CEC308

CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
COURSE CODE: CEC308
COURSE NAME
WATER RESOURCE ENGINEERING
LABORATORY
Location: Room No.: 001, 013 & 307 of Academic
Complex IIT(ISM) Dhanbad
LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
NAME OF EXPERIMENT PAGE

S. N.
NUMBER
1 Verification of Bernoulli's theorem 3-6
Determination of Coefficient of discharge of Venturimeter & Orifice
2 meter 7-15
Determination of losses in pipe flow

3 16-28
Determination of Coefficient of discharge for notches
4 29-37
Study of hydraulic jump in open channel flow
5 38-40
6 Performance studies on Turbines 41-54
Performance studies on Pumps
7 55-67
Measurement of Infiltration by Infiltrometer and evaporation by
8 Pan evaporimeter 68-73
Determination of hydrograph after precipitation in Hydrology

9 system equipment 74-92
Lab Safety Instructions:
1. Always maintain awareness of the surrounding activities and walk in aisles to the extent
possible.
2. Maintain clean and orderly laboratories and work area. Discard immediately unwanted
items. Make sure all spilled liquids are wiped up immediately.
3. Students are responsible for maintaining work area in a safe and reasonable condition.
4. Be aware of the various experiment controls (start button, stop button, speed control for
each equipment.
5. Be aware of the experiment harness when conducting experiments.
6. Do not leave experiments running unattended.
7. Any injuries should be reported immediately for proper care.
Do’s and Don’t
1. Laboratory uniform, shoes & safety glasses are compulsory in the lab.
2. Do not touch anything with which you are not completely familiar. Carelessness may
not only break the valuable equipment in the lab but may also cause serious injury to
you and others in the lab.
3. Please follow instructions precisely as instructed by your supervisor. Do not start the
experiment unless your setup is verified & approved by your supervisor.
4. Do not leave the experiments unattended while in progress.
5. Do not crowd around the equipment’s & run inside the laboratory.
6. During experiments material may fail and disperse, please wear safety glasses and
maintain a safe distance from the experiment.
7. If any part of the equipment fails while being used, report it immediately to your
supervisor. Never try to fix the problem yourself because you could further damage the
equipment and harm yourself and others in the lab.
8. Keep the work area clear of all materials except those needed for your work and clean
up after your work.
VERIFICATION OF BERNOULLI’S THEOREM
Aim of the experiment:
To verify the Bernoulli’s Theorem.
Equipment:
The experimental setup consists of:
1. A variable area duct made of Perspex sheets of known size at entrance, center and outlet and
other junction points with the piezometer tappings.
2. Piezometer tubes fitted at regular interval.
3. An outlet valve at the discharge end of the duct.
4. Supply of water with the help of flexible pipe.
5. Outlet of water from the apparatus to the discharge measuring tank.
Theory:
Considering frictionless flow along a variable area duct, the law of conservation of energy states that
for non-viscous, incompressible, irrotational and steady flow along a stream line the total energy (or
head) remains the same. This is called Bernoulli’s equation. The total head of flowing fluid consists
of pressure head, velocity head and datum head. Hence
p1 v12 p v2
+ + z1 = 2 + 2 + z2 3
 2g  2g
neglecting all the losses.
p v2
Or + + z = constant
 2g
Where p, v and Z refer to the pressure, velocity and position of the liquid relative to some datum at
any section.
Standard Data:
Stainless Steel Sump Tank = 120 cm X 30 cm X 300 cm
Stainless Steel Measuring Tank = 25 cm X 25 cm X 300 cm
Water Resources Engineering Laboratory Manual (CEC308) Page | 3

Procedure:
1. Start the pump and allow the water to flow through the set up.
2. Adjust the flow when the head in tubes becomes constant. Note the height of water in all tubes
p
i.e. pressure Head

3. Note the initial reading of water in measuring tank and collect water for certain time ‘t’ in the
tank and note final reading of water. Calculate the discharge. By dividing the discharge with
v2
area of cross-section under each tube calculate the velocity head i.e. .
2g
4. As the duct is horizontal so the height of each tube from ground/datum is constant. Hence
datum head, Z is zero.
5. Calculate the total head
p v2
+ + Z, which is constant.
 2g
6. Repeat the experiment for different flow.
Formula Used:
p v2
+ + z = constant
 2g
p1 v12 p2 v22
+ + z1 = + + z2
 2g  2g

Observation:
Area of Measuring Tank (A) =
Observation Table:
Serial MEASUREMENT TANK READING Discharge

No. Initial Level Final Level h 2 – h1 Time= t A (h2  h1 )
Q=
h1 (cm) h2 (cm) (cm) Second t
1
Tube No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Area of Cross Cm2 4 X 3.6 4 x 3.4 4 x 3.2 4 x 3.0 4 x 2.8 4 x 2.6 4 x 2.4
Section = 14.4 = 13.6 = 12.8 = 12.0 = 11.2 = 10.4 = 9.6
1
Velocity
𝑄 2
𝑉=
axb 3
1
Velocity Head
2
v2
= 3
2g
Datum Head
Z=0
1
2
Pressure Head
3
Total Head 1
2
p v 2
= + +Z
 2g
3
Results:
Total head at each section is ……………………….

Hence Bernoulli’s theorem is verified.
Diagram:

Bernoulli’s theorem testing rig
Questions:
1. State Bernoulli’s theorem. What are the assumptions involved in Bernoulli’s theorem?
2. During the experiment the total energy is not constant in all the pipes. What is the possible
reason for the same?
3. Water is flowing through a pipe of dia. 10 cm under a pressure of 19.62 N/cm2 and with a mean
velocity of 3 m/s. Find the total head per unit weight of water at a cross section, which is 5m
above the datum line?

FLOW MEASUREMENT BY VENTURIMETER
To determine the coefficient of discharge for a Venturimeter.
Equipment:
Water main with a supply valve, Stainless Steel sump tank, a venturimeter, mercury differential
U tube manometer, discharge measuring Stainless Steel tank fitted with a perimeter tube, a
stopwatch. Two SS pipeline of diameter 20mm & 25mm each line fitted venturimeter.
Stainless Steel Sump Tank: 120cm x 30cm x 40cm

Stainless Steel Measuring Tank: 60cm x 30cm x 40cm
Theory:
Venturimeter: It is a device for measuring the rate of flow in a pipeline. Its theoretical analysis
is based on (i) Bernoulli’s equation (ii) Continuity equation.
Construction features: It is composed of the following three features:
1. Convergent Section-A converging cone of angle of about 20o

2. Throat section – a cylindrical portion of short length and
3. Divergent Section– a diverging cone of angle 5 o to 7 o
The accelerated flow is achieved in the converging cone, the highest velocity head being at the throat.
In the converging cone pressure energy is converted into kinetic energy. At the throat the streamlines
are parallel to each other and Cc = 1. Where, as in the divergent cone the kinetic energy is converted
into pressure energy and thus to reduce the velocity as nearly as possible to its original value at the
inlet. About 85% of the pressure drop between the inlet and throat is covered in the diffuser/ divergent
section. The fluid flowing through diverging boundaries has a tendency to separate from boundaries;
thereby resulting in energy dissipation due to formation of eddies etc. Energy dissipation has been
found to be directly proportional to the angle of divergence; however, small angles of divergence
require large lengths of diffusers. Cone angles of 5o to 7o have been found to give good results viz.,
lower values of energy loss.
For a venturimeter to give good results the flow entering it should be free from large scale
turbulence. The factors to be borne in mind are:
(i) A venturimeter ought to be proceeded by a straight length of around 50 times pipe

diameter, but not less than 30 times the pipe diameter.
(ii) The ratio of throat to inlet diameters may range between 0.75 and 0.25 but most
commonly used rates adopted is 0.5

Experimental setup:
The experimental setup consists of:
1. Water main connected to the U/s end of the venturimeter.

2. Horizontal venturimeter with a mercury differential U tube manometer connected
between two pet-cocks at the mouth and throat by means of flexible tubes.
3. Mercury U-tube manometer with an air vent with the help of which the water levels in
the limbs may be brought to the desired part of the scale regardless of the pressure in
the mains.
4. Outlet value is fitted at the D/s end of venturimeter for discharging regulation.
5. Discharge measuring tank fitted with a piezometer tube.
Procedure:
1. Record the inlet pipe diameter (d1), Orifice diameter (d2) and the densities of manometer
fluid (m) and flowing fluid (w).
2. Open the air vessel valve & release the air on manometric tube and perform the levelling
of mercury. After levelling the mercury, close the air vessel valve.
3. Switch on the power & start the motor.
4. Open the regulation valve and under steady state condition note the readings h 1 and h2
in the two limbs of the mercury differential manometer. Calculate the theoretical
discharge (Qth).
5. Note the initial level of water in measuring tank. Collect the water in the measuring tank
for a certain time and note the final level of water in measuring tank. Calculate the actual
discharge (Qact).
6. Calculate the Co-efficient of Discharge (Cd).
7. Vary the flow rate through the system with the regulating valve and take different
readings.

Formula used:
A(h2  h1 )
Actual Discharge Qact 
t
(a1  a2 ) 2 gH
Theoretical Discharge Qth 
a12  a22
ρm
Manometer Difference in cm of water H  R(  1)
ρf
Qact
Coefficient of Discharge Cd 
Qth
Where:
A = Area of Measuring Tank (cm2)
h1 = Initial Level / height of Measuring Tank
h2 = Final Level / height of measuring Tank (After ‘t’ Second)
t = Time in Second
a1 = Area of pipe cm2
a2 = Area of throat cm2
g = Acceleration due to gravity

R = Mercury Difference in cm
ρm = Density of Mercury
ρf = Density of fluid
Density of Water = 1000 kg/m3 = 1 g/cm3
Density of Mercury = 13600 kg/m3 = 13.6 g/cm3
Acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/s2 =981 cm/s2

OBSERVATION:
Diameter of Pipe (d1) = Diameter of Throat (d2) =

Area of Pipe (a1) = Area of Throat (a2) =
Area of Measuring Tank (A) = Acceleration due to gravity (g) =
Density of Manometer Fluid = Density of Flowing Fluid =
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Serial MEASUREMENT TANK READING Actual Discharge

No. Initial Level Final Level h 2 – h1 Time= t A (h2 − h1 )
Qact =
1
Serial MANOMETER DIFFERENCE ρm Theoretical Discharge Coefficient of

H  R(  1)
No. ρf (a1  a2 ) 2 gH Discharge
h1 (cm) h2 (cm) R= h2-h1 Qth  Qact
= R x 12.6 cm of a12  a22 Cd 
water Qth
Average
RESULT:
The average co-efficient of discharge for Venturimeter is -

Diagram:
Questions:
1. What is venturimeter? What is the principle of venturimeter?

2. Why is the length of the diverging section longer than the converging section in a
venturimeter?
3. Mention some practical application of venturimeter.

