THE CELL
PROKARYOTIC CELLS
- Ex. bacteria
EUKARYOTIC CELLS
- Animal cells
- Plant cells
A GENERALIZED CELL
● All eukaryotic cells are composed of
three main parts:
1. PLASMA MEMBRANE or
“plasmalemma”
○ Is much more than just a
“fence”.
○ It is a flexible yet sturdy,
“intelligent” semipermeable
regulator that:
- Covers and protects the
cell.
- Controls what goes in
and comes out.
- Links to other cells.
- Flies certain “flags” to
tell other cells “who” it
is.
○ Forms the cell’s outer
boundary and separates the
cell’s internal environment
from the outside
environment.
- It is a selectively
permeable barrier,
allowing the passage of
some things and not
others.
- It plays a role in cellular
communication.
2. CYTOPLASM
○ A gelatin-like substance, plus
structural fibers and
organelles (but not the
nucleus)
○ 2 Components:
a. Cytosol:
- Intracellular fluid,
surrounding the
organelles
- The site of many
chemical directions
- Energy is usually
released by these
reactions
- Reactions provide the
building blocks for cell
maintenance, structure,
function and growth.
b. Organelles:
- Specialized structures
within the cell
○ Contains all the cellular
contents between the plasma
membrane and the nucleus.
- The cytosol is the fluid
portion (mostly water).
- Organelles are
subcellular structures
embedded in the cytosol,
having characteristic
shapes and specific
functions.
3. NUCLEUS
○ Contains the genetic library
of the cell
○ Is a large organelle that
contains DNA in molecules
called chromosomes.
- Each chromosome
consists of a single
molecule of DNA and
associated packaging
proteins.
- A chromosome contains
thousands of hereditary
units called genes.
THE CYTOSKELETON ORGANELLES
● Network of protein filaments 1. CENTROSOME
throughout the cytosol. ● Located near the nucleus, it
● Provides structural support for the consists of two centrioles and
cell. pericentriolar material.
● Types:
○ Microfilaments
○ Intermediate Filaments
○ Microtubules

2. CILIA
● Short, hair-like projections from
the cell surface, move fluids
along a cell surface.

3. FLAGELLA
● Longer than cilia, move an entire
cell; the only example is the
sperm cell’s tail.
4. RIBOSOMES
● Sites of protein synthesis. 6. GOLGI COMPLEX
● Consists of 3–20 flattened,
membranous sacs called
cisternae.
● Modify, sort, and package
proteins for transport to different
destinations.
● Proteins are transported by
various vesicles.

5. ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
● Network of membranes in the
shape of flattened sacs or tubules.
● Types:
○ Rough ER - connected to the
nuclear envelope, a series of
flattened sacs, the surface is
studded with ribosomes,
producing various proteins.
○ Smooth ER - a network of
membrane tubules, does not
have ribosomes, synthesizes
fatty acids and steroids,
detoxifies certain drugs.
PROCESSING AND PACKAGING
7. LYSOSOMES
● Vesicles that form from the Golgi
complex and contain powerful
digestive enzymes; suicide bag of
the cell.
8. PEROXISOMES
● Smaller than lysosomes.
● Detoxify several toxic substances
such as alcohol.
● Abundant in the liver.
9. PROTEASOMES
● Continuously destroy unneeded,
damaged, or faulty proteins.
● Found in the cytosol and the
nucleus.
10. MITOCHONDRIA
● The “powerhouses” of the cell.
● Generate ATP.
● More prevalent in physiologically
active cells: muscles, liver and
kidneys.
● Have inner and outer
mitochondrial membranes similar
in structure to the plasma
membrane.
 ● Cristae - the series of folds of the
inner membrane.
● Matrix - the large central
fluid-filled cavity.
● Self-replicate during times of
increased cellular demand or
before cell division .
● Contain own DNA
○ Inherited only from your
mother
SPERMATOZOA
● The acrosome is a cap-like vesicle
filled with enzymes (hyaluronidase
and proteases) that help a sperm to
penetrate a secondary oocyte to bring
about fertilization.
● The middle piece contains many
mitochondria which provide the
energy (ATP) for locomotion.
ORGANELLES - NUCLEUS
● Spherical or oval shaped structure .
● Usually the most prominent feature of
a cell.
● Nuclear Envelope - a double
membrane that separates the nucleus
from the cytoplasm.
● Nuclear Pores - numerous openings in
the nuclear envelope, control
movement of substances between
nucleus and cytoplasm.
● Nucleolus - spherical body that
produces ribosomes.
● Genes - the cell’s hereditary units,
control activities and structure of the
cell.
● Chromosomes - long molecules of
DNA combined with protein
molecules.
 histologist can recognize over 200
distinct human cell types under
the microscope and is able to
distinguish a cell from pancreatic
tissue as opposed to a cell from
the skin.
○ Each cell type has features
particular to its function.

