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MATHEMATICS
General Education
I. FUNDAMENTALS OF MATH

Real Numbers
o Rational – numbers that are in rational form
 Fractions (n/m, where n & m are whole numbers)
 Mixed (1 ½)
 Proper (1/2)
 Improper (3/2)
 Decimals
 Repeating
 Terminating
 Integers
 Natural (counting numbers/positive whole numbers)
o Odd (2n + 1)
o Even (2n)
 Negative whole numbers
 Zero (0)
About the Number Zero
What is zero? Is it a number? How can the number of nothing be a number? Is zero nothing, or is it something?
Well, before this starts to sound like a Zen koan, let’s look at how we use the numeral “0.” Arab and Indian scholars were the first to use
zero to develop the place-value number system that we use today. When we write a number, we use only the ten numerals 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
6, 7, 8, and 9. These numerals can stand for ones, tens, hundreds, or whatever depending on their position in the number. In order for this
to work, we have to have a way to mark an empty place in a number, or the place values won’t come out right. This is what the numeral “0”
does. Think of it as an empty container, signifying that that place is empty. For example, the number 302 has 3 hundreds, no tens, and 2
ones.
So is zero a number? Well, that is a matter of definition, but in mathematics we tend to call it a duck if it acts like a duck, or at least if it’s
behavior is mostly duck-like. The number zero obeys most of the same rules of arithmetic that ordinary numbers do, so we call it a number.
It is a rather special number, though, because it doesn’t quite obey all the same laws as other numbers—you can’t divide by zero, for
example.
Note for math purists: In the strict axiomatic field development of the real numbers, both 0 and 1 are singled out for special treatment. Zero
is the additive identity, because adding zero to a number does not change the number. Similarly, 1 is the multiplicative identity because
multiplying a number by 1 does not change it.

o Irrational – numbers that cannot be written in fractional form

 Non-terminating & Non-repeating
o Pi (π) = 3.141516…
o √2 = 1.00456…
 Prime numbers – a whole number whose divisor are 1 and itself only
2 3 5 7 11 13 17 19 23 29 31 37 41 43 47 53 59 61 67
10 10 10 10 11 12 13 13 13 14 15 15 16
71 73 79 83 89 97
1 3 7 9 3 7 1 7 9 9 1 7 3
16 17 17 18 19 19 19 19 21 22 22 22 23 23 24 25 25 26 26
7 3 9 1 1 3 7 9 1 3 7 9 3 9 1 1 7 3 9
27 27 28 28 29 30 31 31 31 33 33 34 34 35 35 36 37 37 38
1 7 1 3 3 7 1 3 7 1 7 7 9 3 9 7 3 9 3
38 39 40 40 41 42 43 43 43 44 44 45 46 46 46 47 48 49 49
9 7 1 9 9 1 1 3 9 3 9 7 1 3 7 9 7 1 9
50 50 52 52 54 54 55 56 56 57 57 58 59 59 60 60 61 61 61
3 9 1 3 1 7 7 3 9 1 7 7 3 9 1 7 3 7 9

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 63 64 64 64 65 65 66 67 67 68 69 70 70 71 72 73 73 74 75
1 1 3 7 3 9 1 3 7 3 1 1 9 9 7 3 9 3 1
75 76 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 82 82 82 83 85 85 85 86 87 88
7 1 9 3 7 7 9 1 1 3 7 9 9 3 7 9 3 7 1
88 88 90 91 91 92 93 94 94 95 96 97 97 98 99 99
3 7 7 1 9 9 7 1 7 3 7 1 7 3 1 7
List of Prime Numbers up to 1000
 Composite number – a whole number that has at least one other divisor or factor aside from 1 and itself.
 Special numbers - Zero and one are neither prime nor composite.
 Place Value – positional notation of every digit in a number
o Whole numbers
 Ones, tens, hundreds. Thousands, …
o w/ decimal point
 tenths, hundredths, thousandths…
 Rounding Numbers
o often done on purpose to obtain a value that is easier to write and handle than the original.
o Identify the number in the place value and look for the digit before the number in place value.
o If the digit is >= 5, add one to the digit on the place value and change the remaining numbers into zero (0)
o If the digit is < 5, retain the value of the number and change all the numbers after the place value to zero (0)
 Addition
o Sum
o Plus, more than, added by, increased by
o +
 Subtraction
o Difference
o Minus, less than, subtracted by, increased by
o -
 Multiplication
o Product
o Doubled, twice of, multiplied by, multiple of, of
o x, *, ( )
 Division
o Quotient
o Halved, grouped by, divided by
o /,_,
 Inverse
o Multiplicative inverse
 Multiplicative identity à 1
 axb=1
o Additive inverse
 Additive identity à 0
a+b = 0
 Property of Numbers
o Commutative Property
o Associative Property
o Transitive Property
o Distributive Property
o Identity
o Reflexive Property
 Greatest Common Factor GCF – the GCF of two or more numbers is the product of all the common prime factors of the numbers under
considerations.
 Least Common Multiple LCM – the LCM of two or more numbers is the smallest number that is divisible by all given numbers. It is the product
of all unique factors of the given numbers taken and the highest power in which each occurs.
 Divisibility laws - An integer is divisible a number(integer)if it can be divided exactly by the number, that is, the
remainder after diving is zero.
 An integer is divisible by 2 if it ends with 0, 2, 4, 6, or 8, which means that the number is even. A number that is
not divisible by 2 is odd.
 An integer is divisible by 3 if the sum of the digits is divisible by 3. Example: 21345
 An integer is divisible by 4 if the last two digits form a number which is divisible by 4. Example: 11312
 An integer is divisible by 5 if it ends with either 0 or 5. Example: 2000010, 345675
 An integer is divisible by six if it is divisible by both 2 and 3. Example: 1233408
 An integer is divisible by 7 if the number represented without its units digit minus twice the units digit of the
original integer, is divisible by 7. Example: 581 because 58 – 2(1) = 56 (56 is divisible by 7)
 An integer is divisible by 8 it the last 3 digits from a number which divisible by 8. Example: 4572128
 An integer is divisible by 9 if the sum of the digits is divisible by 9. Example 2312343
 An integer is divisible by 10 if its last digit is 0.
 Ratio
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 o a comparison between two different things.
o a:b (a is to b)
o a/b
o a – antedecent, b - consquent
 Proportion
o two ratios that have been set equal to each other
o a:b = c:d
o a/b=c/d