FLOW MEASUREMENT BY ORIFICEMETER
To determine the co-efficient of discharge for an Orifice meter.
Equipment:
1. Supply tank connected to a centrifugal pump which is further connected to the pipe
fitted with orifice meter through a supply valve.
2. A differential mercury U tube manometer.
3. Discharge measurement tank fitted with a piezometer tube.
4. Two SS pipe line of diameter 20 mm & 25mm each line fitted with Orifice meter of
suitable diameter.
Stainless Steel Sump Tank: 120cm x 30cm x 40cm
Stainless Steel Measuring Tank: 60cm x 30cm x 40cm
Theory:
Orificemeter: Orificemeter is a flow measuring device. It is used extensively to measure flow

through pipes. In its simplest form it consists of merely one-hole circular in shape in a plate
both thin and flat which being clamped between the flanges at a joint in the pipe line so that its
plane is perpendicular to the axis of the pipe.
Pressure tapings for being connected to a differential gauge are made in the pipe wall on both
sides of the plate.
Procedure:
1. Record the inlet pipe diameter (d1), Orifice diameter (d2) and the densities of manometer fluid
(m) and flowing fluid (w).
2. Open the air vessel valve & release the air on manometric tube and perform the levelling of
mercury. After levelling the mercury, close the air vessel valve.
3. Switch on the power & start the motor.
4. Open the regulation valve and under steady state condition note the readings h1 and h2 in the
two limbs of the mercury differential manometer. Calculate the theoretical discharge (Qth).
5. Note the initial level of water in measuring tank. Collect the water in the measuring tank for
certain time and note the final level of water in measuring tank. Calculate the actual discharge
(Qact).
6. Calculate the Co-efficient of Discharge (Cd).
7. Vary the flow rate through the system with the regulating valve and take different readings.

Formula used:
(a1  a2 ) 2 gH
Theoretical Discharge Qth 
a12  a22
A(h2  h1 )
Actual Discharge Qact 
t
ρ
Manometer Difference in cm of water H  R( m  1)
ρf
Qact
Coefficient of Discharge Cd 
Qth
Where:
A = Area of Measuring Tank (cm2)

h1 = Initial Level / height of Measuring Tank
h2 = Final Level / height of measuring Tank (After ‘t’ Second)
t = Time in Second
a1 = Area of pipe cm2
a2 = Area of Orifice cm2

R = Mercury Difference in cm
ρm = Density of Mercury
ρf = Density of fluid
Density of Water = 1000 kg/m3 = 1 g/cm3
Density of Mercury = 13600 kg/m3 = 13.6 g/cm3
Acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/s2 =981 cm/s2

OBSERVATION:
Diameter of Pipe (d1) = Diameter of Orifice (d2) =

Area of Pipe (a1) = Area of Orifice (a2) =
Area of Measuring Tank (A) = Acceleration due to gravity (g) =
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Serial MEASUREMENT TANK READING Actual Discharge

Qact =
1
Serial MANOMETER DIFFERENCE ρm Theoretical Discharge Coefficient of

H  R(  1)
No. ρf (a1  a2 ) 2 gH Discharge
h1 (cm) h2 (cm) R= h2-h1 Qth  Qact
= R x 12.6 cm of a12  a22 Cd 
water Qth
Average
Result:
The average co-efficient of discharge for Orificemeter is -

Diagram:
Questions:
1. What is an orificemeter?
2. How is an orificemeter different from a venturimeter?
3. What is the basis for the discharge equation for orifice meter and venturimeter

ESTIMATION OF LOSSES IN PIPE
To determine the minor losses in the pipe due to
(a) Sudden expansion
(b) Sudden contraction
(c) Bend
(d) Elbow
Theory:
In a sudden expansion, the head loss occurs due to the separation of flow at the periphery of the
smaller pipe and consequently eddying motion in the corner region. The pressure drop or head loss
(he) can be evaluated by applying the continuity and momentum equations and is given by the Borda
Carnot equation.
(𝑉1 − 𝑉2 )2
ℎ𝑐 =
2𝑔
Where, V1 = velocity in first pipe V2 = velocity in second pipe

For a sudden contraction, the head loss occurs only after the vena-contracta because the flow upto
this section is accelerating and boundary separation does not occur. This is given by,
V2 2 1
hc = ( − 1)2
2g Cc
𝐴𝑐 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑎𝑡 𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑎−𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎
Where, Cc = coefficient of contraction= =
𝐴2 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑐𝑒𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒
𝐴
Value of Cc depends upon the ratio 𝐴2
1
Where A1 = Area of first pipe.
𝑉2
In general, the loss of head due to sudden contraction is given by 0.5 2𝑔
V2
The Loss of head due to sudden bend is K b where Kb is Coefficient of bend
2g
Equipment:

A pipe of known diameter fitted with a right bend, a 45˚ bend, a sudden expansion, a sudden
contraction, an Elbow, inlet and outlet valves and pet cocks at suitable points. A digital manometer,
a discharge measuring tank and a stop watch.
Three S.S pipe lines of diameter size 15, 20 & 25mm, each line fitted with a sudden expansion, sudden
contraction, bend and Elbow.
Stainless Steel Sump Tank : 120cm x 30cm x 40cm

Stainless Steel Measuring Tank : 60cm x 30cm x 40cm
Procedure:
1. Start the Digital manometer
2. Switch on the Power & Start the Motor
3. Record the manometer readings.
4. Record the initial level (h1) of water in the discharge tank with the help of piezometer
tube and start the stop watch.
5. Record the final level (h2) after a certain time interval.
6. Record the area of the discharge measuring tank.
7. Record the diameter of the main pipe and enlarged pipe.
8. Repeat steps 1 – 5 for three different openings of the outlet valve.

Formula used:
For Sudden Expansion
𝐾𝑒𝑥𝑝 (𝑉1 − 𝑉2 )2
𝐻=
2𝑔
𝐻. 2𝑔
𝐾𝑒𝑥𝑝 =
(𝑉1 − 𝑉2 )2
Where V1 = Velocity of liquid of small pipe.
V2 = Velocity of liquid in large pipe
H = Head/Manometer difference
For Sudden Contraction

𝑉22
𝐻𝑐𝑜𝑛 = 𝐾𝑐𝑜𝑛
2𝑔
𝐻𝑐𝑜𝑛 × 2𝑔
𝐾𝑐𝑜𝑛 =
𝑉22
Where V1 = Velocity of liquid in large pipe.

V2 = Velocity of small pipe
For Bend
𝑉12
𝐻𝑏𝑒𝑛𝑑 = 𝐾𝑏
2g
𝐻𝑏𝑒𝑛𝑑 × 2g
𝐾𝑏 =
𝑉12

Observation for Sudden Expansion:
Area of Measuring Tank (A) = 60 cm x 30 cm = 1800 cm2

Diameter of small Pipe (d1) = Diameter of Large Pipe (d2) =
Area of small Pipe (A1) = Area of Large Pipe (A2) =
Acceleration due to gravity g = 981 cm/s2
Observation Table:

No. Initial Level Final Level h2 – h 1 Time= t A (h2  h1 ) 3
Q= cm /s
1
Serial Q Q MANOMETER DIFFERENCE Manometer Head (H) 𝐻. 2𝑔

V1 = V2 = 𝐾𝑒𝑥𝑝 =
No. A1 A2 = R x 12.6 cm of water (𝑉1 − 𝑉2 )2
h1 (cm) h2 (cm) R= h2-h1
Average
Result:

Observation for Sudden Contraction:

Observation Table:

Q= cm /s
1
Serial Q MANOMETER DIFFERENCE Manometer Head (H) 𝐻𝑐𝑜𝑛 . 2g

V1 = 𝐾𝑐𝑜𝑛 =
No. A1 = R x 12.6 cm of water 𝑉1 2
h1 (cm) h2 (cm) R= h2-h1
Average

Observation for Bend:

Observation Table:

Q= cm /s
1
Serial Q MANOMETER DIFFERENCE Manometer Head (H) 𝐻𝑏 × 2g

V1 = 𝐾𝑐𝑜𝑛 =
No. A1 = R x 12.6 cm of water 𝑉12
h1 (cm) h2 (cm) R= h2-h1
Losses of head due to Sudden Expansion is:
Loss of head due to Sudden Contraction is:
Loss of head due to bend in pipe is:

Diagram:
Losses Due to Sudden Expansion
Losses Due to Sudden Contraction:

Questions:
1. What do you understand by the terms: Major energy loss and minor energy loss?
2. Define Hydraulic gradient line and total energy line?
3. If the velocity head is reduced, what effect will it have on sudden expansion of pipe?

ESTIMATION OF PIPE FRICTION
To determine the co-efficient of friction for pipes of different diameter.
1. 1.5 cm
2. 2.0 cm
3. 2.5 cm
Theory:
Transportation of fluids through pipes is frequently dealt with by engineers. Distribution

of water and gas for domestic consumption through pipes is an example. As we are quite
aware that when liquid flows through a pipe, velocity of the liquid layer adjacent to the pipe
wall will be zero. Velocity of liquid will be increasing from the pipe wall and therefore there
will be produced velocity gradient and shear stress in the liquid due to viscosity of liquid.
This viscous action will cause the loss of energy which will be termed as frictional loss or loss
of head due to friction.
Let us consider that fluid is flowing through a uniform horizontal pipe with steady flow as
displayed in following figure.
Now we will assume two sections of pipe i.e. section 1-1 and section 2-2.
Let us consider the following terms to derive the required expression of loss of head due to
friction in pipe.
P1 = Pressure intensity at section 1-1 V1 = Velocity of flow at section 1-1
P2 = Pressure intensity at section 2-2 V2 = Velocity of flow at section 2-2
L = Length of pipe between section 1-1 and section 2-2 d = Diameter of the pipe
f ' = Frictional resistance per unit wetted area per unit velocity A = Area of the pipe
hf = Loss of head due to friction
Now we will apply the Bernoulli’s equations between section 1-1 and section 2-2.
𝒑𝟏 𝑽𝟏𝟐 𝒑𝟐 𝑽𝟐𝟐
+ + 𝒁𝟏 = + + 𝒁𝟐 + 𝒉𝒇
𝝆𝐠 𝟐𝐠 𝝆𝐠 𝟐𝐠
Because,

Pipe is horizontal and hence, Z1 = Z2
Diameter of uniform pipe is same at both sections and hence, V1 = V2
𝒑𝟏 𝒑𝟐 𝒑𝟏 𝒑𝟐
= + 𝒉𝒇 𝑶𝒓 𝒉𝒇 = − 𝑶𝒓 𝝆𝐠 𝒉𝒇 = 𝒑𝟏 − 𝒑𝟐
𝝆𝐠 𝝆𝐠 𝝆𝐠 𝝆𝐠
Above equation of loss of head due to friction i.e. hf shows that there will be loss of head
due to friction or intensity of pressure will be dropped in the direction of flow.
Now Frictional Force F = f ' x πd L x V2 = f ' x P x L x V2 (where P is Perimeter)
Where f ' is Frictional resistance per unit wetted area per unit velocity x wetted area x velocity 2
Now we will consider the forces acting on the fluid between section 1-1 and section 2-2
Pressure force at section 1-1 = P1 x A

Pressure force at section 2-2 = P2 x A
Let us write here the equation of equilibrium of forces
p1A – p2A = F
A (p1 – p2) = F = f ' x P x L x V2
𝒇′ 𝑷 𝑳 𝑽𝟐
𝒑𝟏 − 𝒑𝟐 =
𝑨
𝒇′ 𝑷 𝑳 𝑽𝟐
𝝆𝐠 𝒉𝒇 =
𝑨
𝒇′ 𝑷
𝒉𝒇 = 𝑿 𝑿 𝑳 𝑿 𝑽𝟐
𝝆𝐠 𝑨
𝑷 𝝅𝒅 𝟒𝝅𝒅 𝟒
𝒇′ 𝟒 𝒇′ 𝟒 𝑳 𝑽𝟐 𝑾𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 =𝝅 = =
𝒉𝒇 = 𝑿 𝑿 𝑳 𝑿 𝑽𝟐 = 𝑿 𝑨 𝟐 𝝅𝒅𝟐 𝒅
𝝆𝐠 𝒅 𝝆𝐠 𝒅 𝟒 𝒅
𝒇 𝟒 𝑳 𝑽𝟐 𝒇′ 𝒇 Where f is called co-efficient

𝒉𝒇 = 𝑿 = of Friction
𝟐𝐠 𝒅 𝝆 𝟐
𝟒𝒇𝑳𝑽𝟐
𝐇𝐞𝐚𝐝 𝐋𝐨𝐬𝐬 𝐝𝐮𝐞 𝐭𝐨 𝐅𝐫𝐢𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 (𝒉𝒇 ) =
𝟐𝒅𝐠
Where L = Tapping Length of Pipe d = diameter of the pipe

f = Co-efficient of Friction V = Velocity of flowing fluid
Above equation is called as Darcy-Weisbach equation and commonly used to determine the loss
of head due to friction in pipes.

