'Certain Sweet Movements' the Development of the Concept of Grace in 15th-Century

Italian Dance and Painting

Author(s): Jennifer Nevile
Source: Dance Research: The Journal of the Society for Dance Research , Spring, 1991,
Vol. 9, No. 1 (Spring, 1991), pp. 3-12
Published by: Edinburgh University Press

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/1290643

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 'CERTAIN SWEET MOVEMENTS'
THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE
CONCEPT OF GRACE IN
15th-CENTURY ITALIAN DANCE AND
PAINTING
Jennifer Nevile

The history of court dance and the history of the manner

courtly society have often been seen as analogous. One o
reasons for this is that the concept of'grace' is central in both t
activities. While scholars such as Mark Franko have established
the similarity between the dance and courtly behaviour for the
16th century,' the same has not been done for the 15th century.
Franko hypothesised that this similarity existed in both centuries,
but while his reference to dance relied on both 15th and 16th
century material, he used only 16th century courtesy literature to
establish the norms of courtly behaviour. This paper, then, shifts
the emphasis back. It argues that fifty years before Castiglione,
and one hundred years before Stefano Guazzo and Giovanni Della
Casa, the concept of 'grace' was already significantly present in
courtly society.
After a short preface summarising the 16th century idea of
grace, as exemplified in Castiglione's The Book of the Courtier, this
paper draws upon fifteenth-century Italian dance treatises and
Leon Battista Alberti's treatise on painting to establish the distinc-
tive character of earlier attitudes to it. The notion of grace in
Alberti's work is shown to be very similar to that in the dance
treatises, supporting the view that, in the 15th century as well as
the 16th century, the emphasis on 'grace' in dance reflected
general attitudes in courtly society.

Grace in the 16th Century

Recent scholarship on Castiglione2 has shown that the use of the

word 'grace' in The Book of the Courtier was varied. In the first place
the word is used in the sense of a 'favour', and it occurs in the
context of the grace or favour of a prince to his courtier, or of the

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 DANCE RESEARCH

relationship that may exist between a courtier and

view of the theological terms in which kingship w
Castiglione's use of the word 'grace' to denote a r
clearly coloured by the Christian understanding
attribute of God.4
The second and third uses of the word 'grace' are
for Castiglione uses grace to denote one quality am
an ideal courtier must possess, as well as the overall ab
which must be applied to all the other qualitie
courtier, in order that he may act in a civilised way.
third sense, had to become a virtuous habit, and w
the exercise of an art, similar to the exercise of the ar
speaking. Saccone captures concisely the inter
between the second and third meanings of this word
'the graceful using of qualities so as to provoke gra
The relationship between 'grace' and sprezzatura
the Courtier is important, and can be seen in the p
Castiglione explains how a courtier may acquire gr
Penguin translation by George Bull, the word sprez
translated by the phrase 'a certain nonchalance'.

However, having already thought a great deal about h

acquired, and leaving aside those who are endowed with it
have discovered a universal rule which seems to apply mor
in all human actions or words: namely to steer away from
costs, as if it were a rough and dangerous reef, and (to us
word for it) to practise in all things a certain nonchalanc
all artistry, and makes whatever one says or does seem u
effortless. I know that grace springs especially from this

In other words, the practice of sprezzatura, with t

affectation, was the means by which both the par
and the overall ability were to be achieved. Thus, f
appear graceful to his peers, all his actions had to
nature; that is he had to steer a middle course bet
and wooden concentration. In The Book of the Cour
presents an amusing picture of how this lack of sp
be expressed when dancing.

