SCIENCE TOPIC SUMMARY 1ST QUARTER

MADE BY: ANIKA DAWAL | GRADE 8 CHEERZ & GIANNE ACERO | GRADE 8 JAZZ
Forces MODULE 1

Force can be operationally defined based on observed effects. This means that a force can be described in terms of what
it does. However, forces do not always cause motion. It does not necessarily follow that forces acting on an object will
always cause it to move.

Magnitude – refers to the size or strength of the force.

Direction – points to where the object goes.

Point of application – the location of where the force is applied.

Line of action – is the straight line passing through the point of application and is parallel to the direction of force.

There are two types of force, namely:

Contact forces – forces where objects touch or contact with each other.
Examples of contact forces:
Applied – a force given to a person or object by another person or object. Its symbol is F depending on who or what
applies force to the object.
Friction – is the force acting against or opposite an object in contact with which makes the movement of the object
slow down. Friction always opposes the motion of an object. Its symbol is written as Ff. (subscript f)
Normal – is the force that acts perpendicular to the surface of the object in contact with. Its symbol is FN. (subscript
N)
Tension – is the force applied to string, rope, chain or cable. Its symbol is T.

Non-contact forces – forces where objects do not touch or contact with each other. These forces act over a zone or area
called field.
Examples of non-contact forces:
Gravitational (Fg) – is the force of attraction between two objects. In the case of the Earth, this gravitational force
causes objects to fall down to the ground. The bigger the masses of the objects are, the bigger is the gravitational force
between them. The closer the objects are, the greater is the gravitational force between them.

The weight of an object, denoted by W, is an example of the gravitational force of the Earth towards the object.

Magnetic– are forces exerted on a field of attraction or repulsion as in the case of magnets and other magnetic
materials. Magnets and magnetic materials have two poles – the north and south poles. Attraction may occur when two
poles are not the same, a positive and a negative while repulsion takes place with the same poles, positive-positive and
negative-negative.

Balanced Forces
Forces that are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction are called balanced forces. Balanced forces do not cause a
change in motion. When balanced forces act on an object at rest, the object will not move.

Unbalanced Forces
Forces that cause a change in the motion of an object are unbalanced forces. Unbalanced forces are not equal and in
opposite direction.
Net or Resultant Force
Net force or resultant force is the sum of all forces acting on an object. Two or more forces in the same line of action
exerted on an object are balanced if their effects cancel each other. When an object is at rest, a zero net force would
make the object remains at rest. Moreover, when the object is moving, a zero net force would make the object maintain
its velocity at a given time interval.

On the other hand, when the net force is not zero, the object’s velocity will change. A net force exerted to an object at
rest may cause the object to move. In a moving object, a net force will increase its velocity when the force is in the same
direction of its motion. If the net force is in the opposite direction of the object’s motion, the force will reduce the
object’s velocity. When the net force acts sideways on a moving object, the direction of the object’s velocity changes.

FORMULA :
Fₙₑₜ = F₁ + F₂ ….

Laws of Motion MODULE 2

Law of Inertia
Newton’s first law of motion, the law of inertia, states that, “an object at rest remains at rest, and an object in motion
will continue to move at constant velocity unless acted upon by a net force.” The tendency of an object to maintain its
state of rest or of uniform velocity in a straight line is called inertia.
(The greater the mass of an object, the harder it is to move when it is at rest, or difficult to stop when in motion.)

A common example where inertia can be observed is when you are on a bus. Initially, the bus is at rest. When it starts to
move, your body has the tendency to move backward. On the other hand, when the bus suddenly stops, your body has
the tendency to move forward. When the bus either starts to move or suddenly stops, your body has the tendency to
change your state of motion

Law of Acceleration
The second law of motion is the law of acceleration which states that “the acceleration of an object is directly
proportional to the net force acting on it and is inversely proportional to the object’s mass. The direction of the
acceleration is in the direction of the net force acting on the object.”

∑𝐹⃗ = 𝑚a
Law of Interaction
The third law of motion is the law of interaction which states that “for every action, there is always an equal and
opposite reaction.” This law tells us that a force exerted on any object is always exerted back by an equal magnitude of
force but in opposite direction.
(Always remember that in this law, forces always come in pairs)
These are called action and reaction forces, and they do not act on the same body. In determining the action and
reaction forces, be able to identify first the action that requires force, and then identify the reaction force that
counteracts he action force.

