Measurement Techniques

Lecture Notes
Measurement Fundamentals

Dimensions and Units

•Concept of unit and dimension

•SI and British units
•Frequently used unit conversions

Standards

Basic Concepts for a Measurement System

•Generalized measurement system

•Measurement errors and some definitions: Sensitivity, Precision, Accuracy, Hysteresis
•Calibration

Static and Dynamic Behavior of Sensors

Experiment Planning

Ethical Rules
 What is measurement?
Measurement in Engineering

Experimentation and the design of measurement systems are major engineering activities.
In engineering, carefully designed experiments are needed to
 conceive and verify theoretical concepts,
 develop new methods and products, commission sophisticated new engineering systems,
 and evaluate the performance and behavior of existing products.

Measurement is the process or the result of determining

the ratio of a physical quantity to a unit of measurement.

Measurement is the process of evaluating an unknown

quantity by comparing it with a known quantity. In other
words, it is to obtain the value of some quantity by
comparing it to a pre-defined unit.
 Units and Dimensions
The International System of Units (SI) is the most widely used unit system in the world, due to
its consistency and simplicity. However, in the United States and some other countries, a unit
system based on the old English units is still widely used. Product specifications and data
tables are frequently given in British units.
Dimension SI unit British Unit
mass kilogram (kg) pound mass (lbm)
length meter (m) foot (ft)
time second (s) second (s)
temperature kelvin (K) rankine (˚R)
electrical current ampere (A) ampere (A)

Other engineering quantities, such as force and power, are related to the dimensions of the
base units through physical laws and definitions. The dimension of force is defined by
Newton’s second law:
m
m N kg ∙
SI → 1 kg ∙ ∙ s s
1 N
ft ft
British → 32.174 lbm ∙ ∙s lbf 32.174 lbm ∙
lbf lbf
 Frequently used unit conversions

British Unit SI Unit

1 foot (ft) 0.3048 m
1 pound mass (lbm) 0.45359237 kg
1 pound force (lbf) 4.44822162 N (1 kg m/s2)
1 foot pound ( ft-lbf ) 1.355817948 J (Nm)
1 BTU 778 ft-lbf

Other Conversions
K = °C + 273.15
°F = (1.8°C) + 32
°R = °F + 459.67
1 bar = 105 Pa ([Pa ] = [N/m2])
1 atm = 1.01325 105 Pa
1 psi (lb/in2) = 0.0689475729 bar
 Standards

In order that investigators in different parts of the world may compare the results of their
experiments on a consistent basis, it is necessary to establish certain standard units of length,
weight, time, temperature, and electrical quantities.

All the primary standards except mass can, in theory, be reproduced in any laboratory having
the proper equipment. They are called reproducible standards.

For example; The standard for length, the standard meter, is defined as “the length of the path
traveled by light in a vacuum during a time of 1/299,792,458th of a second” (1983).

The conversion factors for the English and metric system for the units of length and mass are
defined as follows:

1"  2.54 cm
1 lbm  453.59237 g
 Similar standards exist for time, temperature and electrical quantities.
 Basic Concepts for a Measurement System
Generalized measurement system
In most cases, the measurement system can be viewed as consisting of three subsystems:

1) Detector-transducer Stage: which detects the physical variable and performs either a
mechanical or an electrical transformation to convert the signal into a more useable form.

A transducer is a device that transforms one physical effect into another. In most cases,
the physical variable is transformed in to an electrical signal because this is the form of
signal that is most easily measured. The signal may be in digital or analog form.

2) Intermadiate Stage (Signal Modulator): which modifies the direct signal by amplification,
filtering, or other means so that a desirable output is available.

3) Terminating Stage: which acts to indicate, record, or control, the variable being measured.
The output may also be digital or analog.

It is very important to realize that the accuracy of control cannot be any better than the
accuracy of the measurement of the control variable.