So you see how art, or any intent effort, if it is disclosed, dep

of grace. Who among you fails to laugh when our messer
after his own fashion, with those capers of his, his legs stif
moving his head, as if he were a stick of wood; and all this s

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 4CERTAIN SWEET MOVEMENTS'

really seems to be counting his steps? What eye is so blind as not to see in
this the ungainliness of affectation.7

Grace in 15th Century Court Dance

In 15th-century dance treatises the word 'gratia' or 'grazia' does

not occur with the same frequency as it does in Castiglione's work.
However, the idea was clearly important by then, because when
the word does appear, it is in the theoretical part of the treatise in
which the author explains the philosophy behind the art he
teaches.
Just as Castiglione listed the qualities a courtier must possess, so
the dancing masters listed the qualities essential for a skilled
dancer. These were memoria, mesura da terreno, diversita di cose,
misura, maniera and aiere. The first two of these are technical mat-
ters and apply to any dancing, but the others are stylistic, as can be
seen from the following descriptions, and are central to the discus-
sion of grace.

memoria - 'memory' - a dancer had to be able to remember all

the step sequences.

mesura da terreno - 'measuring of the ground' - a dancer had to

be able to adapt the steps and patterns of the dance to fit any space
in which he found himself.

diversita di cose - 'diversity of things' - a dancer had to be able

subtly to vary each of the steps: they were not to be performed
exactly the same way every time.

misura - the rhythmical quality of dancing - slowness com-

pensated for by quickness.8

maniera9 - the term refers to certain movements of the upper

body which should occur when performing the steps: the term
includes both motion and repose.

aiere 0 - this quality refers to rising movements of the body which

must accompany the steps.

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 DANCE RESEARCH

It is in the discussion of the last four qualities th

'grace' first appears. Domenico, in an elliptical parag

Le un altra mexura la quale e composta cum la gratia de la mainera

mento de tutta la persona la quale e de seperada da le mexure mu
sopra. "1

The other misura is that which is composed of the grace of maniera of the
carriage of the whole person. It is different from the musical misura
mentioned above.

Domenico's description of maniera is given to the reader in the

form of a picture of the movement of a gondola that is pushed by
two oars over the little waves of a quiet sea, rising slowly and falling
quickly. This maniera, says Domenico, must never be adopted in
the extreme: the dancer must always hold to the middle of the
movement, neither too much nor too little.'2 Thus, in the first
example of the use of the word 'gratia' in the fifteenth century
dance treatises, it is associated with the appropriate bodily move-
ments needed to perform the dances properly.
Antonio Cornazano, one of Domenico's pupils, uses the word in
a sentence describing the quality aiere. Aiere is described as
another grace of movement, besides those graces already
mentioned above, which will render the dancer pleasing in the
eyes of the onlookers.13 Unfortunately Cornazano does not state
what sort of movement will produce this grace he calls aiere.
Domenico's other pupil, Guglielmo, is more forthcoming. He
describes aiere as:

... e un atto de aieroso presenza et rilevato movimento colla propia persona

mostrando con destreza nel danzare un dolce & humanissimo rilevamento. 14

... it is an act of airy presence and elevated movement, with one own's
person showing with agility a sweet and gentle rising movement in the
dance.

. . . perche tenendoli bassi senza rilievo & senza aiere mostraria imperfetto & fuori di
sua natura il danzare ne pareria ai circonstanti degno di gratia & di vera laude. 1'

... because to hold oneself low to the ground, without rising and without
aiere, the dance will be shown to be imperfect and outside of its nature, a
circumstance not worthy of grace nor of true praise.

In 15th-century dance treatises, then, 'grace' is most commonly

taken to denote carefully-modulated bodily movement, calculated
to elicit the approbation of others in courtly circles. From

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 'CERTAIN SWEET MOVEMENTSI

Guglielmo we learn that this bodily movement involved rising

movements during the steps, and from Domenico's description of
maniera that it involved a slow rise with a quicker descent. Dancing
masters could also argue that such ideal movements had profound
connotations, indicative of the all-embracing significance of
dance:

The virtue of dancing is as an action demonstrative of spiritual move-

ment, conforming with the measured and perfect consonances of a
harmony that descends pleasurably through our sense of hearing to the
intellectual parts of our cordial senses; there it generates certain sweet
movements which, as if enclosed contrary to their own nature, strive to
escape and make themselves manifest in active movement.16