THE FOUR BASIC TISSUES

● Of all the cells in the body, they
combine to make only 4 basic tissue
types:
1. Epithelial Tissues
○ Cover body surfaces and
form glands and line hollow
organs, body cavities, and
ducts.

THE TISSUE LEVEL OF

ORGANIZATION
TISSUES
● Tissues are a group of cells with a
common embryonic origin that
function together to carry out
specialized activities.
○ They include various types,
ranging from hard (bone) to
semisolid (fat) to liquid (blood).
2. Connective Tissues
○ Protect, support, and bind
organs.
- Fat is a type of C.T. that
stores energy.
- Red blood cells, white
blood cells, and platelets
are all C.T.

● Histology is the study of the

microscopic anatomy of cells and
tissues – it is a branch of pathology.
○ Of the 10 trillion cells in our
body, no single cell type can said
to be “typical”. A trained
3. Muscular Tissues
○ Generate the physical force
needed to make body
structures move. They also
 generate heat used by the
body.

4. Nervous Tissues
○ Detect changes in the body
and respond by generating
nerve impulses.

THE FOUR BASIC TISSUES

● Tissues of the body develop from
three primary germ layers: Endoderm,
Mesoderm, and Ectoderm
○ Epithelial tissues from all three
germ layers
○ C.T. and muscle are derived from
mesoderm.
○ Nervous tissue develops from
ectoderm.
● The basal layer of the epithelium
secretes a basal lamina; the underlying
C.T. secretes a reticular lamina.
○ Together the basal lamina and the
reticular lamina form a
non-cellular basement membrane
on which the epithelium sits.
● Epithelia are named according to the
shape of their cells, and the thickness
or arrangement of their layers (of
cells).

EPITHELIUM
● Epithelium is used to line surfaces and
form protective barriers. Epithelium
is also good at secreting things like
mucous, hormones, and other
substances .
● All epithelia have a free apical surface
● Naming epithelia according to shape
and an attached basal surface.
 ○ Squamous: flat, wide “paving
stone” cells
○ Cuboidal: Cells as tall as they are
wide
○ Columnar: Cells taller than they
are wide Simple Pseudostrat Stratified
● Naming epithelia according to squamous ified squamous
arrangement squamous

Simple Pseudostrat Stratified

cuboidal ified cuboidal
cuboidal

Simple Pseudostrat Stratified

columnar ified columnar
○ Simple: One layer. All cells in
columnar
contact with basement membrane
○ Pseudostratified: Appears to have transitional
layers, but in reality all cells go
from the apex to the base ● Simple Cuboidal Epithelium is
○ Stratified: Two or more layers. composed of a single layer of cube
Only basal layer in contact with shaped cells.
basement membrane ○ It is often found lining the tubules
● Naming Epithelia of the kidneys and many other
○ Three different cell shapes x three glands
different cell arrangements = nine
possibilities. Two of these are not
used. Add transitional (cells that
change shape), and we’re back up
to eight possible combinations.
○ If different shapes are present in
layers of cells, the epithelium is
always named by the shape of
● Simple Columnar Epithelium forms
cells in the apical (outermost)
a single layer of column-like cells, ±
layer.
cilia, ± microvilli, ± mucous (goblet
● Simple Squamous Epithelium is
cells).
composed of a single layer of flat cells
○ Goblet cells are simple columnar
found:
cells that have differentiated to
○ In the air sacs of lungs
acquire the ability to secrete
○ In the lining of blood vessels, the
mucous.
heart, and lymphatic vessels
○ In all capillaries, including those
of the kidney
○ As the major part of a serous
membrane