Experimental set up:
The experimental set up consists of:
1. Pipes of different diameters. Two pipe of dia. 1.5cm, 2.0cm & 2.5cm.
2. Two pet-cocks on each side with the help of which flow is regulated.
3. A valve fitted to each pipe with the help of which flow is regulated.
4. A U tube manometer connected to the pressure tapping of each pipe.
5. A discharge measuring tank fitted with a piezometer tube and a graduated scale to
measure the depth of water collected.
Stainless Steel Sump Tank : 120 cm x 30 cm x 40 cm

Stainless Steel Measuring Tank : 60 cm x 30cm x 40cm
Tapping Length : 200 cm
Procedure:
1. Switch on the Power & Start the Motor

2. Record the diameter ‘d’ of the pipe and the length L between the sections attached to the
digital manometer.
3. Open the supply valve to allow water to flow in one pipe only.
4. Record the initial water level (h1) in the piezometer fitted to the discharge measuring tank
and start the stop watch and find the depth of water collected for a particular time by
recording the final reading (h2) of the piezometer.
5. Knowing the area of the measuring tank, flow discharge through the pipe can be obtained.
6. Record the readings from the digital manometer, the difference of which gives the head
loss (hf)
𝐐
7. Calculate average velocity through the pipe using the relationship 𝐕 = 𝐀
Where A = area of cross section of the pipe.

8. The Darcy-Weisbach coefficient of friction is calculated using the expression
𝟐𝐠𝐝𝒉𝒇
𝐂𝐨 − 𝐞𝐟𝐟𝐢𝐜𝐢𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐅𝐫𝐢𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 (𝒇) =
𝟒𝑳𝑽𝟐
9. Repeat the above steps for different discharge and other pipes of different diameters
taking at least 3 readings for every pipe.

Observation:
Diameter of Pipe = Cross-Sectional Area of Pipe =
Length of Pipe (Distance between Pressure tapping attached to Manometer), L =
Density of Manometer Fluid (m) = 13600 kg/m3
Density of Flowing Fluid (f) = 1000 kg/m3
Area of Measuring Tank (A) = 60cm x 30cm = 1800 cm2
Observation Table:

h1 (cm) h2 (cm) (cm) Second Q=
t
1
Serial 𝑄 Head Loss (hf) Co-efficient of Friction

Velocity of Water (V) =
No. 𝑎 2𝑔𝑑ℎ𝑓
𝑓=
𝐿𝑉2
Result: Average value of Darcy-Weisbach friction factor is:

Diagram:
Questions:
1. Which property of the fluid accounts for the frictional losses in pipes?
2. Explain the term friction factor. On what factors does this coefficient depend?
3. A liquid flows through pipes 1 and 2 with the same flow velocity. If the ratio of their
pipe diameters d1: d2 be 3:2, what will be the ratio of the head loss in the two pipes?

DISCHARGE MEASUREMENT OVER RECTANGULAR NOTCH
AIM:
To determine the co-efficient of discharge through a Rectangular Notch.
THEORY:
A notch is a device used for measuring the discharge of a liquid through a small channel or a
tank. It may be defined as an opening in the side of a tank or a small channel in such a way that
the liquid surface in the tank or channel is below the top edge of the opening. The sheet of
water flowing through the notch is called Nappe or Vein. The bottom edge of a notch over
which the water flows, is known as the sill or crest.
CO-EFFICIENT OF DISCHARGE-The ratio of actual discharge over a notch to the

theoretical discharge is known as co-efficient of discharge. Mathematically, Co-efficient of
discharge:
Actual Discharge
Cd =
Theoretical Discharge
THEORETICAL DISCHARGE OVER A RECTANGULAR NOTCH:
Qth = 2/3 b 2 g [H] 3/2

Where,
Q = actual discharge
b = width of the notch (b= 8 cm)
H = water head over crest
Cd = Co-efficient of discharge.
APPARATUS AND COMPONENTS REQUIRED:
Water main with a supply valve, sump tank with outlet drain,discharge measuring tank fitted
with a piezometer tube and with outlet drain, rectangular notch, pointer gauge and open channel
flume connected with motor through pipe.
Area of the measuring tank= 100 cm× 60 cm

Fig.-Rectangular notch
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:
Starting Procedure:
1. Clean the apparatus and make all the tanks free from dust.
2. Close the drain valves provided.
3. Close Flow Control Valve given in water line.
4. Open By-Pass Valve.
5. Fix desired Notch on the flow channel.
6. Fill Sump tank ¾ with Clean Water and ensure that no foreign particles are there.
7. Ensure that all On/Off Switches given on the Panel are at OFF position.
8. Now switch on the Main Power Supply and Switch on the Pump.
10. Regulate Flow of water through channel with the help of given Flow Control Valve.
11. Record the height of water level in the channel with the help of pointer Gauge.
12. Measure Flow Rate using Measuring Tank and Stop Watch.
Closing Procedure:
1. When experiment is over, Switch off Pump.
2. Switch off Power Supply to Panel.
3. Drain water from all three tanks with the help of given drain valves.

OBSERVATION TABLE:
S. N. Measuring Tank Reading Actual Discharge (cm3/s)

Initial level Final h2 –h1 Time A(h2  h1 )
Qact 
h1(cm) levelh2(cm) t(s) t
CALCULATION:
A(h2  h1 )
Actual discharge Qact 
t
Theoretical discharge Qth= 2/3 b 2 g [H] 3/2
Cd= Qact/Qth
RESULT:
Average value of Co-efficient of discharge(C d) of Rectangular notch is =
QUESTIONS:
1. Differentiate between notch and weir.

2. Derive an expression for the discharge of fluid over a rectangular notch.
3. What is the difference between broad crested weir and sharp crested weir?

DISCHARGE MEASUREMENT OVER TRIANGULAR NOTCH
AIM:
To determine the Co-efficient of discharge over Triangular Notch.
THEORY:
water flowing through the notch is called Nappe. The bottom edge of a notch over which the
water flows, is known as the Sill or Crest.
CO-EFFICIENT OF DISCHARGE:
The ratio of actual discharge through a notch to the theoretical discharge is known as co-
efficient of discharge. Mathematically, Co-efficient of discharge:
Actual Discharge
Cd =
THEORETICAL DISCHARGE THROUGH A TRIANGULAR NOTCH:
Q th = 8/15 tan / 2 2 g [H] 5/2
Where,
Q th= Theoretical discharge

 = Angle of the triangular notch = 45˚
H = Water head over crest.
Cd = Co-efficient of discharge
A = Area of the measuring tank= 100 cm× 60 cm

Water main with a supply valve, sump tank with outlet drain,discharge measurement tankfitted
with a piezometer tubeandwith outlet drain, triangular Notch, pointer gauge and open channel
flumeconnected with motor through pipe.
Fig. - Triangular Notch

Starting Procedure:
Closing Procedure:

OBSERVATION TABLE:

Qact 
CALCULATION:
A(h2  h1 )
t
Theoretical discharge Q th = 8/15 tan / 2 2 g [H] 5/2
Cd= Qact/Qth
RESULT:
Average value of Co-efficient of discharge (Cd) is =
QUESTIONS:
1. Define triangular notch and write its application.

2. Derive the equations for triangular notch.
3. Find the discharge over triangular notch of angle 50° when the head over the V notch.

DISCHARGE MEASUREMENT OVER TRAPEZOIDALNOTCH
AIM:
To determine the co-efficient of discharge through a Trapezoidal Notch.
THEORY:
water flowing through the notch is called Nappe. The bottom edge of a notch over which the
water flows, is known as the Sill or Crest.
CO-EFFICIENT OF DISCHARGE:
The ratio of actual discharge through a notch to the theoretical discharge is known as co-
efficient of discharge. Mathematically, Co-efficient of discharge:
Actual Discharge
Cd =
THEORETICAL DISCHARGE OVER A TRAPEZOIDAL NOTCH:
Qth = 2/3 b 2 g [H] 3/2 + 8/15 2 g tan /2 [H] 5/2

Where,
Q th= Theoretical discharge
 = Angle of the trapezoidal notch = 45˚
H = Water head over crest.
Cd = Co-efficient of discharge

Water main with a supply valve, sump tank with outlet drain,discharge measurement tankfitted
with a piezometer tubeandwith outlet drain, trapezoidal Notch, pointer gauge and open channel
flumeconnected with motor through pipe.

Fig.Trapezoidal notch
Starting Procedure:
Closing Procedure:
OBSERVATION TABLE:

Qact 
CALCULATION:
A(h2  h1 )
t
Theoretical discharge Q th = 2/3 b 2 g [H] 3/2 + 8/15 2 g tan /2 [H] 5/2
Cd= Qact/Qth
Co-efficient of discharge(C d) is =
RESULT:
Average value of Co-efficient of discharge(C d) is =
QUESTIONS:
1. Define trapezoidal notch and write its application.