The Force of Gravity or Weight

Objects dropped near the surface of the Earth would fall with the same acceleration, if air resistance is neglected. This
acceleration is denoted by 𝒈⃗ with an approximate value of 9.8 m/s² or 980 cm/ s² or 32 ft /s². The force that causes this
acceleration is called the force of gravity or gravitational force. The force acts vertically downward toward the center of
the Earth.

The gravitational force on an object, 𝑭⃗𝒈,can be expressed as

𝐹⃗𝑔 = 𝑚 𝑔⃗

Potential and Kinetic Energy MODULE 3

Work
-is a way of transferring energy.

-is done on an object when the force applied to it covers a distance in the direction of the applied force.

-Work = Force x Distance

• Work is done if the object you push moves a distance in the direction towards which you are pushing it.
• No work is done if the force you exert does not make the object move.
• No work is done if the force you exert does not make the object move in the same direction as the force you exerted.

What is Energy?
-The ability to cause change
•Think about things that have energy “in them”…
•All those things can make something, DO something!
-It’s what causes change in everything.
•Nothing changes without some energy causing it.

2 types of ENERGY:
1. Potential Energy
2. Kinetic Energy
Potential Energy
- Energy that is stored due to position or shape. It is stored energy.

There are 2 types of Potential Energy

1. Gravitational Potential Energy (GPE)
2. Elastic Potential Energy (EPE)

Gravitational Potential Energy (GPE)

- Potential Energy that depends upon an objects height above a reference point.

Formula:
PE = mgh

Potential energy is calculated by:

The object’s mass (m), multiplied by the earth’s gravitational pull (g) (9.8 m/sec/sec), multiplied by the height (h) the
object can fall.

What does Potential Energy depend on and how does it affect potential energy?
Height – The higher the object, the more potential energy.
Mass – The greater the mass of the object, the more potential energy it has.

Potential energy depends on both mass and height.

Elastic Potential Energy (EPE)

-The potential energy of an object that is stretched or compressed.

Kinetic Energy
-The energy an object has due to its motion.
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion or energy in use
• Any matter in motion has Kinetic Energy
• There are many forms of Kinetic Energy. Some forms include: electromagnetic (light - radiant), thermal (heat),
electrical, and mechanical (sound – acoustic).

Formula:
KE = ½mv²

Kinetic energy is calculated by:

Squaring the velocity (v), multiply by the object’s mass (m), than divided by 2.

What is the unit for Kinetic and Potential Energy?

-Unit: Joule
-Named after: James Prescott Joule
-He discovered the relationship between heat (energy) and mechanical work which led to the law of conservation of
energy.

How do we derive this unit?

-1 Joule = 1kg ∙ m²/s²
-KE = ½ ∙ m(kg) ∙ v(m/s)²
-PE = m(kg) ∙ g(m/s)² ∙ height(m)
What does Kinetic Energy depend on and how does it affect kinetic energy?
Velocity/Speed – The faster the object moves, the more kinetic energy it has.
Mass – The greater the mass of a moving object, the more kinetic energy it has.

Kinetic energy depends on both mass and velocity.

Which affects kinetic energy more? Mass or Velocity and why?

Velocity has more of an affect on kinetic energy because the velocity is squared.

Effect of Temperature to Speed of Sound MODULE 4

- Sounds are caused by vibrations, referring to the back and forth movement of objects.
- Sound energy travels in the form of sound waves. These waves are examples of longitudinal waves where the
vibrations are parallel to the direction of the wave. They are also known as mechanical waves since sound waves need a
medium in order to propagate.
- media can either be solids, liquids, or gases
- Sound waves travel fastest in solids and slowest in gases.
- Elasticity is the ability of a material to return to its original form after a certain amount of force has been applied to it.
(Sound travels faster within more elastic objects. This is due to the atoms and molecules of the elastic materials having
a relatively strong attraction towards each other and responding faster to each other’s movement.)
- Density is an intrinsic property that is determined by the amount of mass per area of space or volume of the material.

Speed of Sound in Air

The speed of sound in dry air, which is at 0 0C, is around 331 m/s. The speed of sound increases by 0.60 m/s with every
increase of 1C0. This can be expressed as:

for more understanding:

Properties of Sound
-Like any wave, a sound wave does not just stop when it reaches the end of the medium or when it encounters an
obstacle in its path. Rather, a sound wave will undergo certain behaviour when it encounters the end of the medium or
an obstacle. Possible behaviour includes reflection and refraction.