CLASSIFY EPITHELIUM BASED ON
SHAPE AND NUMBER OF LAYERS
EPITHELIUM
● Pseudostratified Columnar
Epithelium appears to have layers,
due to nuclei which are at various
depths. In reality, all cells are
attached to the basement membrane
in a single layer, but some do not
extend to the apical surface.
○ Ciliated tissue has goblet cells
that secrete mucous.
● Stratified Squamous Epithelium has
an apical surface that is made up of
squamous (flat) cells.
○ The other layers have different
shapes, but the name is based on
the apical layer.
○ The many layers are ideal for
protection against strong friction
forces.
● Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium has
an apical surface made up of two or
more layers of cube-shaped cells.
○ Locations include the sweat
glands and part of the ♂ urethra
● Stratified Columnar Epithelium is
very rare, and for our purposes, hardly
worth mentioning.
● The cells of Transitional Epithelium
change shape depending on the state
of stretch in the tissue.
○ The apical “dome cells” of the top
layer (seen here in relaxation) are
an identifiable feature and signify
an empty bladder .
○ In a full bladder, the cells are
flattened.

CLASSIFY EPITHELIUM BASED ON
SHAPE AND NUMBER OF LAYERS
EPITHELIUM
● Although epithelia are found
throughout the body, certain ones are
associated with specific body
locations.
○ Stratified squamous epithelium is
a prominent feature of the outer
layers of the skin.
○ Simple squamous makes up
epithelial membranes and lines
the blood vessels.
○ Columnar is common in the
digestive tract.
○ Pseudostratified ciliated columnar
is characteristic of the upper
respiratory tract.
○ Transitional is found in the
bladder.
○ Cuboidal lines ducts and sweat
glands.
COVERING AND LINING
EPITHELIUM
● Endothelium is a specialized simple
squamous epithelium that lines the
entire circulatory system from the
heart to the smallest capillary – it is
extremely important in reducing
turbulence of flow of blood.
● Mesothelium is found in serous
membranes such as the pericardium,
pleura, and peritoneum.
○ Unlike other epithelial tissue,
both are derived from embryonic
mesoderm (the middle layer of
the 3 primary germ layers of the
embryo).
CONNECTIVE TISSUE
● Connective Tissues are the most
abundant and widely distributed
tissues in the body – they are also the
most heterogeneous of the tissue
groups.
○ They perform numerous
functions:
- Bind tissues together
- Support and strengthen tissue
- Protect and insulate internal
organs
- Compartmentalize and
transport
 - Energy reserves and immune substance” which varies from one
responses C.T. to another.
● Collagen is the main protein of C.T.
and the most abundant protein in
the body, making up about 25% of
total protein content.
● Connective tissue is usually highly
vascular and supplied with many
nerves.
○ The exception is cartilage and
tendon - both have little or no
blood supply and no nerves.
● Of the other common C.T. cells:
○ Chondrocytes make the various
cartilaginous C.T.
○ Adipocytes store triglycerides.
○ Osteocytes make bone.
○ White blood cells are part of the
blood.

● Although they are a varied group, all

C.T. share a common “theme”:
○ Sparse cells
○ Surrounded by an extracellular
matrix
● The extracellular matrix is a
non-cellular material located between
and around the cells.
○ It consists of protein fibers and
ground substance (the ground
substance may be fluid, semifluid,
gelatinous, or calcified.)

