which RCC troughs of the tank.
• Spacing : 1.2 to 2 m C/C.
• Troughs may be rectangular, square, V-shaped or semi-circular in section.
• Troughs are designed as free falling weirs or spillways, for free falling
rectangular trough with level bottom, the following expression is used for
fixing the size of the trough.
 2
Q = 1.376 b ℎ where Q = total discharge received by troughs in m3/s
3

h = depth of water in the troughs in, m

b = width of the trough in, m
• Minimum free board : 5 cm
Air compressors
• During back washing of a filter the agitation of the sand grains is carried out
either by compressed air compressors or water.
• It should have the capacity of supplying compressed air at the rate of 0.6 to
0.8 𝒎𝟑 per minute per 𝒎𝟐 of filter area for 5 minutes.
• Sufficient compressed air may be supplied either through the laterals of the
under drainage system or through a separate pipe system.
Rate control device:
• These are provided in the filters to obtain uniform rate of flow irrespective of
the loss of head in the filter.

• In order to automatically control the rate of filtration the most commonly

used device is Simplex rate controller.
• It mainly consists of balanced disc – valve connected to a flexible diaphragm
and to a lever and weight above.
Rate control device:
• The water enters the valve through the venturi-tube, the pressure is
transmitted from the throat of the tube to the under – side of the diaphragm
which further transmits it to the lever arm.
• The rate of flow is directly recorded by the level after swinging the counter
weight.
Miscellaneous Accessories
• Various types of accessories such as head loss indicator meters for
measuring the flow, constant level equipment's etc. are provided in the rapid
gravity filters.
Working of RSF
• Valve A and D are opened for normal
working and all other valves are kept
closed.
• Valve A permits entrance of water from
coagulation-sedimentation tank to
enter the filter and valve D allows the
filtered water out from filter to clear
water reservoir.
• Filter operate under gravity flow. The standing depth of water over the sand
bed varies between 1 and 2 m
Backwashing of Rapid Sand Filter
• For a filter to operate efficiently, it must be cleaned before the next filter run.
If the water applied to a filter is of very good quality, the filter runs can be
very long.
• Some filters can operate longer than one week before needing to be
backwashed. However, this is not recommended as long filter runs can cause
the filter media to pack down so that it is difficult to expand the bed during
the backwash.
• Treated water from storage is used for the backwash cycle. This treated
water is generally taken from elevated storage tanks or pumped in from the
clear well.
• The filter backwash rate has to be great enough to expand and agitate the
filter media and suspend the floc in the water for removal. However, if the
filter backwash rate is too high, media will be washed from the filter into the
troughs and out of the filter.
• Washing process is continued till the sand bed appears clear. The washing
of filter is done generally after 1-3 days and it takes 10 to 15 minutes, but in
recommissioning a total time of about 30 minutes may be consumed and
during back washing the sand bed expands by about 50%. Total water used
for back wash shouldn’t exceed 2-3% of the treated water.
When is Backwashing Needed?
• The filter should be backwashed when the following conditions have been
met:
• The head loss is so high that the filter no longer produces water at the desired
rate; and/or
• Floc. starts to break through the filter and the turbidity in the filter effluent
increases; and/or
• A filter run reaches a given hour of operation.
Back Washing of RSF
• Close Valve A and let to decrease the
level of reaches the edge of wash water
trough and close valve D .
• Open valve F to allow compressed air
for 2 -3 min to break scum and dirt.
• Now close valve F and open the valve C
to allow wash water and valve and valve
E to drain dirty wash water till this drain
gets clear water.
• Close valve C and E and allow certain time to settle the materials in water.
• Slightly open valve A and open valve B to allow filtered water to flow in the
wash drain for a few minute.
• Close valve E and open valve A then D fully. The filter is now back on service
Efficiency of rapid sand filter
• Bacteria removal efficiency : 80 to 90 %
• Turbidity of water can removed the extend of 35 to 40 ppm.
• These filters are highly efficient in Colour removal i.e. below 3 on cobalt scale.
Numerical 1: Average water consumption rate is 150 lpcd in an urban area. Design a slow sand filtration unit
for a community having population of 10,000 at the base year 2068.
Numerical 2: Design a rapid sand filter for a population of 60,000 for a newly growing urban area.
Numerical 3: The population of a city is 50,000. Design a rapid sand filter including design of filter media,