Reflection
-Reflection is usually described as the turning back of the wave as it hits a barrier. The echo is an example of a reflected
sound.
- Reverberation refers to multiple reflections or echoes in a certain place.
- Echo sounding is used by scientists to map the seafloor and to determine the depth of the ocean or sea.

Refraction
-The refraction of sound waves involves a change in the direction of waves as they pass from one medium to another.
- Sound waves travel slower in cooler air than in warmer air.

Colors of Light MODULE 5

L1 : Colors of Light
- The colors in white light are red, orange, yellow, green, blue indigo and violet. We highlight here the arrangement of
colors of light as ROYGBIV when dispersion happens.
- Dispersion is a kind of refraction which provided us colors of light. This phenomenon is observed when white light
passes through a prism.
- A prism is a transparent optical element with flat and polished surfaces that disperses light.

L2 : Hierarchy of Colors
- The frequency of light wave refers to the number of waves that move past a certain point in one second. Frequency is
generally measured in Hertz, the units of cycles per second.
- Color has the frequency ranging from 430 trillion Hertz to 750 trillion Hertz. (Waves can also go beyond and below
those frequencies, but they are not visible to the human eye.)
- The more energy in the wave, the higher its frequency. The lower the frequency is, the less energy in the wave.
- Violet has the highest energy while red has the lowest energy.
- Related to energy and frequency is the wavelength.
- You can measure wavelength from peak to peak, trough to trough or between two consecutive corresponding points of
waves.
- The shortest wavelength is violet, and the longest wavelength is red.

Wavelengths of Visible light (nanometers)

L3 : Bending of Colors
- Refraction is the bending of light when it travels from one medium to another.
- When light crosses the boundary of two media of different optical density, a change in speed takes place.
- The optical density is the measurement of a component’s ability to slow the transmission of light.
- The index of refraction of a material is a quantity that compares the speed of light in a material to its speed in a
vacuum.

Refraction of Light in a Prism

- The incoming ray is called the incident ray from medium 1 and the outgoing ray is the refracted ray in medium 2, and
the associated angles are the angle of incidence and the angle of refraction.
- In terms of frequency and energy of colors, blue, indigo and violet are the ones with the highest frequency and energy.
These colors are the ones that are bent the most.
- Red is the one with the lowest frequency and energy.
- Red is the least bent and violet is the most bent.

Heat and Temperature MODULE 6

What is heat?
- Heat is produced from molecules of matter that continuously vibrate. Heat is an energy form that transfers from a
body of higher temperature to another body of lower temperature.

-- Heat transfer from one body to another of different temperatures happens around us all the time.
- Once heat is transferred or released, it affects the internal energy of the body. Internal energy is the total energy in a
body; thus, it includes the potential energy and the kinetic energy of the molecules or atoms in an object.
- Joule (J) is the SI unit of heat.
- Another common unit of heat is calorie, defined as the amount of heat needed to change the temperature of one gram
of water by 1ºC at a pressure of 1 atm.

Temperature Scales:
Celsius, Fahrenheit, and kelvin

- Anders Celsius introduced the Celsius scale in 1741.

- Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit introduced the Fahrenheit scale in 1724.
- On the Celsius scale, the freezing point of water is 0ºC, while its boiling point is 100ºC under a pressure of 1 atm.
(having 100 intervals between two reference points)
- On the Fahrenheit scale, the freezing point of water is 32ºF, while its boiling point is 212ºF. (Having 180 intervals
between two reference points)

- William Thompson, also known as Lord Kelvin, introduced the third temperature scale, which is called kelvin.
- Kelvin is based on absolute zero corresponding to 0 kelvin. It is the lowest possible temperature, and it is when the
molecules of the substance have the lowest energy.
- On the Kelvin scale, the freezing point of water is 273K, while its boiling point is 373K. The temperature difference is
100 kelvin.
Phase Change:
-When the temperature of substances changes, its molecular structure and movement also change, which results to
phase change.

- Fusion or melting is the process that causes a solid to change to its liquid state
- Solidification or freezing is the process of changing liquids to solids.
- Sublimation is the process of transforming a substance from the solid phase directly to the gas state without passing
the liquid phase and requires additional energy.
- Deposition is the process of transforming a substance from gas to solid without passing the liquid phase and requires a
release of energy.