In other words, for Guglielmo, movements of the body could be

'reflections' of movements of the soul, striking the onlooker
thereby with a redoubled impression of gracefulness.
Ungraceful movements, demonstrated limited social status -
the inability to perform in a manner appropriate to the higher
classes. Those lacking this accomplishment would appear foolish,
and would certainly not obtain recognition or esteem. There
would be other implications as well. If the movements of the body
were ungraceful then the movements of the soul would be also. It
would be an outward manifestation of a soul that was full of vice,
corrupt, ugly and bad. In Renaissance thinking, a dancer moving
ungracefully, would be like a soul out of step with the movement of
the cosmos that bound heaven and earth together.17

Grace in 15th-Century Court Painting

One answer to the question as to why the dancing masters did not
give more details about the kinds of bodily movement they were
concerned with is that its qualities were already part of the social
conventions, and therefore well known to the recipients of the
treatises. This is supported by evidence from another field of
artistic endeavour - painting.
Leon Battista Alberti published his treatise on painting in Latin
in 1435 and his Italian version in 1436,18 almost exactly at the same
time as Domenico's dance treatise is believed to have been written.
The two treatises show remarkable points of congruence, since

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 DANCE RESEARCH

both shared the view that the movements of the soul are revealed
in movements of the body.19
Alberti's use of the word 'grace' is similar to that found in the
dance treatises. He most frequently uses the word when referring
to the movement of figures in a picture: for example, 'The painting
ought to have pleasant and graceful movements, suitable to what
is happening there.'20 Concerned to describe how a painter should
create human figures, and how every part of these figures should
express the appropriate attitude or emotion, Alberti concludes:
Thus, in every painting take care that each member performs its function
so that none by the slightest articulation remains flaccid ... Therefore the
painter wishing to express life in things will make every part in motion -
but in motion he will keep loveliness and grace. The most graceful move-
ments and the most lively are those which move upwards into the air.21

Alberti's last sentence here, mirrors Guglielmo's explanation of

aiere, a term which did not describe merely a type of movement
peculiar to those who danced, but rather a way of moving that was
an accepted attribute of the higher social classes at that time. Both
dancing masters, in their treatises, and court painters, were
addressing a cultivated audience, and, thus, were able to make
certain assumptions about their social behaviour.22
A further element can be added to the meaning of the word
'gratia' from the work of Cristoforo Landino, a friend of Alberti. In
1481 Landino published a work which included a section noting
the characteristics of painters, one of whom was Filippo Lippi
(born c. 1406), who was employed by the Medici family. The first
characteristic, or quality, Landino used to describe Lippi's work
was gratioso. According to Michael Baxandall, when Landino
used gratioso, the word not only meant the possession of grazia,
but also had the sense of pleasing in general.23 Baxandall goes on
to say that Landino would have used the definition of grace of his
professional colleagues, who were neo-classical literary critics. For
them, something possessing 'grace', displayed both varietd
(variety) and ornato. 24 Landino also attributed these two qualities
to Lippi.
Variety lay in the diversity and contrast of colours, as well as in
the attitudes of figures;25 thus Alberti warns '. .. be careful not to
repeat the same gesture or pose'.26 His admonition goes in the
same direction as Cornazano's comment that one of the qualities
of a good dancer is diversita di cose:

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 'CERTAIN SWEET MOVEMENTSI

Diversita di cose e di sapere danfare danfe insieme differentiate e non sempre mai
fame una medesma e cosi havere passi ... di diverse guise e quello che sefacto una
fiata nolfare la siconda successivamente . .27

Diversita di cose is to know how to dance the dances together differently, and
not always to make them the same; and thus to have the steps ...
[performed] in diverse ways: and that which is done once must not be done
immediately a second time.