Detector- Indicator or
measurand Signal modulator measurement
Transducer Recorder
 Basic Concepts for a Measurement System
Generalized measurement system
 A simple example of a measurement system is a common
mercury-in-glass thermometer which could be used to measure
the temperature of water in a container. In this device, the volume
of the mercury in the bulb depends on the temperature of the
mercury. Hence a measurement of the volume of the mercury can
be used to determine the temperature.
 Unfortunately, it is very difficult to measure the small change in
volume of the mercury. If the mercury had the shape of a sphere,
the change in diameter would be very small. Therefore, signal
modification is required. For the thermometer, signal modification
is accomplished by connecting the bulb to the stem. The inside
diameter of the stem is very small relative to the diameter of the
bulb, and although the change in mercury volume is small, this
small change in volume produces a large change in length of the
stem mercury column. Actually, the displacement of mercury in the
stem is proportional to the differential thermal expansion between
the mercury and the glass envelope.
 Finally, an indicating device is required. In the case of the
thermometer, this is accomplished with a scale that is either next
to the glass stem or engraved on it directly.
 These three subsystems are quite obvious in most measuring
devices. This is particularly true for modern measurement systems
using electrical output-sensing devices, in which the three
subsystems are often physically separate devices.
 Basic Concepts for a Measurement System
Performance of a measurement system
 “no measurement system is perfect”
 There will always be some deviation between the actual value of the measurand and the
measurement system output. This deviation must simply be small enough that the output can
be used for its intended purpose.
 Errors in experiments generally fall into two categories: systematic errors (fixed or bias
errors) and random errors (precision errors).
 Systematic errors are consistent, repeatable errors. For example, a measuring system might
give a consistent 10% higher reading. the deviation between the average of the readings and
true value demonstrates the systematic error.
systematic error = average of readings - true value
 Random errors are those caused by a lack of repeatability in the output of the measuring
system. The scatter in the data represents random error. The random error in a single
measurement can be estimated as the difference between the single reading and the average
of all readings of the same value of measurand.
random error = reading - average of readings
 Random errors are those caused by a lack of repeatability in the output of the measuring
system
 Basic Concepts for a Measurement System
Performance of a measurement system

 Performance of a measurement
system is determined by its static
and dynamic behaviors.

 Measurement device
manufacturers frequently state the
device specifications as accuracy,
linearity, hysteresis etc. in product
catalogs
 Basic Concepts for a Measurement System
Performance of a measurement system

 The accuracy of an instrument indicates the deviation of the reading from a known input.
 Accuracy is frequently expressed as a percentage of full-scale reading.
 The overall accuracy error (or the overall inaccuracy) of a set of readings is defined as the
average of all readings minus the true value. Thus, overall accuracy error is identical to
systematic or bias error.
 The precision of an instrument indicates its ability to reproduce a certain reading with a
given accuracy.
 A highly precise measuring system will give the same value each time it is read, but it may
not be very accurate.
 Precision characterizes the random error of the instrument’s output.

A is more precise than B,

B is more accurate than A
 Basic Concepts for a Measurement System
 In measuring devices, accuracy is often degraded by a Performance of a measurement system
phenomenon known as hysteresis.
 For the same value of the measurand, different output
readings may be obtained if the measurand was
increasing prior to taking the reading than if the
measurand was decreasing. Hysteresis is caused by
such effects as friction, mechanical flexure of internal
parts, and electrical capacitance.
 Hysteresis errors are systematic errors.

 Another important characteristic of a measuring system

is the resolution :
 Resolution is formally defined as the smallest change or
increment in the measured quantity that the instrument
can detect. For digital instruments, resolution is usually
associated with the number of digits displayed on the
output.
 In instruments in which the output is read by comparing a
pointer to a scale, the ability to resolve a value of the
measurand is limited by a characteristic called the scale
readability.
 A high-resolution instrument may be neither precise nor
accurate.
 Resolution error is a type of random or precision error
 Basic Concepts for a Measurement System
Performance of a measurement system

 Although not a requirement for a measurement

system, it is highly desirable that it have a linear
relationship between input and output.
 Deviation from true linearity when linearity is
assumed is a systematic error called linearity
error.