CELLS OF CONNECTIVE TISSUES

● Common C.T. cells:
○ Fibroblasts are the most
numerous cell of connective
tissues. These cells secrete
protein fibers (collagen, elastin, &
reticular fibers) and a “ground

CONNECTIVE TISSUES
● There are 5 types of white blood cells
(WBCs):
1. Macrophages are the “big eaters”
that swallow and destroy invaders
or debris. They can be fixed or
wandering.
2. Neutrophils are also macrophages
(“small eaters”) that are numerous
in the blood.
3. Mast cells and Eosinophils play
an important role in
inflammation.
4. Lymphocytes secrete antibody
proteins and attack invaders.
● C.T. cells secrete 3 common fibers:
1. Collagen fibers
2. Elastin fibers
3. Reticular fibers
● This graphic represents a collage of
different C.T. elements (cells and
fibers) and not a specific C.T.
CONNECTIVE TISSUE
CLASSIFICATION
● Embryonic Connective Tissue
○ Mesenchyme
○ Mucous connective tissue
● Mature Connective Tissue
○ Loose connective tissue
○ Dense connective tissue
○ Cartilage
○ Bone
○ Liquid
EMBRYONIC CONNECTIVE
TISSUES
● There are 2 Embryonic Connective
Tissues:
○ Mesenchyme gives rise to all
other connective tissues.
○ Mucous C.T. (Wharton's Jelly) is
a gelatinous substance within the
umbilical cord and is a rich
source of stem cells.
MATURE CONNECTIVE TISSUES ○ It provides strength when forces
● Loose Connective Tissues are pulling from many different
○ Areolar Connective Tissue is the directions.
most widely distributed in the
body. It contains several types of
cells and all three fiber types.
- It is used to attach skin and
underlying tissues, and as a
packing between glands, ○ Dense Regular Connective
muscles, and nerves. Tissue comprise tendons,
ligaments, and other strong
attachments where the need for
strength along one axis is
mandatory (a muscle pulling on a
bone).
○ Adipose tissue is located in the
subcutaneous layer deep to the
skin and around organs and joints.
- It reduces heat loss and
serves as padding and as an
energy source. ○ Elastic Connective Tissue
consists predominantly of
fibroblasts and freely branching
elastic fibers.
- It allows stretching of certain
tissues like the elastic arteries
(the aorta).
○ Reticular Connective Tissue is a
network of interlacing reticular
fibers and cells.
- It forms a scaffolding used
by cells of lymphoid tissues
such as the spleen and
● Cartilage is a tissue with poor blood
lymph nodes.
supply that grows slowly. When
injured or inflamed, repair is slow.
○ Hyaline Cartilage is the most
abundant type of cartilage; it
covers the ends of long bones and
parts of the ribs, nose, trachea,
● Dense Connective Tissues
bronchi, and larynx.
○ Dense Irregular Connective
- It provides a smooth surface
Tissue consists predominantly of
for joint movement
fibroblasts and collagen fibers
randomly arranged.
 ● Blood and Lymph are atypical liquid
connective tissues that we will study
in Chapters 19 and 22. As we have
seen, blood has many cells. It also has
fibers (such as fibrin that makes blood
clot).
○ Fibrocartilage, with its thick
bundles of collagen fibers, is a
very strong, tough cartilage.
- Fibrocartilage discs in the
intervertebral spaces and the
knee joints support the huge
loads up and down the long
axis of the body.
SUMMARY OF MATURE
CONNECTIVE TISSUES

○ Elastic Cartilage consists of

chondrocytes located in a
threadlike network of elastic
fibers.
- It makes up the malleable
part of the external ear and
the epiglottis
● Bone is a connective tissue with a
calcified intracellular matrix. In the
right circumstances, the chondrocytes
of cartilage are capable of turning into
the osteocytes that make up bone
tissue.
MUSCLE AND NERVE TISSUES
● Muscles and nerve tissues are the last
of the 4 basic tissue types. Neurons
and muscle fibers are considered
excitable cells because they exhibit
electrical excitability, the ability to
respond to certain stimuli by
producing electrical signals such as
action potentials.
○ Action potentials can propagate
(travel) along the plasma
membrane of a neuron or muscle
fiber due to the presence of
specific voltage-gated ion
channels.
● Each will be studied in depth in
upcoming chapters.
 ○ Respiratory tract
○ Reproductive tract
● Serous membranes line some internal
surfaces:
○ Parietal layer next to body wall
○ Serous fluid between layers
○ Visceral layer next to organ
● Skin as a cutaneous membrane