Ornato is not so straightforward: its clearest definition can be

found in Quintilian, who lists the qualities which comprise ornato;
as piquancy, polish, richness, liveliness, charm and finish
precisely those which Landino saw in Lippi's painting,28 and
which helped contribute to Lippi's expression of gratia. The
relationship with dancing is quite clear, and is well summed up by
Baxandall:

... it is noticeable that when the Quattrocento used the term [that is,
ornato] in the context of particular motifs in pictures it is very often in
relation to the attitude or the movement of a figure.29

Finally, in Alberti's discussion of how painters should portray

movement in the figures they draw, he asserts:

You will find that in expressing too violent movements ... some think to
be praised because they hear that figures appear most lively which throw
about all their members. For this reason their figures appear hackers and
actors without any dignity in the painting. Because of this they are ...
without grace and sweetness ... As I have noted, movements should be
moderated and sweet. They should appear graceful to the observer rather
than a marvel of study.30

The author of Della Pittura could almost be paraphrasing the

authors of the dance treatises, for Domenico constantly makes the
point that in order for a dancer to perfect the art, they must always
keep to the mean of the movement, neither 'throwing about all
their members', nor keeping their body stiff and lifeless.

Conclusion

The fact that the quality of grace described in the 15th-century

dance treatises is the same as that in Alberti's treatise on painting,
supports the view that both reflect the quality of grace in court
society generally. In 15th-century dance treatises, gratia was used

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 DANCE RESEARCH

to refer to a quality which was ascribed to particular mo

the body that the dance masters called maniera a
essential component of which was a rising movemen
dance 'gracefully' was to perform the steps with this
ment. The quality of grace had two other componen
and ornato. For dancers to appear graceful in the eyes of
they had to modify slightly the different steps from
choreographies were composed, and their performan
more than just technically correct: it had to have an a
or liveliness and polish - that is, it had to have ornato. In
century part of the quality of grace was its careful c
that is, its use should make whatever action or event tha
place appear to be achieved without effort.
Just as in the 16th century courtiers were set apa
possession of grace, so already by the 15th century, c
developed, and articulated, ways of moving which we
from those of other levels of society; their movements
moreover, to reflect not only their social grouping,
condition of their souls.

NOTES

'Mark Franko, 'Renaissance Conduct Literature and the Basse Danse: The
Grace', Persons in Groups: Social Behaviour as Identity Formation in Medieval and R
Europe, ed. by Richard Trexler, Medieval and Renaissance Text and Studies
(Binghamton New York, 1985), and The Dancing Body in Renaissance Chor
(c. 1416-1589) (Summa Publications, Birmingham Alabama, 1986).
2 Wayne Rebhorn, Courtly Performances: Masking and Festivity in Castiglione's Bo
Courtier (Wayne State University Press, 1978) and Eduardo Saccone, 'Grazi
tura, Affettazione in the Courtier', by Robert Hanning and David Rosan
Castiglione: The Ideal and the Real in Renaissance Culture (1983), pp. 45-67.
3Eduardo Saccone, op. cit., p. 49.
Wayne Rebhorn, op. cit., p. 45.
Eduardo Saccone, op. cit., p. 51.
6 Baldessar Castiglione, II Cortegiano, trans. by George Bull (Penguin, 1981)
Baldessar Castiglione, II Cortegiano, trans. by C. S. Singleton (Everyman, N
1959), p. 44.
8 The definition of the word misura that I have used in this article is only one aspect of
this term. To discuss it in full would require another article. For a fuller discussion see
in particular, Sarah Thesiger, 'The Orchestra of SirJohn Davies and the Image of the
Dance', in Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes, Vol. XXXVI (1973), pp. 277-
304: Mark Franko, op. cit., 1986: and Ann Louise Wagner, 'The Significance of Dance
in Sixteenth Century Courtesy Literature' (Ph.D. dissertation, University of
Minnesota, 1980).