Thermal Expansion:
- When temperature changes, thermal expansion in solids happens, causing a change in their length, width, height, area,
and volume.
- Materials expand when the temperature is increased, or contract when the temperature is reduced.
- Thermal expansion also happens in liquids and gases. Molecules of fluids vibrate faster, tend to move farther away
from each other, and attract weakly to each other when heated. When cooled, the molecules vibrate slower and move
closer to each other.
- When the temperature is increased, fluids expand. On the other hand, when the temperature is reduced, the fluids
contract.
- The mass of the material is constant when it expands. Its volume increases, and it becomes less dense. When cooled,
the mass also remains constant, but the volume of the material reduces, and it becomes denser.

Heat Capacity and Specific Heat:

- Substances with high heat capacities cool down slowly because they have to give off more heat and also heat up slowly
because they have to absorb more heat.
- Substances with a low heat capacity heat up quickly and they lose their heat quickly.
Module 7 Basic – Electricity

Electric current (I) is the rate of flow of electric charges from one point to another in a circuit. It is
measured in Amperes (A). One ampere is a rate of flow equal to 1 coulomb of charge per second.
Mathematically, electrical current is given by
I= Q
T
Where:
I = current in Amperes (A)
Q= charge in coulombs (C)
T = time in seconds (s)

The standard unit of charge is coulomb. One coulomb is the electric charge of 6.25 billion electrons.
So, if a wire carries 5 amperes, 5 coulombs of charges flow through the wire each second. This
means that there are 31.25 billion electrons flowing from one point of a circuit to another.

A sustained current in conducting wire requires a suitable pumping device; meaning, charges will flow
only when they are pushed or driven. The work needed 6 per unit charge to move between two points
is called voltage (V), expressed in unit volt (V).

Voltage (V) is what makes a current move. Mathematically voltage is given by, V = 𝑊 𝑞

Where:
V = voltage in volts (V)
W = work in Joule (J)
Q = charge in coulomb (C)

Remember, voltage does not go anywhere, it only drives the charges to move.

Batteries and generators are the primary sources of voltage in an electric circuit. How much current
exists in a circuit depends not only on the voltage but also on the electrical resistance of the
conductor.

Electrical resistance (R) is the opposition to the flow of current by the conducting wire. The electrical
resistance of the wire depends on its thickness, length, and conductivity. Thick wires have less
resistance than thin wires because thick wires have greater cross-sectional area for the electron to
flow than thin wires. Moreover, longer wires have more resistance than shorter wires because longer
wires have longer path for the current to flow. Copper wires have less resistance than steel wires of
the same size because copper has higher conductivity than steel. Conductivity is the property of
matter that allows current to flow. The higher the conductivity of material the more current can freely
flow. Electrical resistance also depends on temperature.
At higher temperature, atoms are violently vibrating that can result to greater collision, creating more
resistance against the flow of current. Electrical resistance is measured in ohms (Ω), named after
Georg Simon Ohm.
Ohm’s Law
In a simple circuit, voltage is directly proportional to current. Its proportionality constant is R =
Resistance. V = I R

Where: V = voltage expressed in volt (V)

I = Current expressed in Ampere (A)
R = Resistance expressed in ohm (Ω)

Example 1
Find the resistance in kΩ of a single motor horn if it has a voltage of 6 V and current of 2 mA.

Given: Voltage (V) = 6 V;

Current (I) = 2 mA x (1A/1000mA) = 0.002A
Required: Resistance (R)

Solution: Ohm’s Law: V = I R

R=𝑉
𝐼
= 6V /0.002
= 3000 Ω X (1k Ω/1000 Ω)
=3kΩ
Example 2
If a circuit has a resistance of 44 Ω and a current of 5 A, what is its voltage?
Given: Resistance (R) = 44 Ω
Current (I) = 5 A
Required: Voltage (V)

Solution: Ohm’s Law V = I R

V = 44 Ω x 5
= 220 V

Example 3
What will happen to the current if the resistance is tripled? State the relationship of current and
resistance based on your answer.

V=IR

So originally 𝐼 = 𝑉
R

If R is tripled then, 𝐼 = = 1 V
3𝑅 3 R

Therefore, when resistance is tripled, the current is reduced by one third. The result shows that when
resistance is increased at constant voltage, the current is reduced.
Module 8: Electrical Circuit

Basics of Electric Circuit:

A closed loop through which current can flow is called an electric circuit. For a continuous flow of
electrons, there must be a complete circuit with no gaps. A gap is usually provided by an electric
switch that can be opened or closed to either cut off or allow energy to flow.

The flow of electron starts from the negative terminal of a battery where there are abundant negative
charges, to the load, to the electrical switch, and back to the positive terminal where there are
deficient negative charges.