base material, and under drainage system.
 PRESSURE FILTER
• Pressure filter is type of rapid sand
filter in a closed water tight cylinder
through which the water passes
through the sand bed under pressure.
• All the operations of the filter is similar
to rapid gravity filter, expect that the
coagulated water is directly applied to
the filter without mixing and
flocculation.
• Pressure filters may be vertical
pressure filter and horizontal pressure
filter.
• Backwash is carried by reversing the
flow with valves
• The driving force for the filtration
process here is the water pressure
applied on the filter bed.
• Pressure applied is 3 to 7 kg/cm2
• Dia. – 1.5 to 3 m
• Length or height – 3.5 to 8 m
• Rate of filtration 6000 to 15000 lit/𝑚2 /hr.
• Pressure filters are commercially available as complete units.
• They are not so easy to install, operate and maintain, particularly as it is
not readily possible to inspect the condition of the media.
• Less efficient than RSF in terms of removal of bacterial load, color, and
turbidity
• Suitable for small water supply schemes such as colonies of a few
houses, industrial plants, etc. because of high cost
 DISINFECTION OF WATER
• The process of killing the infective bacteria from the water and making it
safe to the user is called disinfection.
• The water which comes out from the filter may contain some disease –
causing bacteria in addition to the useful bacteria.
• Before the water is supplied to the public it is utmost necessary to kill all the
disease causing bacteria.
• The chemicals or substances which are used for killing the bacteria are
known as disinfectants.
 DISINFECTION OF WATER
REQUIREMENTS OF GOOD DISINFECTANTS
1. They should destroy all the harmful pathogens and make it safe for
use,.
2. They should not take more time in killing bacteria
3. They should be economical and easily available
4. They should not require high skill for their application
5. After treatment the water should not become toxic and objectionable
to the user.
6. The concentration should be determined by simply and quickly.
 DISINFECTION OF WATER
Methods of Disinfection
1. Chlorination:
• The germicidal action of chlorine is explained by the recent theory of
enzymatic hypothesis, according to which the chlorine enters the cell walls of
bacteria and kill the enzymes which are essential for the metabolic processes
of living organisms.
2. Boiling:
• The bacteria present in water can be destroyed by boiling it for a long time,
usually 15mins. However, it is not practically possible to boil huge amounts of
water. Moreover, it cannot take care of future possible contaminations.
• It can only kill existing bacteria and cannot take care of future contamination.
 DISINFECTION OF WATER
Methods of Disinfection
2. Boiling:
• This method is very costly and can be used only individually in emergency
cases during the break up of epidemics in the town or city.
• It is impossible to employ it in water works.
3. Excess Lime treatment
• Lime is usually used at the water works for reducing the hardness of water.
• It has been noted practically that if some additional quantity of lime is added
than what it actually requires for removal of hardness, it will also disinfect the
water While removing the hardness.
• The addition of excess lime in the water increases the pH – value of the water
• It has been noted that at pH value more than 9.5, all the bacteria are killed
 DISINFECTION OF WATER
3. Excess Lime treatment
• After killing the bacteria by using excess lime, the next requirement is to
reduce the pH value for making it fit for domestic purposes. Hence this
method of disinfection is not adopted for public water supply at water works.
• Treatment like re-carbonation for lime removal should be used after
disinfection.
4 Disinfection with Iodine and Bromine
• It has been seen that addition of iodine and bromine in the water, kills all the
pathogenic bacteria
• The quantity of iodine and bromine should not exceed 8 ppm and they can
kill bacteria in minimum contact period of 5 minutes.
• These disinfectants are easily available in the form of pills and very handy
 DISINFECTION OF WATER
4 Disinfection with Iodine and Bromine
• Being costly these are also used in treating water works at individual estate
or industry.
• Iodine reacts with less organic matter as compared to chlorine and it is
relatively stable in water .
• It does not reacts with ammonia to form iodamines but it oxidizes ammonia
5. Potassium Permanganate Treatment:
• This is a common method of disinfection in rural areas, where mostly the
water supplies are from wells which contain lesser amount of bacteria.
• Potassium permanganate is dissolved in a bucket of well water and the
bucket full of this water is mixed with the well water thoroughly. Potassium
permanganate not only kills the bacteria but it also helps in oxidizing the