2. Derive the equations for trapezoidal notch.
3. Trapezoidal weir has another popular name. What is it?

HYDRAULIC JUMP IN A RECTANGULAR CHANNEL
AIM:
To study the formation of hydraulic jump in a rectangular channel and to determine the
characteristics of the jump.
THEORY:
Hydraulic jump, also known as a standing wave, is the sudden rise of water level that takes
place due to the transformation of unstable supercritical flow to stable sub-critical flow.
Hydraulic jump occurs whenever the depth of flow is less than the critical depth. The flow in
a hydraulic jump is rapidly varied and is accompanied by large scale turbulence. The
phenomenon of hydraulic jump is used in the design of hydraulic structures as a mean of energy
dissipation device.
q
Fr₁=
gy13
q
Fr2 =
gy23
Where,
Fr₁ = Upstream Froude's number, i.e. Froude's number just before jump formation
Fr2 = Downstream Froude's number, i.e. Froude's number just after jump formation.
q2
Specific energy at section 1-1, E1 = y1 + (v)
2g y1 2
q2
Specific energy at section 2-2, E2 = y2+
2g y2 2
Therefore, loss of energy

∆E = (E₁ - E₂)
Loss of energy can also be expressed as
( y2  y1 )3
∆E =
4 y1 y2
The height of the jump (H j ) is defined as the difference between the depths after and before
the jump, i.e.
Hj = (y₂ - y₁)
The length of jump, Lj is taken as 5 to 7 times the height of jump, i.e. Lj = 5 to 7 x (y₂ - y₁)

The set-up consists of a re-circulating rectangular tilting flow channel of dimensions (10m (l)
x0.3 m (b) m x 0.6 m (h). The upstream end of the channel is kept deep to dissipate the excess
energy of flowing water. Two sluice gates are provided at up-stream and down-stream end of
the flow channel to maintain regular flow. The flow channel is supported at one end on a jack
for tilting and the other end is fixed on a MS powder coated frame. The MS frame has sump
tank, measuring tank and centrifugal pump respectively. Water is supplied to the channel
through centrifugal pump connected to a supply pipe. The centrifugal pump draws water form
sump tank. Flow control valve and by-pass valve are provided in the supply pipe for regulating
the flow in flume and determine discharge in measuring tank. Two perforated SS wave
suppressors are used to dampen surface disturbances at the up-stream end of the channel. Hook
and pointer gauges are provided to measure level of water in channel.
Fig.- Hydraulic Jump
PROCEDURE:
1. Start the pump and open the delivery valve gradually.
2. Adjust the delivery valve, sluice gate and the tailgate so that there forms a stable hydraulic
jump in the flume.

3. Measure water depths at the pre-jump section and the post-jump section.
4. Measure discharge by collecting water in the collecting tank.
5. Repeat steps (2) and (4) for other discharges by regulating the supply valve.
OBSERVATIONS AND COMPUTATIONS:
Width of flume, B =
Run No. Discharge measurement Pre-jump depth, y₁ Post-jump depth,
∆y t q y₂
Run No. Discharge, q y₂/y₁ Fr₁ Fr2 ∆E Hj Lj

per unit
width
1
2
3
Average
RESULT:
Average height of the jump is:
Average length of the jump is:
QUESTIONS:
1. What is thepurpose of a hydraulic jump and what are its applications?

2. Derive the expression for the energy loss during a hydraulic jump also write down the
assumption made.
3. Write short notes on followinga. Undulating jump, b. Weak jump, c. Oscillating jump
and d. Strong jump

Performance Characteristics of Pelton Wheel Turbine
Aim of the Experiment:
 To study the operation of Pelton Wheel Turbine

 To determine the output power of Turbine
 To determine the efficiency of turbine
 To plot the performance characteristics curve
Theory:
The Pelton wheel turbine is a tangential flow impulse turbine. The water strikes the bucket
along the tangent of the runner. The energy available at the inlet of the turbine is only kinetic energy.
The pressure at the inlet and outlet of the turbine is atmospheric pressre.The turbine is used for high
head.
The water from the reservoir flow through the penstocks at outlet of which a nozzle is fitted.
The nozzle increases the kinetic energy of the water flowing through the penstocks. At the outlet of
the nozzle, the water comes out in the form of a jet and strikes the buckets (vanes) of the runner. The
main parts of the Pelton turbine are: 1. Nozzle & flow regulating arrangement (Spear)
2. Runner and Buckets
3. Casing
4. Breaking jet
1. Nozzle and flow Regulating arrangement (spear):

The amount of water striking the buckets (vanes) of the runner is controlled by
providing a spear in the nozzle. The spear is a conical needle which is operated either by a
hand wheel or automatically in an axial direction depending upon the size of the unit. When
the spear is pused forward into the nozzle the amount of water striking the runner is reduced.
On the other hand, if the spear is pushed back, the amount of water striking the runner
increases.
2. Runner with Buckets:

It consists of a circular disc on the periphery of which a number of buckets evenly
spaced are fixed. The shape of the buckets is of a double hemispherical cup or bowl. Each
bucket is provided into two symmetrical parts by a dividing wall which is known as splitter.
The jet of water strikes on the splitter. The splitter divides the jet into two equal parts
and the jet comes out at the outer edge of the bucket. The buckets are shaped in such a way
that the jet gets deflected through 160˚ or 170˚. The buckets are made up of cast iron, cast
steel bronze or stainless steel depending upon the head of the inlet of the turbine.
3. Casing:
The function of casing is to prevent the splashing of the water and to discharge water
to
tail race. It also acts as safeguard against accidents. It is made up of cast iron or fabricated
steel plates. The casing of Pelton wheel does not perform any hydraulic function.
4. Breaking Jet:
When the nozzle is completely closed by moving the spear in the forward direction,
the amount of water striking the runner reduces to zero. But the runner due to inertia goes
on revolving for a long time. To stop the runner in a short time, a small nozzle is provided
which directs the jet of water on the back of the vanes. This jet of water is called breaking jet.
Important Terms:
Headrace: A dam constructed across a river or a channel to store water. The reservoir is also
known as Headrace.
Tailrace: It is the channel which conveys the water out from the turbine casing after
hitting the pelton bucket.

Gross head (Hg): It is the vertical difference between headrace and tailrace
Net head (H): It is the actual head available at the inlet of the turbine to work.
Where h f = Total loss of head due to friction during the transit of water from headrace
to tailrace and is given by,
Number of buckets in Pelton wheel:
Number of buckets in pelton wheel is one of the most important parameter in the
design of pelton turbine. If the number of buckets are inadequate, then, this will result in loss
of water jet. That is, when one of bucket comes in contact with water jet, the next bucket may
not get engaged with water jet. This will result in loss of water jet for a short duration which
later tends to sudden drop in efficiency.
D D
Number of buckets = 15 + = 15 + 0.5m (where m = = Jet Ratio)
2d d
Since the water jet is always open to atmosphere, the pressure at inlet and outlet will
be same as atmospheric pressure. However absolute velocity of fluid will have huge drop from
inlet to exit of the bucket. This drop of kinetic energy is the maximum energy that the bucket
can absorb.
DESCRIPTION:
The actual experimental facility supplied consists of centrifugal pump set, turbine unit, sump
tank, arranged in such a way that the whole unit works as recirculation of water system. The
centrifugal pump set supplies the water from sump tank to the turbine through control valve. The
loading of the turbine is achieved by rope brake drum connected to spring balance. The unit essentially
consists of casing with a large circular transparent window kept at the front for visual inspection of
the jet on buckets a bearing pedestals rotor assembly of the shaft, runner and brake drum.
SPECIFICATIONS:
Pump
 Type : Centrifugal high speed, single suction volute
 Power Required : AC, 5Hp, 3 Phase, and 440 Volt
 Head : 10-35 meter
 Discharge : 39-18 LPs
 Speed : 2880 RPM
 Spring Balance : 10 kg & 5 Kg
 Runner Diameter : 230 mm
 No. of buckets : 12 Nos

 Power Output : 1 Kilowatt
 Flow measurement : Venturimeter
UTILITIES REQUIRED:
 Water supply
 3 Phase supply, 440 volt AC
 Drain
 Space required 2.5 m x 1.5m x 3.0 m
1. Clean the apparatus and make it free from dust
2. Close the drain valve provided
3. Fill sump tank ¾ with clean water and ensure that no foreign particles are there.
4. Now switch on the power supply (440 V, 50 Hz)
5. The controlled valve should be in closed position before starting the pump.
6. Switch on the pump with the help of starter
7. Now regulate the spear position with the help of hand wheel
8. Now turbine is in operation
9. Regulate the discharge by regulating the spear position
10. Load the turbine with the help of hand wheel attached to the spring balance
11. Open the valve connected to the pressure gauge to check the pressure at inlet & throat
section of venturimeter.
12. Note the RPM of the turbine
13. Note the spring balane reading
14. Repeat the same procedure for different load and different discharge
15. When the experiment is over, first remove the load on dynamometer
16. Switch of pump with the help of starter
17. Switch off main power supply.
STANDARD DATA:
Diameter of Pipe = DP = d1 = 50 mm Diameter of Rope (Dr) = 0.018 m
Diameter of Brake Drum (Db) = 0.2 m Diameter of Rope (Dr) = 0.018 m
Coefficient of Discharge (Cd) = 0.98 Acceleration due to gravity (g) = 9.8 m/sec2
Diameter of Throat (d2) = 25 mm Density of water (ρw) = 1 g/cm3 = 1000 kg/m3
FORMULAE:

The input hydraulic power (Pin) of the turbine is the initial kinetic energy of the
1
flowing water jet. Pin  mV 2  Qgh
2
The shaft of the turbine runner is connected to a brake drum dynamometer with
rope and mass loading arrangement to measure the output brake power.
2  N T
Pbr 
60
Total Head (H) = 10 X PD (Meter of water)
𝑎1 𝑎2 √2gh
Discharge (Q) = Cd X Where h = (PD – PT) X 10 (Meter of Water)
√𝑎12 −𝑎22
2×9.81×π×W×Re
Turbine Output = 60000
Kw Where W = (T1 – T2) Kg
Db +2Dr
Equivalent Radius(R e ) = 2
ρw ×g×Q×H
Turbine Input = Kw
1000
Output Power
Tubine efficiency (ηturbine ) = × 100
Input Power
Where
m = Mass flow rate of water
V = Velocity of jet at the nozzle exit,
N = Rotating speed of turbine shaft
T = Torque acting on the runner shaft
PD = Inlet Pressure Gauge reading
PT = Throat Pressure Gauge reading
a1 = Area of inlet section of Venturimeter
a2 = Area of throat section of Venturimeter
h = Pressure difference between inlet & throat section of Venturimeter
W=

Observations:
Diameter of Pipe (Dp) =
Diameter of inlet section of Venturimeter (d1) =
Area of inlet section of Venturimeter (a1) =
Diameter of throat section of Venturimeter (d2) =
Area of throat section of Venturimeter (a2) =
Co-efficient of Discharge through Venturimeter (Cd) =
Diameter of Brake Drum (Db) =
Diameter of Rope (Dr) =
Acceleration due to Gravity (g) =
Observation Table:
Serial Rotation Speed Inlet Pressure Throat Pressure Spring Balance Reading
of Runner (N) (PD) (Kg/cm2) (PT) (Kg/cm2)
No. T1 T2
Calculation Table:
Serial Total Head H Discharge(Q) Output Power Input Power Turbine efficiency
No. (m of water) m3/sec (watt) (watt) (%)

PRECAUTIONS & MAINTAINANCE INSTRUCTIONS:
 Do not run the pump at low voltage i.e. less than 390 volts.
 Never fully closed the delivery line and bypass line valves simultaneously
 Always keep the apparatus free from dust.
 To prevent clogging of moving parts, always run the pump once in a week.
 Frequently grease/oil the rotating parts, once in three months.
 Always use clean water
 If the apparatus will not be in use for more than one month, drain the apparatus completely.
TROUBLE SHOOTING:
 If the pump is not lifting any water, the revolution of motor may be reversed. Change the
electric connection of the motor to change revolution.
 If the panel is not showing input, check the main supply.