EPITHELIAL MEMBRANES
● Combining two tissues creates an
organ. However, most of the organs
and all of the organs systems studied
this year contain all 4 basic types of SYNOVIAL MEMBRANES
tissues. ● Synovial membranes enclose certain
○ Epithelial membranes are the joints and are made of connective
simplest organs in the body, tissue only.
constructed of only epithelium
and a little bit of connective
tissue.

GLANDS
● Epithelial Glands are another
example of simple organs
● Epithelial membranes = epithelium +
○ Glands that secrete their contents
connective tissue
directly into the blood are called
○ Mucous membranes
endocrine glands.
○ Serous membranes
○ Glands that secrete their contents
○ Cutaneous membrane = skin
into a lumen or duct are called
exocrine glands.

EXOCRINE GLANDS
● Exocrine glands secrete substances
through ducts to the surface of the
● Mucous membranes line “interior” skin or into the lumen of a hollow
body surfaces open to the outside: organ.
○ Digestive tract
 ○ Secretions of the exocrine gland
include mucus, sweat, oil,
earwax, saliva, and digestive
enzymes.
● Examples of exocrine glands are
sudoriferous (sweat) glands.
● The criteria for categorizing
multicellular glands according to
function is based on the manner in
which the gland secretes its product
from inside the cell to the outside
environment.
○ Merocrine
○ Apocrine
○ Holocrine
● Merocrine secretion is the most
common manner of secretion.
○ The gland releases its product by
exocytosis and no part of the
gland is lost or damaged.
● Apocrine Glands “bud” their
secretions off through the plasma
membrane, producing
membrane-bound vesicles in the
lumen of the gland.
○ The end of the cell breaks off by
“decapitation”, leaving a milky,
viscous odorless fluid.
○ This type of sweat only develops a
strong odor when it comes into
contact with bacteria on the skin
surface.
● Holocrine secretions are produced by
rupture of the plasma membrane,
releasing the entire cellular contents
into the lumen and killing the cell
(cells are replaced by rapid division of
stem cells.)
○ The sebaceous gland is an
example of a holocrine gland,
because its secretion (sebum) is
released with remnants of dead
cells.
TISSUE REPAIR
● A convenient way to refer to certain
cells when discussing a tissue is
Parenchyma or Stroma.
○ The parenchymal cells of an
organ consist of that tissue which
conducts the specific function of
the organ. Cells of the stroma are
everything else—connective
tissue, blood vessels, nerves.
● For example: The parenchyma of the
heart is cardiac muscle cells. The
nerves, intrinsic blood vessels, and
connective tissue of the heart
comprise the stroma.
● Parenchyma is interesting. Because
organ-specific function usually centers
on parenchymal cells (“how’s your
 heart working?”), histological and
physiological descriptions of the
tissues of an organ often emphasize
parenchyma.
● Unfortunately, stroma is commonly
ignored as just boring background
tissue. No organ, however, can
function without the mechanical and
nutritional support provided by the
stroma.
● When tissue damage is extensive,
return to homeostasis depends on
active repair of both parenchymal
cells and stroma.
○ Fibroblasts divide rapidly.
○ New collagen fibers are
manufactured.
○ New blood capillaries supply
materials for healing.
● All of these processes create an
actively growing connective tissue
called granulation tissue.

AGING AND TISSUES

● Tissue heals faster in young adults.
● Surgery of a fetus normally leaves no
scars.
● Young tissues have a better nutritional
state, blood supply, and higher
metabolic rate.
● Extracellular components also change
with age.
● Changes in the body’s use of glucose,
collagen, and elastic fibers contribute
to the aging process.