 If the device does not have correct output at the

zero point, it is said to have a zero offset. The
instrument does not read zero when the input is
zero.
 Zero error is a type of bias (systematic) error that
offsets all measurements taken by the instrument
 Basic Concepts for a Measurement System
Performance of a measurement system

 Sensitivity, defined as the ratio of the

change in magnitude of the output to the
change in magnitude of the measurand

 In linear systems, the sensitivity is constant

throughout the range. Sensitivity is
determined during the process of
calibration.

 An error in determining the actual sensitivity

during the calibration, results in a
systematic error called sensitivity error
 Basic Concepts for a Measurement System
 Repeatability is the ability of a device to produce Performance of a measurement system
the same output reading when the same
measurand is applied using the same procedure

 Drift: Over a period of time, the output of a

measuring system for a fixed measurand may
change even though all environmental factors
remain constant. This undesirable characteristic
is known as drift.

 Drift error can often be seen in the zero reading,

which may fluctuate randomly due to electrical
noise and other random causes, or it can drift
higher or lower (zero drift) due to nonrandom
causes, such as a slow increase in air
temperature in the room.

 Thus, drift error can be either random or

systematic.
 Basic Concepts for a Measurement System
Performance of a measurement system

Example1:
Five temperature readings are taken as below:
-1.30, -1.50, -1.20, -1.60, -1.50 ˚C
suppose that the true temperature of the environment was - 1.45 ˚C. Calculate the accuracy error
of the third data point. What is the overall accuracy error?
-1.20 - (-1.45) = 0.25 ˚C (3rd data point)
Average value of readings = -1.42 ˚C
-1.42 - (-1.45) = 0.03 ˚C overall accuracy error
Example2:
Four stopwatches are used to measure a time span. The exact time span is 45.623451 … s. What
can you say about the accuracy, precision, and resolution of each stopwatch?

46. 43. 44.189 45.624

Resolution: poor Resolution: poor Resolution: excellent Resolution: excellent

Accurate Not very accurate Inaccurate Accurate

We cannot conclude anything about precision, because we have only one reading.
 Calibration is a process in which a set of measurements are Basic Concepts for a Measurement System
made of measurand values that can be determined Calibration
independently. The readings can then be compared to the known
“true” values and the errors determined.
 Sensitivity is determined during the process of calibration
 Calibration procedures involve a comparison of the particular
instrument with either,
• A primary standard,
• A secondary standard with a higher accuracy than the
instrument to be calibrated,
• or a known input source.

 The first step in the calibration process is to take a set of data

consisting of measurement system output as a function of the
measurand.
 A graphical presentation of these data is known as the
calibration curve.
 Although this curve can be used directly to interpret the
instrument output, in most cases the data are correlated using a
mathematical function. The correlating function may be a straight
line, a parabola, a higher-order polynomial, or a more
complicated function.

Some calibration processes are quite difficult, and it is not practical for all laboratories
to keep all necessary standards. Laboratories may purchase instruments that
have been calibrated by the manufacturers. If it is expected that the uncertainty of a
measuring device will change with time, it may have to be returned to the manufacturer
(or another laboratory) periodically for calibration.
 Basic Concepts for a Measurement System
Example: Calibration
A low-cost, nominally 0 to 5-lb spring weighing scale has been calibrated by
placing accurate weights on its platform. The values of the applied weights
range from 0 to 5 lb in 0.5-lb increments. The weights are applied in a
sequential manner, starting at the lowest value, increasing to the largest value
(up data) and then decreasing to the lowest value (down data). Five such
cycles were performed, and the results of the measurements are presented in
the table below. As suggested in ANSI/ISA (1979), several cycles were
completed before the data recording started. The data recording then started in
the middle of the up portion of cycle 1 and ended in the up portion of cycle 6,
giving five complete cycles.
 Basic Concepts for a Measurement System
Calibration
To evaluate the errors it is best to present the data in the form of what is called a deviation plot. For each
measured value, the difference (deviation) between the measured value and the best-fit equation is
evaluated. The deviation data are plotted in the figure below. A deviation value of zero indicates that a
calibration data point has a value exactly as predicted by the correlating function. For this device, the
accuracy limits are 0.45 lb and -0.40 lb. the output, as predicted by the curve fit, varies from -0.374 to
+6.076 giving a span of 6.076 – (-0.3742) = 6.45 lb

Output  1 . 29  0  0 . 374   0 . 374

Output  1 . 29  5  0 . 374  6 . 076

Accuracy then becomes;

0.45  0 .4
 %7 and   %6.2
6.45 6.45
of the output span
 Basic Concepts for a Measurement System
Calibration

 The type of calibration described in the example is a static calibration. Static calibration is
performed when time is not relevant in the measurement.