KAPLAN TURBINE TEST RIG
AIM:
To study the operation of Kaplan turbine and determine the output power, efficiency and
performance characteristics curve of Kaplan turbine.
THEORY:
The Kaplan turbine is a propeller-type water turbine. The Kaplan turbine was an evolution of
the Francis turbine. Its invention allowed efficient power production in low-head applications
that was not possible with Francis turbines. The head ranges from 10-70 meters and the output
from 5 to 120 MW. Runner diameters are between 2 and 8 meters. The range of the turbine is
from 79 to 429 rpm. Kaplan turbines are now widely used throughout the world in high-flow,
low-head power production.
The Kaplan turbine is an inward flow reaction turbine, which means that the working fluid
changes pressure as it moves through the turbine and gives up its energy. Power is recovered
from both the hydrostatic head and from the kinetic energy of the flowing water. The design
combines features of radial and axial turbines. Kaplan turbine efficiencies are typically over
90%, but may be lower in very low head applications.
CONSTRUCTION DETAILS OF KAPLAN TURBINE:
Components of the Kaplan turbine:-
 Pen stoke: – It is a large sized shaped; where the water is provided to the turbine runner
from the dam.
 Scroll casing: – Penstocks connected to and feeds water directly into an annular channel
surrounding the turbine runner. The channel is spiral in its layout.
 Guide vanes: – A series of airfoil shaped vanes called the guide vanes are arranged
inside the casing to form a number of flow passages between the casing and the runner
blades. Guide vanes are fixed in position (they do not rotate with rotating runner).
 Guide wheel and governing mechanism: – It changes the position of guide blades to
affect variation in the water flow rate in the wake of changing load conditions on the
turbine. When the load changes, the governing mechanism rotates all the guide blades
about their axis through the same angle so that the water flow rate to the runner.

 Runner and runner blades: – Runner of the Francis turbine is a rotor which has passages
formed between the drat tube and scroll casing.
 Draft tube: – After passing through the runner, the water is discharged to the tail race
through a gradually expanding tube.
Figure: Kaplan turbine
The present set-up consists of a scroll casing housing a runner. Water enters the turbine through
the Stationary guide vanes and passes through the runner axially. The runner has a hub and
airfoil vanes, which are mounted on it. The water is fed to the turbine by means of Centrifugal
Pump. The runner is directly mounted on one end of a central SS shaft and other end is
connected to a brake arrangement. A transparent hollow cylinder made of acrylic is fitted in
between the draft tube and the Casing for observation of flow. Load is applied to the turbine
with the help of rope brake arrangement. So that the efficiency of the turbine can be calculated.
The set-up is supplied with control panel. A draft tube is fitted on the outlet of the turbine. The
set-up is complete with guide mechanism. Pressure and Vacuum gauges are fitted at the inlet
and outlet of the turbine to measure the total supply head on the turbine.
SPECIFICATIONS:
 Output Power : 1kW/ 0.75 HP

 Discharge : 3500 LPM(Approx)
 Supply head:5m

 Runner: with adjustable Curved Vanes.
 Dynamometer: Rope Brake type, Dia 200mm.
 Sump Tank: Capacity 150 Liters.
 Water Circulation : Centrifugal Pump, Capacity 7.5 HP, Three Phase
 Discharge Measurement: Pitot tube with Manometer.
 Speed 1500 RPM (Approx.)
 Control panel Comprises of:
Standard make star/delta Starter, Mains Indicator, MCB for overload protection.
Tanks will be made of Stainless Steel.
The whole set-up is well designed and arranged in a good quality painted structure.
UTILITIES REQUIRED:
 Water supply : 400 liters (aprox.)
 3 Phase supply, 440 volt AC
 Drain
 Space required 2.5 m x 1.5m x 3.0 m

1. Clean the apparatus and make it free from dust
2. Close the drain valve provided
3. Fill sump tank ¾ with clean water and ensure that no foreign particles are there
4. Fill manometer fluid i.e. Hg in manometer
5. Now switch on the power supply (440 VAC, 50 Hz)
6. Switch on the pump with the help of starter
7. Open the air releasing valve provided on the manometer, slowly release the air
from manometer
8. When there is no air in the manometer, close the air releasing valves
9. Now regulate the Guide Vanes position with the help of hand wheel provided.
10. Now turbine is in operation.
11. Regulate the discharge by regulating the Guide vane position
12. Load the turbine by applying weight on plat form.
13. Note the manometer reading
14. Note the pressure gauge reading
15. Note the RPM of the turbine
16. Note the spring balance reading
17. Repeat the same procedure for different load and different discharge
18. When the experiment is over, first remove load on dynamometer
19. Close the ball valves provided on manometer
20. Switch off pump with the help of starter.
21. Switch off main power supply.
22. Drain the water from turbine with the help of ball valve provided on turbine.

STANDARD DATA:
Diameter of the pipe : 80 mm

Diameter of throat : 60 mm
Acceleration due to gravity (g) : 9.8 m/sec2
Density of water (ρw) : 1000 Kg/m3
Density of manometric liquid (ρm) : 13600 Kg/m3
Dia of Brake Drum (Db) : 0.2m
Thickness of belt (DT) : 0.008 m
Coefficient of Discharge (Cd) : 0.58
FORMULAE:
Total Head
H  10.325  Pd " m" of water
Discharge
  3
Q  A  C d 2  g  h m  1 m
 w  sec
Where h = Manometric Difference in “m”
Turbine Output
2  9.81    N  W  Re
Kwatt
60000
Where,
Net load W = (T1-T2 Kg
D  2 DT 
Equivalent radius Re  b
2
Turbine Input
w  g  Q  H
Kw
1000
Turbine Efficiency
Output power
 turbine   100
Input power

OBSERVATION TABLE:
S.No RPM(N) Pressure gauge Differential Load on turbine(Kg)
reading pressure
Pd(Kg/cm2) h(m)
T1(Applied T2(Spring
Load) Balance Load)
CALCULATION TABLE:
S.No RPM Total Head Discharge Output Input Turbine
H Q(m3/sec) (watt) (watt) efficiency
(m of water) (%)
NOMENCLATURE:
Pd = Pressure gauge reading (Kgf/cm2)
ρw = density of water
ρm = density of mercury
h = manometric difference (m)
Cd = Coefficient of discharge
T1& T2 = spring balance reading
N = RPM of runner shaft

 If the apparatus will not be in use for more than one month, drain the apparatus
completely.
TROUBLE SHOOTING:
 If the pump is not lifting any water, the revolution of motor may be reversed. Change
the electric connection of the motor to change revolution.
 If the panel is not showing input, check the main supply.
RESULT:
Maximum efficiency of the turbine is ………. %
QUESTIONS:
1. What is called the ratio between the power available at the shaft of the turbine to the
power produced by the runner?
2. What is the working principle of Kaplan Turbine?
3. Mention different parts of the Kaplan turbine and write advantages and disadvantages
of the Kaplan turbine.

CENTRIFUGAL PUMP TEST RIG
AIM:
(a) To determine the characteristics of Centrifugal Pump and to find out:
 Total head
 Pump efficiency
 Overall efficiency
(b) To plot the following performance characteristics:-
 Head Vs Discharge
 Pump efficiency Vs Discharge.
THEORY:
The hydraulic machines, which convert the mechanical energy into hydraulic energy, are called
pumps. The Hydraulic energy is in the form of pressure energy. If the mechanical energy is
converted into pressure energy by means of centrifugal force acting on the fluid, the hydraulic
machine is called centrifugal pump.
The centrifugal pump acts as a reversed of an inward radial flow reaction turbine. This means
that the flow in centrifugal pump is in the radial outward directions.
The centrifugal pump works on the principle of forced vortex flow, which means that when an
external torque rotates a certain mass of fluid, the rise in pressure head of the rotating liquid
takes place. The rise in pressure head at any point of the rotating liquid is proportional to the
square of tangential velocity of (i.e. rise in pressure head=V2/2g or w2r2/2g) the liquid at that
point. Thus, at the outlet of the impeller where radius is more, the rise in pressure head will be
discharged at the outlet with a high-pressure head. Due to this high-pressure head, the liquid
can be lifted to high level.
The performance of a pump is characterized by its net head h, which is defined as the change
in Bernoulli head between the suction side and the delivery Side of the pump. h is expressed in
equivalent column height of water.
 p V2   p V2  The subscripts stand for suction or

hw     Z      Z 
 g 2 g  delivery  g 2 g  suction delivery sides. This equation can also be
Written as,
Net head , hw 
Pdel  Psuc 

V 2
del  V 2 suc 
 Z del  Z suc 
g 2g
Where, P = Absolute water pressure, (N/m2)

V = Velocity of water inside the pipe, (m/s)
ρ= Density of the water, (kg/m3)
g = acceleration due to gravity, (m/s2)
Z = elevation, (m).
The velocity of water can be calculated using discharge and diameter of the
Pipes. The discharge produced by the pump can be determined using the collecting tank and
stopwatch setup.
A R
Discharge Q 
t
Where, A = area of the collecting tank. (m2)
R= Rise in water, m
t = time taken to rise, (sec)
The net head is proportional to the useful power actually delivered to the
Fluid in the pump. Traditionally it is called the water horsepower (whp), even if
The power is not measured in horsepower. It is defined as,
Pwhp  Qghw (watt )
Centrifugal Pump Test Rig consists of a sump, a centrifugal pump, an AC motor and measuring
tank. To measure the head, Pressure and Vacuum gauges are provided. To measure the
discharge, a measuring tank is provided. Flow diversion system is provided to divert flow from
sump tank to measuring tank and from measuring tank to sump tank. A valve is provided in
pipeline to change the rate of flow.
SPECIFICATIONS:
 Motor: 1HP / 0.75 KW, 2800 RPM, single phase, 220 volts.
 Pump: 1 HP
 Head range: 35m to 50m
 Material of both tanks is stainless steel.
 Water Supply.
 Drain
 Electricity 440V AC, Single Phase.
 Space required: 1.6 x 0.6 m.

1. Clean the apparatus and make All Tanks free from Dust.
4. Open Flow Control Valve given on the water discharge line and Control valve given
on suction line.
6. Now switch on the Main Power Supply (220 V AC, 50 Hz) and switch on the Pump.
7. Set the desired speed of motor/pump with the help of set cone pulley arrangement.
8. Operate the Flow Control Valve to regulate the flow of water discharge by the pump.
9. Operate the Flow Control Valve to regulate the suction of the pump.
10. Record discharge pressure by means of Pressure Gauge, provided on discharge line.
11. Record suction pressure by means of Vacuum Gauge, provided at suction of the pump.
12. Record the power consumption by means of Energy meter, provided in panel.
13. Measure the flow of water, discharge by the pump, using Stop Watch and Measuring
Tank.
14. Repeat the same procedure for rest of the two speeds of motor/pump.
15. When experiment is over, gate valve is proper open provided on the discharge line
16. Switch OFF the pump first.
17. Switch OFF Power Supply to Panel.
STANDARD DATA:
EMC (Energy meter constant) = 3200 Pulses/Kw hr

A = Area of measuring tank = m2
ρ = Density of fluid (for water) = 1000 kg/m3

FORMULAE:
P 3600 1000
H .Pelectrical   
t EMC 746
Where P= No. of pulses
t = Time taken for pulses
EMC = Energy meter Constant
H .P of Shaft  H .Pelectrical   motor Efficiency of motor  0.8 (assumed ) 
Discharge
A R m3
Q
T sec
A = Area of collecting tank base (m2)

R = Height of collecting tank (m)
T = Time taken by R (sec)
Total Head
  Vacuum Pr essure 
H  10   delivery Pr essure    1 " m" of water
  760 
H.P of the Pump (output)
QH
=
75
Where, P = Density of fluid
Q = Discharge
H = Total Head
H .P of Pump
Overall Efficiency   100
H .PElectrical
H .P of Pump
Pump Efficiency   100
H .P of shaft

OBSERVATION TABLE:
S.N RPM of Gauge Vacuum Rise in Time for Rise Pulses(P) Time(t
. Pump Pressure (mm Hg) water(R)(C in Water (T) )
(Kg/cm2) m) (sec)
CALCULATION TABLE:
S.N. H.Pelectrical H.P of Dicharge(Q) Total Head H.P of η η

shaft (m3/sec) (H) (m of Pump Overall Pump
water) (%) (%)
1
2
3
4

completely.