The amount of current a circuit carries depends on the number and power of electrical devices
connected to the circuit.

Components of Electric Circuit:

All electric circuits have at least three components: a voltage source, conducting wires, and loads.
They may have other parts as well, such as switches.

Voltage source is a device that maintains a constant amount of voltage. Common voltage sources
used at home are battery, generator, wall socket, and electric outlet.

Conducting wires are special kind of conductors where current can pass through easily. There is a
corresponding safe amount of current that can pass through for every size, thickness, or cross-
sectional area of conducting wire. So, it is important to consider the dimension of wire to be used
when connecting a load or number of loads in a circuit.

Electrical switch is a device that can control the entrance of current. When it is on, the circuit is
closed, then current can pass through. When it is off, the circuit is open, and current cannot pass
through.

Electrical load is an electrical device that converts electrical energy to heat like in the case of electric
iron, and to light and heat like in the case of a light bulb.

TAKE NOTE

Electrons behave in the same manner, they move through the conducting wires in the circuit.
Series Circuit

A circuit that consists of one loop is called a series circuit. You can see a simple series circuit
diagram in figure 2. If a series circuit is interrupted at any point in its single loop, no current can flow
through the circuit and no loads in the circuit will work. In series circuit, if one light bulb burns out, the
other light bulb will not work because it will not receive any current. Series circuits are commonly
used in Christmas lights. The electrical switch is also connected in series with the light bulbs.

Properties of a Series Circuit

1. The total resistance of a series circuit is the sum of all resistances in the circuit. Total resistance is
always greater than the individual resistances in a series circuit.
2. The voltage source is equal to the sum of all voltage in each load in a circuit.
3. The current is constant across each load.

*See next page*

Advantages of Using Series Connection

The following are some of the advantages of series connection:

1. A series connection does not overheat easily. For a given circuit of two loads, the amount of
current passing through each load is constant. If you add more loads, the amount of current passing
through in all the loads is still constant. However, the amount of current in a circuit with two loads is
higher than the amount of current in a circuit with more than two loads. Meaning, the more loads
connected in series circuit the amount of current reduces.

2. In a series circuit, there is the only one path for the current to flow from the voltage source to the
different loads. It would be easy to connect and disconnect new load.

3. Since series circuit is less likely to overheat, there is no need to use expensive, thick wires

Disadvantages of Using Series Connection

The following are some of the disadvantages of series connection:

1. If one of the light bulbs is damaged or removed in a series connection, all other light bulbs in the
circuit will not light too. This is because the point where the bulb is damaged or removed causes the
circuit to open, resulting to discontinue the flow of current in the circuit.

2. The addition of more light bulbs in series circuit causes a decrease in the brightness of the bulbs.
Given a fixed amount of voltage supplied by the voltage source, the more bulbs are added would
mean more bulbs will share the available electrical energy to be converted to light energy.

3. The loads in a series circuit are difficult to control individually. When the switch is off, all loads in
the circuit will not function anymore.

4. It is difficult to identify the damaged bulb in the circuit.

Properties of a Parallel Circuit

1. The reciprocal of the total resistance in a parallel circuit is the sum of the reciprocal of all
resistances in the circuit. Total resistance is always less than the smallest resistance in the circuit.

2. There is only one voltage which is equal to a voltage source.

3. The total current is equal to the sum of all currents in each load in a parallel circuit.
Advantages of Using Parallel Connection
The following are some of the advantages of parallel connection:

1. All loads in parallel connection are directly connected to the voltage source. Even the resistances
vary, all light bulbs can still have their maximum brightness.

2. In a parallel circuit, even if one of the light bulbs is damaged, all other light bulbs will still function
since the flow of current is not entirely interrupted.

3. Individual load in a parallel circuit is easy to control. Each load has a connecting wire for the
current to flow, and each may have its own switch. Even if you switch off one bulb, other bulbs are not
affected.

4. All light bulbs and appliances at home are connected in parallel. Switching off some appliances
does not affect other appliances.

Disadvantages of Using Parallel Connection

The following are some of the disadvantages of parallel connection:

1. Overloading may happen if appliances are simultaneously used at home. With more loads, total
resistance decreases resulting to excessive, large amount of current that would pass through the
conducting wires. Consequently, overheating of wires takes place which may lead to fire.

2. A parallel connection is difficult to install, maintain, and repair since large volume of conducting
wires is needed. When problem in the connection occurs, it is difficult to identify which loop among
the many loops does not work.

3. It requires the use of several conducting wires of varying sizes.