 However, many measuring systems are used in situations in which the measurand is
changing rapidly. For such situations, a static calibration is inadequate. If possible, the
instrument can be subjected to a dynamic calibration.

 For example, the use of an oral thermometer to measure a person’s body temperature is a
dynamic measurement since the measurement process must be continued for several
minutes for the thermometer to come into equilibrium with body temperature.

 The time response of the system or instrument can be found by applying suddenly
increasing or decreasing input signal, and then recording the time response of the output.

 The dynamic response of a measurement system can usually be placed into one of three
categories: zero order, first order, and second order.
 Static and Dynamic Behavior of a
Measurement System

Measurement
system

 The input is the physical quantity or property being measured, such as pressure,
temperature, velocity, strain, etc. The input is given the symbol x, and is formally called the
measurand. The measuring system converts the measurand into something different, so
that we can read, record, and/or analyze it. The output may be a mechanical or an
electrical signal.

 The input (measurand) can be either static (steady within the time of measurement) or
dynamic (unsteady). If the measurand is static, the output is generally some factor K times
the input, y = Kx , where K is called the static sensitivity of the measuring system.

 For time-dependent (unsteady or dynamic) measurements, the behavior is described by a

differential equation. Such systems are called dynamic systems, and their behavior is
called dynamic system response.

 For dynamic systems, input and output signals are time dependent functions.
 Static and Dynamic Behavior of a
Measurement System

 In an ideal measuring system, output y would respond instantaneously to changes in x

 In most real measuring systems, the output does not respond instantly to changes in the
measurand, and these systems are thus not ideal (zero-order) dynamic systems.
 In most cases, sudden changes in input signal causes oscillations at the output. A time
period is elapsed until the oscillations are damped.

 Time to attain a value of 90 percent of a step input is defined as rise time of the system.
 Static and Dynamic Behavior of a
Measurement System

dny d n 1 y dy
an n  an 1 n 1  ...  a1  a0 y  bx
dt dt dt

Zero-order system : a0 y  bx
dy
First-order system (n = 1) : a1  a0 y  bx
dt
Second-order system (n = 2) : d2y dy
a2 2  a1  a0 y  bx
dt dt
x = x(t): input, measurand or forcing function , y = y(t) output signal.
a1, a2, ..., an : coefficients of the ODE, these coefficients characterize the system
 Static and Dynamic Behavior of a
Measurement System

The dynamic system response of the system is typically tested with one of four types of
inputs:

1. Step Input

1. Ramp Input

2. Impulse Input

3. Sinusoidal Input
 Dynamic Behavior of a Measurement System
Zeroth-Order Systems

n0  a0 y  bx
No real measurement system is perfectly ideal or zero-order.
The output simply follows the input exactly, with some constant K (= b / a0 ) as a
multiplicative factor. K is called the static sensitivity.
In most real measuring systems, the output does not respond instantly to changes in the
measurand, and these systems are thus not ideal (zero-order) dynamic systems. A simple
resistor circuit is one of the closest examples we have of an ideal system.
Most real systems behave as either first- (n = 1) or second- (n = 2) order dynamic systems
 Dynamic Behavior of a Measurement System
Step Response of First-Order System

dy x(t ) 
a1  a0 y  bx
dt
a1 b
  : time constant K
a0 a0
dy
  y  Kx
dt
t  0  x(t )  0 Total Response = Natural Response + Forced response
t  0  x(t )  x f
başlangıç şartı
İnitial condition y (t )  yi et   Kx f  Kx f et 
t  0  y  yi
 y (t )  Kx f  ( yi  Kx f )e t 
Dynamic Behavior of a Measurement System
Step Response of First-Order System
y(t)

(steady state)