TROUBLE SHOOTING:
 If the pump is not lifting any water, open the air vent provided on the pump to remove
the air from pump.
 If the panel is not showing input, check the fuse and main supply.
RESULT:
 Overall efficiency of the pump:
QUESTIONS:
1. Define ratio of overall efficiency of a centrifugal pump?
2. Where are Multi stage centrifugal pumps used in practical life?
3. What is the difference between single stage centrifugal pump and multi stage
centrifugal pump?

RECIPROCATING PUMP TEST RIG
AIM:
(a) To determine the characteristics of Reciprocating Pump and to find out:

 Total head
 Pump efficiency
 Overall efficiency
(b) To plot the following performance characteristics:-
 Head Vs Discharge
 Pump efficiency Vs Discharge.
THEORY:
The hydraulic machines, which convert the mechanical energy into hydraulic energy, are called
pumps. If the mechanical energy is converted into pressure energy by means of reciprocating
motion, the hydraulic machine is called reciprocating pump. Reciprocating pump is a positive
displacement pump, which causes a fluid to move by trapping a fixed amount of it then
displacing that trapped volume into the discharge pipe. The fluid enters a pumping chamber
via an inlet valve and is pushed out via a outlet valve by the action of the piston or diaphragm.
They are either single acting; independent suction and discharge strokes or double acting;
suction and discharge in both directions.
Reciprocating pumps are self priming and are suitable for very high heads at low flows. They
deliver reliable discharge flows and are often used for metering duties because of constancy of
flow rate. The flow rate is changed only by adjusting the rpm of the driver. These pumps deliver
a highly pulsed flow. If a smooth flow is required then the discharge flow system has to include
additional features such as accumulators. An automatic relief valve set at a safe pressure is used
on the discharge side of all positive displacement pumps.
The performance of a pump is characterized by its net head h, which is defined as the change
in Bernoulli head between the suction side and the delivery Side of the pump. h is expressed in
equivalent column height of water.
 p V2   p V2 
hw     Z      Z 
 g 2 g  delivery  g 2 g  suction
The subscripts stand for suction or delivery sides. This equation can also be
Written as,

Net head , hw 
Pdel  Psuc 

V 2
del  V 2 suc 
 Z del  Z suc 
g 2g
Where, P = Absolute water pressure, (N/m2)

V = Velocity of water inside the pipe, (m/s)
ρ= Density of the water, (kg/m3)
g = acceleration due to gravity, (m/s2)
Z = elevation, (m).
The velocity of water can be calculated using discharge and diameter of the Pipes. The
discharge produced by the pump can be determined using the collecting tank and stopwatch
setup.
A R
Discharge Q 
t
Where, A = area of the collecting tank. (m2)
R= Rise in water, m
t = time taken to rise, (sec)
The net head is proportional to the useful power actually delivered to the Fluid in the pump.
Traditionally it is called the water horsepower (whp), even if the power is not measured in
horsepower. It is defined as,
Pwhp  Qghw (watt )
In pump terminology the external energy supplied to the pump is called the brake horsepower
(bhp) of the pump, which can be calculated by considering the efficiency of the motor.
Pbhp   motor  Shaft input
The pump efficiency ηump ump is defined as the ratio of useful power to supplied power,
Pbhp
 pump 
Pwhp
The theoretical discharge of a reciprocating pump can be calculated by knowing the
geometrical specifications and rate of travel of the piston, since itis positive displacement type.
The volume of the fluid displaced will be equal to the stoke volume of the piston inside the
cylinder. For a double acting single cylinder reciprocating pump the displaced volume of water
per second is given by,

LNA LN A  Apr 
Qth   m 3 / sec
60 60
Where, L = Stroke length of piston, (m).

N = Rotating speed of the pump crankshaft, (rpm).
A = Area of the piston, (m2).
Apr= Area of the piston rod, (m2).
Reciprocating Pump Test Rig consists of a sump, a reciprocating pump, an AC motor and
measuring tank. To measure the head, Pressure and Vacuum gauges are provided. To measure
the discharge, a measuring tank is provided. Flow diversion system is provided to divert flow
from sump tank to measuring tank and from measuring tank to sump tank. A valve is provided
in pipeline to change the rate of flow.
SPECIFICATIONS:
 Motor: 1HP / 0.75 KW, 2800 RPM, single phase, 220 volts.
 Pump: 1 HP
Suction & Delivery Size : 1” X ¾”
Bore : 35 mm
Stroke : 45 mm
 Material of both tanks is stainless steel.
 Water Supply.
 Drain
 Electricity 230V AC, Single Phase.
 Space required: 1.6 x 0.6 m.

1) Clean the apparatus and make All Tanks free from Dust.
2) Close the drain valves provided.
3) Fill Sump tank ¾ with Clean Water and ensure that no foreign particles are there.
4) Open Flow Control Valve given on the water discharge line and Control valve given
on suction line.
5) Ensure that all On/Off Switches given on the Panel are at OFF position.
6) Now switch on the Main Power Supply (220 V AC, 50 Hz) and switch on the Pump.
7) Set the desired speed of motor/pump with the help of set cone pulley arrangement.
8) Operate the Flow Control Valve to regulate the flow of water discharge by the pump.
9) Operate the Flow Control Valve to regulate the suction of the pump.
10) Record discharge pressure by means of Pressure Gauge, provided on discharge line.
11) Record suction pressure by means of Vacuum Gauge, provided at suction of the pump.
12) Record the power consumption by means of Energy meter, provided in panel.
13) Measure the flow of water, discharge by the pump, using Stop Watch and Measuring
Tank.
14) Repeat the same procedure for rest of the two speeds of motor/pump.
15) When experiment is over, gate valve is proper open provided on the discharge line
16) Switch OFF the pump first.
17) Switch OFF Power Supply to Panel.

STANDARD DATA:
EMC (Energy meter constant) = 3200 Pulses/Kw hr
A= Area of measuring tank = m2
Ρ= Density of fluid (for water) = 1000 kg/m3
FORMULAE:
P 3600 1000
H .Pelectrical   
t EMC 746
Where P= No. of pulses
t = Time taken for pulses
EMC = Energy meter Constant
H .P of Shaft  H .Pelectrical   motor Efficiency of motor  0.8 (assumed ) 
Actual Discharge
A R m3
Qact 
T sec
A = Area of collecting tank base (m2)

R = Height of collecting tank (m)
T = Time taken by R (sec)
Total Head
  Vacuum Pr essure 
H  10   delivery Pr essure    1 " m" of water
  760 
2 ALN m3
Qth 
60 sec
H.P of the Pump (output)

Qth H
=
75
Where, ρ = Density of fluid
Q = Discharge
H = Total Head
H .P of Pump
Overall Efficiency   100
H .PElectrical
H .P of Pump
Pump Efficiency   100
H .P of shaft

OBSERVATION TABLE:
S.N. RPM of Gauge Vacuum Rise in Time for Rise in Pulses Time(t)
Pump Pressure (mm Hg) water(R) Water (T) (sec) (P)
(Kg/cm2) (Cm)
1
2
3
4
CALCULATION TABLE:
S.N. H.Pelectrical H.P of Discharge(Qact) Total H.P of η η

shaft (m3/sec) Head Pump Overall Pump
(H) (m of (%) (%)
water)
1
2
3
4

completely.
TROUBLE SHOOTING:
 If the pump is not lifting any water, open the air vent provided on the pump to remove
the air from pump.
 If the panel is not showing input, check the fuse and main supply.
RESULT:
 Overall efficiency of the pump is:
QUESTIONS:
1. What is the difference between centrifugal pump and reciprocating pump?

2. Mention different parts of the reciprocating pump and write advantages and
disadvantages of the reciprocating pump?
3. Which pump is superior- centrifugal pump or reciprocating pump? Justify with reason.

MEASUREMENT OF EVAPORATION BY OPEN PAN
EVAPORIMETER
AIM:
To calculate the rate of evaporation of water into the atmosphere.
THEORY:
Open pan evaporimeter is an instrument that measures the rate of evaporation of water into the
atmosphere. Evaporation rates are so sensitive to the water supply and the nature of the
evaporating surface, data collected by evaporimeter often do not reflect true evaporation
processes, and hence evaporimeter have limited use. The measurement of water evaporation is
important in agricultural, hydro-meteorological studies, in the design and operation of reservoirs,
and in irrigation and drainage systems.
The rate of evaporation is defined as the amount of water lost by evaporation from a unit area of
surface in unit time. Evaporation is generally measured at meteorological and agro-
meteorological stations using a pan evaporimeter. The values obtained with the pan do not
give directly the evaporation from a surface of natural conditions. They indicate, however the
order of magnitude of evaporation from such surfaces and comparative results over different
areas may be obtained by using identical instruments. The pan evaporimeter consists of a
cylindrical reservoir made from GI sheet of fixed diameter and depth, filled with water to a
few centimeters below the rim. A fixed-point gauge in a stilling well serves to indicate the
level of water in the pan. A calibrated measuring cylinder is used to add or remove water at
each observation to bring the water level to the fixed point. The reservoir is covered with wire-
mesh netting to protect the pan from birds and animals. A thermometer suspended from a
mounted clamp to the side of the reservoir, records the temperature of the water in thepan.
The apparatus consist of wooden stand ,circular pan, wire mesh cover, measuring cylinder
ranging from 0 to 20 cm for calculating the amount of water added or reduced from pan,
thermometer for observing the temperature of water in the pan, a stilling well with pointer for
observing the water level in the pan.
1. Ground Area Required: 1.5 mx1.5m.
2. Water supply: Initialfill.

EXPERIMENTALPROCEDURE:
1. Clean the pan before filling water intoit.
2. Now put the stilling well into thepan.
3. Fill the pan with water up to tip of pointer which is present in stillingwell.
4. Now close the pan with wire mesh cover and fixed point gauge & hang the
thermometer with the help ofthread.
5. After few hours observe the level of water into thepan.
6. Few amount of water get evaporated into theatmosphere.
7. Now fill water through the calibrated measuring cylinder to bring the water level to
the tip ofpointer.
OBSERVATION &CALCULATION:
OBSERVATION TABLE:
S.No Time Water added / removed(L)

(hour) (cm)
CALCULATION:
L
Evaporation without precipitation = mm / hour
10  time
Pr ecipitation(mm)  L / 10
Evaporation with precipitation = mm / hour
time
PRECAUTION:
1. Always keep the apparatus free fromdust.
2. Pan should always place 10cm above the groundsurface.