taste producing organic matter.
 DISINFECTION OF WATER
5. Potassium Permanganate Treatment:
• The normal dose of potassium permanganate is 1-2 ppm. with contact period
of 4 to 6 hours
• Addition of KMnO4 in water imparts pink colour.
6. Ozone treatment
• Ozone is an excellent disinfectant, it is used in gaseous form which is faintly
blue in colour of pungent odour
• Ozone is produced by passing a high tension electric current through a
stream of air in a closed chamber.
• But as the ozone is highly unstable, it break down in the ordinary oxygen and
liberate nascent oxygen.
O3 O2 + O (Nascent oxygen )
 DISINFECTION OF WATER
6. Ozone treatment
• The nascent oxygen is very powerful oxidizing agent and it kills all the
bacteria as well as oxidises the organic matter present in the water.
• While doing the disinfection, ozone gas is released in the water in a sterilizing
chamber.
• For obtaining a residual of 0.1 ppm after a contact period of about 13
minutes, the dose of ozone to be added in water is about 2-3 ppm.
• Ozone also removes the colour, odour and taste from water.
• It is being unstable nothing remains in water till it reaches the consumers.
• It makes water more tasty and pleasant
• The method of disinfection with ozone can be used only if electricity is
easily and cheaply available at the water works.
 DISINFECTION OF WATER
6. Ozone treatment
• As it requires highly technical knowledge for its set-up and maintenance, it is
not commonly used at the water works.
7. Silver Treatment
• In this method the metallic silver ions are introduced into the water by
passing it through solid silver electrodes tubes and passing the current
through 100 volts battery.
• The introduction of silver ions in the water by electro-Katadyn process, is
highly disinfectant.
• It kill all the bacteria
• The dose of silver may vary from 0.05 -0.1 ppm. With contact period of 15-
180 minutes
• This is very costly method of disinfection, hence not used at the water works.
 DISINFECTION OF WATER
7. Ultra violet ray Treatment
• Ultra violet rays are invisible light rays having wave length of 0.49 μ to 0.149μ.
• Sun rays have ultra-violet rays which can be utilized in the disinfection of
water.
• In the laboratory they can be obtained by the ultra-violet ray equipment,
which essentially consists of mercury vapors enclosed in quartz bulb and
passing current in it.
• Ultra-violet rays are highly disinfectants and kill the pathogenic bacteria. After
removing the turbidity and the colour of water, disinfections by ultra-violet
rays can be done.
• Depth of water should be 10 cm, and it should be colorless and turbidity
should not exceed 20 NTU
• This rays penetrate in water and kill the bacteria
• This process is very costly and requires technical skill and costly equipment
Therefore, it is not commonly used in public water supplies.
 CHLORINATION
• Chlorination is the addition of chlorine to kill the bacteria
• Chlorination is very widely adopted in all developing countries for treatment of
water for public supply.
• Chlorine is available in gas, liquid or solid form (bleaching powder)
• It is most often added as a gas, Cl2 (g). However, it also can be added as a salt,
such as sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) or bleach.
• Hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion compose what is called the free
chlorine residual. These free chlorine compounds can react with many
organic and inorganic compounds to form chlorinated compounds. If the
products of these reactions posses oxidizing potential, they are considered
the combined chlorine residual.
• Chlorine reacts with ammonia in water to form Monochloramine, (𝑁𝐻2 𝐶𝑙),
dichloramine (𝑁𝐻𝐶𝑙2 ) and trichloramine , (𝑁𝐶𝑙3 ) released and their
distribution depends on the PH value of water.
• This combined available chlorine possesses some disinfecting properties
through to a much lower degree than the free available chloride.
• Since this reactions are usually not 100 % complete, some free available
chlorine exits along with combined available chlorine and ammonia
indicated but following formula:
• The monochloramine and dichloramine have disinfectant properties
but 25 times less than that of free chlorine. The trichloramine has no
disinfectant properties at all.
• The trichloramine is found only at pH value below 4.4.
• Between pH values 4.4 to 5.5, only dichloramine exists and in the
range of 5.5 to 8.4 both mono and dichloramine exist in a ratio fixed
by pH value .
• At pH 7 equal quantities of mono and dichloramine are found and at
pH above 8.4 only monochloramine are found
Chlorine Demand
• Free chlorine and chloramines readily react with a variety of compounds,
including organic substances, and inorganic substances like iron and
manganese. The stoichiometry of chlorine reactions with organics can be
represented as shown below:

• The amount of free chlorine consumed in such oxidation is called chlorine

demand of water
• chlorine demand = total amount of chlorine added – amount of residual
chlorine required after as specified contact period.
Chlorine Dose and Contact time
• The quantity of chlorine required to be added to water to leave 0.2 mg/l or
ppm of freely available residual chlorine after 10 minutes of contact period is
called optimum dose of chlorine. This is generally of about 1 ppm.
• Contact period is time taken to kill pathogenic organisms after the
application of chlorine.
• The contact time required to kill pathogenic organisms by free chlorine is
about 10 minutes.
• However due to poor diffusion of chlorine in water, disinfection by free
chlorine acting in clear water generally requires a contact time of 30 minutes
while it is 60 minutes for combined chlorine.
Types or form of application of Chlorine :
1. As bleaching power or hypochloride
• Calcium hypochloride Ca(OCl)2 or beaching powder is a chlorinated lime.
• When it is added to water dissociates into Calcium 𝐶𝑎++ and hypochlorite
𝑂𝐶𝑙 −
• 𝐶𝑎(𝑂𝐶𝑙)2 𝐶𝑎 ++ + 2𝑂𝐶𝑙 −
• The hypochlorite ions obtained above further combine with the hydrogen
ions present in water and form hypochlorous acid as follows :
𝑂𝐶𝑙 − + 𝐻 + 𝐻𝑂𝐶𝑙
• Commercially available bleaching powder contains approximately 30 to 35
percent of available chlorine.
• The value of chlorine content continuously decrease if the powder is
exposed to the atmosphere
2.Chloramines
• Chloramines are compounds formed by reaction between ammonia and
chlorine.

• The compounds are quite stable in water and remains in water as residual
for a sufficient time so are more effective than chlorine alone. The reaction
is slow hence water treated can only be supplied to consumer after 20
minutes to 1 hour of application. It does not cause bad taste and odour
when left at residual but is weaker disinfectant than free chlorine
disinfectant.
3.Chlorine gas or liquid chlorine or free chlorine
• Chlorine gas is fed directly to the point of application to the water supply in a
pressure of 7 kg/𝑐𝑚2 or first dissolved in small flow of water and the
chlorine water solution is then applied to the system.
• Application of gas chlorine is less expensive but less satisfactory because of
poor diffusion of chlorine and at lower temperature crystalline hydrates of Cl
are formed and possibility of choking of pipes.
• Undissolved Cl may corrode pipes and valves.
• Chlorine gas or liquid chlorine dissolved in small quantities of water is
normally used.
4.Chlorine dioxide
• In this method, chlorine dioxide gas is produced by passing chlorine gas
through sodium chlorite solution. The Cl is unstable and reacts as follows

• 𝐶𝑙𝑂2 has oxidizing capacity 2.5 times than that of chlorine and most
effective for removal of taste and odour.