P
o extremes & means
 Percentage
o the part of the base determined by the rate

RB
 Rate
o specific kind of ratio (in %)
 Base
o the whole number on which the rate operates
 Formula: P = RB
FORMULAS
Figures Area (A) Perimeter (P) Figures Volume (V)
V = (area of the base)(height)
Rectangle A = lw P = 2l + 2w Prisms
V = lwh
Parallelogram A = bh P = add all sides Cube V=
A = bh
Rhombus P = 4s Cylinder V=
A=

Square A= P = 4s Sphere V=

Triangle P = add all sides Right circular cone V=

A=

A =
Trapezoid P = add all sides Pyramid V= (area of the base) (height)

Circle A= C= Square pyramid V=

sphere

II. PLANE GEOMETRY

A. Parallel and Perpendicular Lines

Parallel Lines are distinct lines lying in the same plane

and they never intersect each other. Parallel lines have
the same slope. In the figure, lines PQ and RS are
parallel and the lines l and m are parallel.

Perpendicular Lines are lines that intersect at right angles.

If two lines are perpendicular to each other, then the product Cylinde
of their slopes is equal to – 1. In the figure shown, the lines r
AB and EF are perpendicular to each other.

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B. Angles and Its Properties
An angle is the union of two rays with the same endpoint.
 A zero angle is where the two rays share the same points and coincide. They thus appear to be a single ray. It is so named
because of its zero angle measure.
 An acute angle is one whose measure is strictly between zero and 90°.
 A right angle is one whose measure is exactly 90°. On a drawing the symbol can be used to label two rays or segments as
perpendicular (at right angles). In symbols we write that one line or segment is perpendicular to another using the symbol .
 An obtuse angle is one whose measure is strictly between 90° and 180°.
 A straight angle is one in which both rays are opposite and form a [straight] line. Its measure is 180°.
 Adjacent angles are angles which share a side or ray.
 A pair of complementary angles sum to 90°.
 A pair of supplementary angles sum to 180°.
 A linear pair of angles is both supplementary and adjacent.
 Vertical angles share a vertex and are formed by extending each ray though the vertex.

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 C. Triangles and Quadrilaterals
 Triangles
1) Acute triangle – is a triangle in which all angles are acute
2) Right triangle – is a triangle in which one of the angles is a right angle
3) Obtuse triangle – is a triangle in which one of the angles is obtuse
4) Equiangular triangle – is a triangle in which all the
angles are congruent
5) Scalene triangle – is a triangle with no congruent sides
6) Isosceles triangle – is a triangle with at least two
congruent sides
7) Equilateral triangle – is a triangle with all sides congruent
 Quadrilaterals
1) Parallelogram – is a quadrilateral with two pairs of parallel sides
2) Rectangle – is a parallelogram with four right angles
3) Square – is a rectangle with four congruent sides
4) Rhombus – is a parallelogram with four congruent sides
5) Trapezoid – is a quadrilateral with exactly one pair of
parallel side

D. Polygons
A polygon is a closed plane figure made of three or more sides.
 Regular Polygon - A polygon that has all sides equal Number of sides Name of polygon
and all interior angles equal. 3 triangle
 Irregular Polygon - Any polygon that is not a regular 4 quadrilateral
polygon. A polygon whose sides are not all the same 5 pentagon
length or whose interior angles do not all have the 6 hexagon
same measure. 7 heptagon
 Convex Polygon - A polygon that has all interior 8 octagon
angles less than 180°. 9 nonagon
 Concave Polygon - A polygon that has one or more 10 decagon
interior angles greater than 180°. 12 dodecagon