IO

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 'CERTAIN SWEET MOVEMENTS)

9 In John Florio, A Worlde of Wordes (Arnold Hatfield, London, 1598, facsimile edition
George Olms, Hildesheim/New York, 1972). The word maniera means 'manner,
fashion, custome or woont', p. 215.
10 In Ibid., p. 8, the word aiere is glossed thus: 'countenance, an aspect, a presence or
appearance of a man or woman'.
'' Domenico da Piacenza, De arte saltandi et choreas ducendi: de la arte di ballare et danzare,
Paris Bibliotheque Nationale, fonds. it. 972, f. 2r. Although the manuscript is dated
1416, most scholars believe the date has been added later, and that the treatise was
written some time between 1435 and 1455. For a description of this treatise and the
other dance treatises see Alberto Gallo, 'II ballare lombardo (circa 1435-1475)', in Studi
Musicali, Vol. VIII (1979), pp. 61-84.
12 Ibid., f. Iv.
3 Antonio Cornazano, Libro dell'arte del danzare, Rome Vatican Library, Codex
Capponiano No. 203, f. 3r bis. This is the second version of his original treatise written
in 1455, and now lost. The second, surviving, version was written in 1465. For a transla-
tion of this treatise, see The Art of Dancing, tr. Madeleine Inglehearn and Peggy Forsyth
(London: Dance Books, 1981).
14 Guglielmo Ebreo Guglielmi Hebraei pisauriensis de pratica seu arte tripudii vulgare
opusculum, Paris Bibliotheque Nationale, fonds it. 973, f. 8r. This manuscript is the
presentation copy dated 1463, which was dedicated to Galeazzo Sforza. It is from this
redaction that all the quotations are taken. The other copies of Guglielmo's treatise are:
Domini Johannis Ambrosii pisauriensis de pratica seu arte tripudii vulgare opusculum, Paris
Bibliotheque Nationale, fonds it. 476; Guglielmo Hebraei pisauriensis de pratica seu arte
tripudii vulgare opusculum, Florence Biblioteca Nazionale, Codex Magliabecchi-Strozzi
class XIX, 9, No. 88; Libro de bali Ghuglielmus ebresis pisauriensis, Florence Biblioteca
Medicea Laurenziana, Fondo Antinori 13; Dell'arte dell ballo, Modena Biblioteca
Estense, Codex Ital. 82, a J 94; Trattatto della danza composto da maestro Guglielmo ed in
parte cavato dell'opera de maestro Domenico, Cavagliere Piacentino, Siena Biblioteca
Communale, Codex L V 29; Ghuglielmj ebrejpisauriensis de praticha seu arte tripudii vulgare
opuschulum, New York Public Library, (S) *MGZMB-Res. 72-254; Foligno, Seminario
Vescovile, Biblioteca Jacobilli, D I 42; and the text fragment in Florence Biblioteca
Nazionale, Fondo Palatino 1021, f. 155r-156v. Guglielmo's work is the subject of a
major forthcoming publication by Barbara Sparti.
d Ibid., f. 8r.
16 Ibid., f. 3v, quoted in Michael Baxandall, Painting and Experience in Fifteenth-Century
Italy (Oxford University Press, rep. 1985), p. 60.
17 See further, S. K. Heninger, Touches of Sweet Harmony: Pythagorean Cosmology and
Renaissance Poetics, The Huntington Library, California, 1974, p. 265. pp. 149, 265. This
belief that movements of the soul are indicated by movements of the body would also
partly account for the strong attacks made on the dances of the peasants, and the efforts
made by the dancing masters to differentiate between their art and the corrupt nature
of the dances of the poor. The dances of the peasants would be condemned not only for
their vulgar movements, but also because anyone performing those movements would
be exposing to others the baser nature of their soul.
18 Leon Battista Alberti, Della Pittura, trans. by John Spencer, Routledge, London,
1956.
19 Ibid., p. 77.
20 Ibid., p. 80.
2 Ibid., p. 74.
22 See, for instance, Ibid., p. 66.
23 Michael Baxandall, op. cit., p. 128.
24 Ibid., p. 130.
25 Alberti, op. cit., pp. 133-4.

II

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 DANCE RESEARCH

26 Ibid., p. 77.
27 Cornazano, op. cit., f. 3r bis.
28 Michael Baxandall, op. cit., p. 131.
29 Ibid., p. 132.
30 Alberti, op. cit., pp. 80-1.

12

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