(transient)
yf

yi Kx f e t 
Kx f  y f

y (t )  y f error yi e t 
 e t 
yi  y f
5 t

t =   y has increased to
approximately 63.2% of its final value
t = 5  y has increased to
approximately %99.3 of its final value
 1 2 RC circuit is a first order system

Zero input response (switch 1:off switch 2: on v& Vc(0) = Vo)

+ ( 1 )t
R  VC (t )  V0 e RC

- C Zero state response (1 & 2 : on , Vc(0) = 0)

( 1 )t
 VC (t )  RI (1  e RC
)
( 1 )t ( 1 )t
V (t )  V0 e RC
 RI (1  e RC
)
 Dynamic Behavior of a Measurement System
d y
2
dy Step Response of Second-Order System
a2 2  a1  a0 y  bx
dt dt

1 d 2 y 2 dy a0
 n
  y  Kx a2
: natural frequency
n dt
2 2
n dt
a1
 : damping constant
2 a0 .a2
 undamped
underdamped

Critically damped
Over damped
 d 2x dx
m 2  c  kx  F (t )
dt dt
 Experiment Planning
 What primary variables shall be investigated?
 What control must be exerted on the experiment?
 What ranges of the primary variables will be necessary to describe the phenomena under study?
 How many data points should be taken in the various ranges of operation to ensure good sampling of
data considering instrument accuracy and other factors?
 What instrument accuracy is required for each measurement?
 If a dynamic measurement is involved, what frequency responce must the instruments have?
 Are the instruments available commercially, or must they be constructed especially for the particular
experiment?
 What safety precautions are necessary if some kind of hazardous operation is involved in the
experiment?
 What financial resources are available to perform the experiment, and how do the various instrument
requirements fit into the proposed budget?
 What provisions have been made for recording the data?
 What provisions have been made for either online or subsequent computer reduction of data?
 If the data reduction is not of a research nature where manipulation and calculations depend somewhat
on the results of measurements, what provisions are made to have direct output of data acquisition
system available for the final report? In many cases appropriate graphical results may be obtained with
digital data acquisition systems as the experiment progress or shortly thereafter.
Experimental Procedure Experiment Planning

1) Establish the need for the experiment, the optimum budgetary, manpower, and time
requirements.
2) Begin detail planning for the experiment:
 Clearly establish objectives of the experiment, If experiments are similar to those of previous investigators,
be sure to make use of the previous workers. Never overlook the possibility that the work may have been
done before and reported in the literature.
 Establish the primary variables which must be measured (force, pressure, velocity, temperature, etc.)
 Determine the accuracy which may be required in the primary measurements
 Set up data reduction calculations before conducting experiments to be sure that adequate data are being
collected
 Analyze the possible errors in the anticipated results before the experiments are conducted
3) Collect a few data points and conduct a preliminary analysis of these data to be sure
that the experiment is going as planned.
4) Modify the experimental apparatus and/or procedure in accordance with the findings
in (3).
5) Collect the bulk of experimental data and analyze the results
6) Organize, discuss, and publish the findings and results of experiments.
 Ethical Standards

FUNDAMENTAL ETHICAL RULES

• Do not hide anything
• Approach it as an unbiased researcher
• Do not try to make others’ ideas appear as your own

AVOID THE FOLLOWING WHEN WORKING WITH EXPERIMENTAL DATA

Ignore the data that do not agree with the expected physical behavior
Modify the data that do not agree with the physical laws
Add data that do not exist or are not measured to the dataset

INSTEAD, use a proper data reduction or filtering technique and explain the necessity for
doing that. Try to explain the reasons if and why experimental data differ from the
expected behavior.
 Ethical Standards

WHEN WRITING A REPORT:

 It is not ethical to copy a sentence or a section from another report

 You should express your ideas with your own sentences
 If you are quoting from an article you should cite that article at the end of the
quotation

 It is not ethical to copy ideas as well as text from other reports

 All comments and ideas must belong to the owner(s) of the report

 All other work in the form of figures and tables from other studies, which are used in
the report must be cited in their captions

 All help received from third parties during the experimental study should be
acknowledged in the acknowledgments section