Fig.- Open Pan evaporimeter ( Source:- https://www.indiamart.com)
RESULT:
Rate of evaporation:_________________________
QUESTIONS:
1. What is the reason for evaporation of water from lakes and rivers?
2. What is the Indian standard pan evaporimeter size?
3. Write a short note on measurement of evapotranspiration.

DOUBLE RING SOIL INFILTROMETER
AIM:
To study and determine the infiltration rate of water into the soil.
THEORY:
The Double ring Infiltrometer is a simple instrument which is used to determine the infiltration
rate of water into the soil. The infiltration rate is determinate as the amount of water per
surface area and time unit, which penetrates the soils. This rate can be calculated on the basis
of the measurements and the Darcy's law. The double ring infiltrometer is a way of measuring
saturated hydraulic conductivity of the surface layer, and consists of an inner and outer ring
inserted into the ground. Each ring is supplied with constant head of water either manually or
from mariotte bottles. Hydraulic conductivity can be estimated for the soil when the water
flow rate in the inner ring is at a steady state. It works by directing water onto a known surface
area due to the parameters of the inner ring. The rate of infiltration is determined by the
amount of water that infiltrates into the soils per surface area, per unit of time. Infiltration can
be measured by either a single or double ring infiltrometer, with preference usually lying with
the double ring because the outer ring helps in reducing the error that may result from lateral
flow in the soil.Water can be supplied inside the rings either by a marriotte bottle assembly,
to keep a constant head or manually. The volume of water needed to maintain a specified level
and the time factors are recorded. This information is converted into a specific infiltration
rate. This rate can be calculated on the basis of the measurements. The measurement
exclusively takes place in the inner ring through which the water runs virtually vertically. The
inner- and outer ring are driven a number of centimeters into the soil by means of a driving
plate and an impact absorbing hammer. Water flows virtually vertically through the inner ring
into thesoilbecause the inner- as well as the outer ring are filled with water.
The instrument consists of two concentric ringswith a hammer, driving plate, for inner and
outer ringsFloat Pointer Gauge, a Stainless steel hammering cross and a stopwatch. The outer
ring (Diameter =45 cm); the inner ring (Diameter = 30 cm).
EXPERIMENTALPROCEDURE:

1) Put the soil Infiltrometer on the soil and put Steel hammering cross onrings.
2) Hit the Steel hammering cross by hammer and try to insert rings into thesoil.
3) Connect the pointer to the soilGauge.
4) Insert the pointer into the soil and note the readings from soilgauge.
5) Fill the water into the outer ring and into the innerring.
6) Put the float into thesupport.
7) Now note down the readings from float scale with respect totime.
8) After taking the readings, connect the folding handles to the rings and pull out from
thesoil.
OBSERVATION &CALCULATION:
OBSERVATIONTABLE:
S.No. Float Scale (cm) Time (sec)
Plot the graph between time and float scale. Graph will show the infiltration rate over time at
the cultivated sites.

Fig.- Double Ring Infiltrometer( Source:- https://www.indiamart.com)
RESULT:
Infiltration rate (I) ______________
QUESTIONS:
1. What is the difference between Single and Double-Ring Infiltrometer Methods on

different soils?
2. What are the factors affecting Infiltration?
3. Describe Horton’s Infiltration Model and Green-Ampt Infiltration Model.

HYDROLOGY APPARATUS
(WITH DATA LOGGING)
AIM: Determination of hydrograph after precipitation in Hydrology system
equipment.
INTRODUCTION
This Hydrology Apparatus is to demonstrate, on a small scale, some of the
physical processes found in hydrology. These processes fall into two released
categories, the relationship between rainfall and run-off from catchment area
of varying permeability, and the abstraction of ground water by wells. Both with
and without surface recharge from rainfall.
The hydrology cycle describes the complete movement of water between the
atmosphere, the land surface and the water masses of the earth. There are a
number of possible routes that water can follow in moving round this cycle.
Ground water also flows laterally under the influence of slopes, to reappear at
the surface either to form spring or to increase stream flow by rivers infiltration
through the bed.
Abstraction from wells is another way in which water can leave a catchment area
and it can, therefore be thought of as forming part of the run-off.
A proper understanding of these processes and their inter-relationship is
essential for many purposes. Engineers are commonly concerned with the
provision of water supplies for urban and irrigation needs: with the estimation
of flood magnitude and frequencies: with the consequence of land draining
works on flood risks, on the use of wells to de-water construction excavation
and the draining of lakes and polders.
Geologists and geographers frequently faces with problems which involve
hydrological processes such as drawing up a water balance for a catchment area,
the investigation of morphological processes in rivers and streams, and the
control of mud flow and soil erosion caused by surface and sub-surface water
flows.
The range of experimental capabilities is significantly increased by the provision
of a river inlet tank and outlet collecting tank. These enables a range of fluvial
mechanics experiments to be carried out in related topic such as river flow and

sediment transport, initiation and characteristic of bed-load motion, general
and local scour in open channel flow etc.
DESCRIPTION
The equipment consists of a sand tank that is mounted in a support frame with
the necessary services, features and instrumentation to facilitate studies of
ground water flow, ground water abstraction, flood hydrograph and fluvial
mechanics.
FRAME
The frame incorporates an adjustable leveling bolt to allow the equipment to be
leveled. It suggested that the top edge of the sand tank be used as the datum
when leveling the equipment. Frame is also provided with wheels to made it
movable while not loaded with sand.
The frame incorporates a screw jack at one end that allows the sand tank to be
elevated. The jack is linked so that the sand tank remains stable when raising or
lowering. The jacking handle is simply rotated clockwise to raise the sand tank
or anticlockwise to lower the sand tank.
WATER FEEDS
A sump tank and centrifugal pump mounted in the frame, beneath the sand
tank, provides water for the various demonstrations. Water exiting the sand
tank from the various outlets returns to the sump tank under gravity for reuse.
A drain valve is connected to the sump tank for draining. The centrifugal pump
draws water from the sump tank. Water from the pump passes through two
parallel feed arrangement, each incorporating a feed flow control valve. One
feed through independent rotameter goes to Nozzle assembly and second with
independent rotameter goes either to the inlet of sand tank or to the French
drain. To achieve these conditions appropriate ball and gate valve arrangements
are provided.
SAND TANK
The sallow sand tank is fabricated from stainless steel for corrosion resistance
and should be filled with sand or other granular material with sufficient height
for experimentation. An array of tapping points in the sand tank floor is
connected to a multi-tube manometer that enables the water table surface
(phreatic surface) to be determined. The level in each tube can be read by the
scale provided on the back of the tube of the manometer. Before using the

manometer to measure water level, it is important to expel the air from the
flexible tubes, connected to the manometer tapping points. Each tapping in the
sand tank floor incorporate a filter mesh to retain the sand while allowing the
water to flow. Two cylindrical wells are also included in the sand tank floor. The
wells are covered with stainless steel mesh to prevent the loss of sand. Valves
and pipe work beneath the sand tank allow the water draining from each well
to sump tank. The two well are purposely designed to be short in length so that
can be left in position without affecting the surface flow experiments.
A perforated pipe in the form of the French drain is buried in the sand at each
end of the sand tank. These allow water to be drained from the sand tank or
admitted to the sand tank as required. Each French drain is connected through
the side wall of the sand tank to a flexible tube. The flow of water can be varied
using the in- line valves. When it is required to admit water to the sand tank the
valve are provided to open or close the water feeds.
A deep cut-out at the outlet of the sand tank allow water (and transported
sediment) to leave the sand tank. This cut-out incorporates side slots that locate
stop-logs (rectangular strips of stainless steel) that create a rectangular weir.
Adding or subtracting stop-logs of different sizes can vary the height of the weir.
OUTLET COLLETING TANK
Water and sediment exiting the sand tank via the weir is deposited into the
outlet collecting tank that is designed to measure the flow of water and collect
any sediment washed from the sand tank. This tank is fabricated from stainless
steel and incorporates the following features.
The water and sediment fall into the open area of the tank. A horizontal mesh
screen separates a tank in two parts top and bottom, it ensures that sediment is
retained in the top tank. The water flows in bottom tank through the mesh,
along a stilling channel and over a narrow rectangular notch before discharging
into a funnel that returns the water to the sump for re-use. The flow rate of the
water is determined from the height of the water upstream which is calculated
with the help of level sensor. The sensor output is calibrated directly in L/min.
Sediment falling into the tank is deposited in the top of the tank. The sand can
be removed by lifting the tank clear from the support.
The Hydrology Apparatus has been supplied with additional instrumentation
and USB interface which help to determine sediment weigh and water flow
continuously using a PC.
DATA LOGGING AND EDUCATIONAL SOFTWARE
Data logging facility in this system is user friendly, in this system our all sensors
are calibrated and directly interface with the data logger. This software is lab
view based, all results from experiment directly displayed on the computer
screen and all data will be saved in the computer we also take a print of our
results which are displayed. In this setup level sensor gives the flow rate reading
on computer and load cell gives the weight of sand collected during the
experiment which also transfer data to computer, rainfall control is also with the
help of solenoid valves.
OVERHEAD SPRAY NOZZLES
Rainfall onto the catchment area is provided by 2x4 rows of spray nozzles above
the tank, mounted on a support frame. The height of the spray nozzles above
the sand tank can be varied to optimize the demonstration by adjusting the
height of the support frame. This is achieved by raising or lowering the support
frame to the required height. One person at each end of the equipment should
hold the support frame while performing the adjustment.
An isolating electrically operated valve on each set of nozzle allows the pattern
to be changed as required. The flexible tube from the arrangement of spray
nozzles is connected to one of the water feed. The height of nozzles should be
adjusted according the required flow rate to give adequate coverage over the
sand without excessive spray over the side of the sand tank.
RIVER INLET TANK
A river inlet tank allows a stream of water to flow onto the surface of the sand,
simulating the flow from a river upstream. The river inlet tank is fabricated from
stainless steel and is bolted to the end walls of the sand tank adjacent to the
shallow cut-out. Water enters at the base of the tank, flows upward through a
bed to minimize any turbulence then flow sideways onto the surface of the sand
through a rectangular section.
CHOICE OF GRANULAR METERIAL FOR THE SAND TANK
It has been found through experimentation that well-graded silica in the range
16/30 mesh (1500 micron to 500 micron) will allow all of the experiment
described in the experimentation manual to be carried out without the need to
change the sand between runs. To minimize the cost of filling the tank it is
suggested 16/30 mesh swimming pool silica filter grit be used. 550kg of sand will
be required to fill the tank.
Before loading any sand into the sand tank it is most important that the sand
should be first thoroughly washed to remove all silt and salts present. After
filling the sand tank with the sand it is suggested that the water circulated via
the French drain for a period of approximately one hour should be drained from
the sump tank and then re-filled with clean water.
ACCESSORIES REQUIRED
Scraper
When the sand tank has been filled with the sand, the surface profile for the
various experiments can be formed using the scraper.
Sand Scoop
Having, created general surface profile, using the scraper, any local features or
channels can be created using the small scoop.
Fabricated trays and rings
Circular open ended ring, 500mm distance X 60mm high
Small square open ended ring, 300mm X 300mm X 60mm high
Closed ring with removable central clear plastic standpipe - 500mm dia. &
60mm height.
Rectangular ring = 1000mm length, 500mm width, 60mm height
Bridge piers = circular, rectangular with flat end, rectangular with round nose,
rectangular with sharp nose (one each).

RAINFALL-RUNOFF RELATIONSHIP (STORM HYDROGRAPH)
THEORY
A graphical record of flow and time is called hydrograph. Figure shows a typical
hydrograph resulting from a single rainstorm. The timing and intensity of the
rainfall is shown by the block in the upper part of this figure. Under these
circumstances, the recession curve part of the hydrograph is delayed until the
rain stops.
During the early stage of the rainstorm, so long as no recent rain has fallen, the
ground will be able to absorb the water falling on it and add it to the ground
water already present. When all the voids are filled, the excess must flow over
the surface and enter the stream directly as surface flow. It is this surface flow
first reaching the point of concentration that produces a sharp rise in the
hydrograph and this hydrograph discontinuity can be used to separate the
ground water contribution from the direct run-off, as indicated in figure. The
hydrograph shown in figure is typical for storms of duration shorter than the
time of concentration of the catchment.
Procedure
Stream flow from a single storm
Before this experiment is carried out, the sand tank should be set to slope of
about 1%. With the help of scrapper make a smooth surface parallel to the top
edge of the tank, then use the sand scoop to create a channel of rectangular
cross section centrally. The channel should be approximately 4 cm wide by 2 cm
deep Open the rotameter valve of the overhead spray nozzles on the 8 L/min
flow rate.

Stream flow for a long duration storm
Turn on the nozzles to simulate rainfall and select the rainfall flow rate in
between 1 and 10 L/min. Allow rain to fall long enough to give a steady run-off
value. Turn of the flow and record the recession limb of the hydrograph. Using
software the discharge over weir with respect to time, shows the hydrograph
form in the software screen.
The experiment may be repeated for different rainfall flow rates, smaller
catchment areas (by closing some of the valves to the rainfall nozzles) and for
small differences in slope.
Stream flow from multiple storms
Open the valve of river inlet tank. Open the Rota meter valve of the overhead
spray nozzles. Adjust flow rate for river and nozzles using control valve provided.
The sand bed should be allowed to drain following any previous use of the
apparatus.
This experiment can be carried out by arranging a first storm of duration rather
less (say 50%) than the time of concentration.
Follow it by a second storm of the same duration while the recession limb of the
first one is still quite high. The discharge value must be recorded continuously
from the start of the first storm, and the resulting double hydrograph when
plotted will show previously saturated catchment. The method for drawing the
hydrograph, outlined in “Stream flow for a single storm”, may be used.
Stream flow with reservoir storage
The effect of a flood detention reservoir on the run-off from a standard storm
can be demonstrated by using the accessories provided. The circular ended ring
can be used when partly buried in the sand to form a circular reservoir, and the
closed ring can, similarly, be used to retain the rain that fall on it and to release
the water slowly through the centre aperture. It may prove necessary to use all
available vessels to simulate detention reservoirs and it will be found that
inverted dustbin lids serves well so long as they have a small drainage hole made
in their centre.

COMPUTERIZED OPERATING PROCEDURE
STARTING PROCEDURE
1. Clean the tanks to ensure that sump tank and sand tank are free from
dust.
2. Level the apparatus properly with the help of the leveling bolts.
3. Before start the experiment choose the tilting angle of the sand tray.
4. Fill water in the sump tank up to 3/4th level.
5. Connect power supply to the system.
6. Also connect the computer to the system via USB cable.
7. First copy the hydrology software from C.D to the computer D- drive.
8. Then open the hydrology folder from D- drive.
9. Click on the installation note and follow the instructions of
downloading the software.
10.Finally the shortcut of hydrology will be generated on the desktop.
11.Insert the license key provided, in the USB of PC.
12.Click on the hydrology icon from desktop.
13. Now initially fill the weir tank up to the weir cut level at bottom so
that level in the software screen will be showing zero level.
14. Press the tare load button to make sure the Level (H) should be zero
mm before start experiment.

15. Then click on CYCLOGRAM button.
16. Then feed time input for all 4 solenoid valves to open or close the
nozzles.
17. Then press Save and Apply button and then click Back button.
18. Be sure that the bypass valve should be fully opened before starting of
the pump.
19. Then click the Pump ON button, now pump will start.

20. After that click Start button and close the bypass valve according to
adjusting flow rate from Rotameters.
21. Then put the flow rate values in F1 and F2 according to flow rate
adjusted in Rotameters.
22. Then wait for a time which we put in a CYCLOGRAM till the rain stops.
23. Then still wait so that the Level (H) decreased to 5mm from its
maximum head or wait till the stop button colour changes from green
to red.
24. Now our experiment will be over and all values will be saved in the
graph.
25. Then click on the GRAPH button.

26. Graph report page will be generated. Now click on Open Result File
button.
27. Now D-drive will be opened then select the folder of date of
experiment. ( Note- if you not select any file from this folder the error
window may be occur with two option “continue” or “cancel”. Then you
have to press “continue”). Then you can follow previous steps to open
the file.

28. Now graph report will generate on screen. Then press save report
button.

29. Then go-back to main button.
30. Then you can exit from the experiment by clicking on exit button.
31. Now for print of report you go to D- drive and select hydrology _Data
folder.

32. Select test result folder. Then select report folder from it.
33. Then choose the date of experiment folder and then click the report
which is generated as per time of experiment.

34. Then take a print of report.

OBSERVATION TABLE
Sr no. Time since start Rainfall flow rate River inlet flow
of rain (sec.) (ltr/min) rate (ltr/min)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

LINE DIAGRAM OF HYDROLOGY SETUP
SPECIFICATION
Sand tank dimensions = 2000mm length X 1000mm width X 200mm height
Sump tank = 800mm X 700mm X 450mm
No of nozzles = 8
Weir tank = 450mm height X 400mm width X 400mm breadth
Pump = centrifugal pump make Eterna (model HL-42)
Power = 0.8H.P, single phase
Head range = 8-36 meter
Rotameters = 10 LPM each

FORMULAE
General Equations
mm
Rainfall Flow Rate ( h )
Rainfall intensity (mm/h) = 𝑋 60
Catchment Area (Sq. m)
Sediment Yield (gm)
Sediment transport rate (g/s) =
Time Taken (s)
Sediment yield = total weight on load cell – weight of water (L × B × H),

where H is the continuous head on weir which is directly displayed in software
screen
3
2
Discharge of weir = 𝑐𝑑 × 𝐿 × √2𝑔 × (𝐻)2 × 1000 ………L/sec
3
Cd = 0.6
L = 0.004 m
H = Head on weir (m)
g (gravitational acceleration) = 9.81 m/s2
Channel cross-sectional area (m2) = average channel width (m) × average
channel
Depth (m)
Velocity (m/s) = discharge (m3/s) ÷ channel cross-sectional area (m2)
Froude number = velocity (m/s) ÷ √(g × average depth (m))

PRECAUTIONS
1. Any water contained within the product must not be allowed to
stagnate, i.e. the water must be changed regularly.
2. Any rust, sludge, scale or algae on which micro-organism can feed must
be removed regularly, i.e. the equipment must be cleaned regularly.
3. Although the sand tank cannot move suddenly when adjusting the
elevation, extreme care should be taken when operating the jacks to
prevent crushing of fingers, hands or other objects between the upper
and lower frames.
TROUBLESHOOTING
1. The equipment should be disconnected from the electrical supply when
not in use.
2. To preserve the life of the pump and to avoid heating of the water inside
the pump body, the pump should not be left running when there is no
flow of water into the sump tank.
3. Water should be drained from the equipment when it is not in use.
4. If clean washed sand is used in the sand tank and the water has been
changed at regular interval then annual cleaning is all that will be
required.
5. If the maximum flow rate through the spry nozzles falls below 2.5
litres/min then it will be necessary to clean the nozzles. The nozzle
should be refitted after cleaning using PTFE tape to seal the threads.

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CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

COURSE CODE: CEC308

NAME OF EXPERIMENT PAGE

Determination of losses in pipe flow

Determination of hydrograph after precipitation in Hydrology

Do’s and Don’t

The experimental setup consists of:

Stainless Steel Sump Tank = 120 cm X 30 cm X 300 cm

Stainless Steel Measuring Tank = 25 cm X 25 cm X 300 cm

Water Resources Engineering Laboratory Manual (CEC308) Page | 3

6. Repeat the experiment for different flow.

Water Resources Engineering Laboratory Manual (CEC308) Page | 4

Area of Measuring Tank (A) =

Serial MEASUREMENT TANK READING Discharge

Total head at each section is ……………………….

Water Resources Engineering Laboratory Manual (CEC308) Page | 5

Water Resources Engineering Laboratory Manual (CEC308) Page | 6

Aim of the experiment:

To determine the coefficient of discharge for a Venturimeter.

Stainless Steel Sump Tank: 120cm x 30cm x 40cm

Construction features: It is composed of the following three features:

1. Convergent Section-A converging cone of angle of about 20o

(i) A venturimeter ought to be proceeded by a straight length of around 50 times pipe

Water Resources Engineering Laboratory Manual (CEC308) Page | 7

The experimental setup consists of:

1. Water main connected to the U/s end of the venturimeter.

Water Resources Engineering Laboratory Manual (CEC308) Page | 8

a2 = Area of throat cm2

g = Acceleration due to gravity

Density of Water = 1000 kg/m3 = 1 g/cm3

Density of Mercury = 13600 kg/m3 = 13.6 g/cm3

Acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/s2 =981 cm/s2

Water Resources Engineering Laboratory Manual (CEC308) Page | 9

Diameter of Pipe (d1) = Diameter of Throat (d2) =

Serial MEASUREMENT TANK READING Actual Discharge

Serial MANOMETER DIFFERENCE ρm Theoretical Discharge Coefficient of

The average co-efficient of discharge for Venturimeter is -

Water Resources Engineering Laboratory Manual (CEC308) Page | 10

1. What is venturimeter? What is the principle of venturimeter?

Water Resources Engineering Laboratory Manual (CEC308) Page | 11

Aim of the experiment:

To determine the co-efficient of discharge for an Orifice meter.

Orificemeter: Orificemeter is a flow measuring device. It is used extensively to measure flow

Water Resources Engineering Laboratory Manual (CEC308) Page | 12

A = Area of Measuring Tank (cm2)

a2 = Area of Orifice cm2

g = Acceleration due to gravity

Density of Water = 1000 kg/m3 = 1 g/cm3

Density of Mercury = 13600 kg/m3 = 13.6 g/cm3

Acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/s2 =981 cm/s2

Water Resources Engineering Laboratory Manual (CEC308) Page | 13

Diameter of Pipe (d1) = Diameter of Orifice (d2) =

Serial MEASUREMENT TANK READING Actual Discharge

Serial MANOMETER DIFFERENCE ρm Theoretical Discharge Coefficient of

The average co-efficient of discharge for Orificemeter is -

Water Resources Engineering Laboratory Manual (CEC308) Page | 14

Water Resources Engineering Laboratory Manual (CEC308) Page | 15

Where, V1 = velocity in first pipe V2 = velocity in second pipe