III. ELEMENTARY ALGEBRA

 An algebraic expression is one or more algebraic terms in a phrase. It can include variables, constants, and operating symbols, such as
plus and minus signs.
 In algebraic expressions, letters represent variables. These letters are actually numbers in disguise.
 Coefficients are the number part of the terms with variables.
 Constants are the terms in the algebraic expression that contain only numbers. That is, they're the terms without variables.
 Monomial
 one of two different things (3x)
 Binomial
 the sum/difference of two monomials (3)x + 3y
 Polynomial
 an expression constructed from variables and constants using only the operations. (3x2+3y+3)
 Linear
 Linear equation (y=x+1)
 Linear inequality (x+1 > 0)
 Quadratic (3x2+3x+3)
 Cubic (3x3+ 3x2+3x+3)
 Laws of Exponents
Law Example
x1 = x 61 = 6
x0 = 1 70 = 1
x-1 = 1/x 4-1 = 1/4
xmxn = xm+n x2x3 = x2+3 = x5
xm/xn = xm-n x6/x2 = x6-2 = x4
(xm)n = xmn (x2)3 = x2×3 = x6
(xy)n = xnyn (xy)3 = x3y3
(x/y)n = xn/yn (x/y)2 = x2 / y2
x-n = 1/xn x-3 = 1/x3
And the law about Fractional Exponents:

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  Distance Formula: Given the two points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2), the distance between these points is given by

the formula

 The Midpoint Formula is

 To find the slope, you use the formula

IV. ADVANCED ALGEBRA & TRIGONOMETRY

A. Radicals and Radical Functions

Radicals – also known as root is the reverse of raising a number to an exponent. For example, the square root of 16
is a radical, (4 to the second power).
Radical Sign – the root symbol. It typically indicates the non-negative root of the number under it. This symbol is
called a radical.
Square Root – Given a positive real number B, its square root is the real number A such that A 2 = B. If B is positive,
there are two square roots – one positive, one negative (i.e., square root of 36 is 6 and -6).
o The positive square root is called the principal square root of a number.
o The number under a radical sign is the radicand.
o The square root of zero is zero.
o The square root of any negative number is not a real number because no number multiplied by it will yield
a negative.
Nth Roots – Given a positive real number b, its nth root is expressed as is the real number a, such that an = b.
Negative radicands can have real number n roots, as long as the n is an odd number.
th

B. Linear, Quadratic, and Cubic Functions

These are names for functions of first, second and third order polynomial functions, respectively. What this means is
that the highest order of x (the variable) in the function is 1, 2 or 3.
 The generalized form for a linear function (1 is highest power):
f(x) = ax+b, where a and b are constants, and a is not equal to 0.
 The generalized form for a quadratic function (2 is highest power):
f(x) = ax2+bx+c, where a, b and c are constants, and a is not equal to 0.
 The generalized form for a cubic function (3 is highest power):
f(x) = ax3+bx2+cx+d, where a, b, c and d are constants, and a is not equal to 0.

C. The Unit Circle

- a tool used in understanding sines and cosines of angles found in right triangles. It is so named because its radius is
exactly one unit in length, usually just called "one". The circle's center is at the origin, and its circumference comprises the
set of all points that are exactly one unit from the origin while lying in the plane. Defined by the equation x2 + y2 = 1.

Coterminal Angles - are angles in standard position

(angles with the initial side on the positive x-axis)
that have a common terminal side.
For example 30°, –330° and 390° are all coterminal.

Reference Angle - is the positive acute angle that can represent an angle of any measure. Basically, any angle on the
x-y plane has a reference angle, which is always between 0 and 90 degrees. The reference angle is always
the smallest angle that you can make from the terminal side of an angle (i.e. where the angle ends) with the
x-axis. A reference angle always uses the x-axis as its frame of reference.

Quadrantal Angles - an angle in standard position with terminal side lying on x-axis or y-axis.

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D. Trigonometric Ratios
- the relationships between the angles and the sides of a right triangle are expressed in terms of TRIGONOMETRIC
RATIOS
The-ratios are defined as follows:

E. Conversion (Degree to Radian and Vice Versa)

Degrees to radians
The general formula for converting from degrees to radians is to simply multiply the number of degree by Π /180°
Example:
Convert 200° into radian measure:
200° (Π/180°) = 200/180Π radians or 3.49 radians
Radians to degrees
The general formula for converting from degrees to radians is to simply multiply the number of degree by 180°/(Π)
Example:
Convert 1.4 radians into degrees: 1.4 (180°/Π) = 80.2 °

V. PLANE & SOLID GEOMETRY

FORMULAS
Figures Area (A) Perimeter (P) Figures Volume (V)
V = (area of the base)(height)
Rectangle A = lw P = 2l + 2w Prisms
V = lwh
Parallelogram A = bh P = add all sides Cube V=
A = bh
Rhombus P = 4s Cylinder V=
A=

Square A= P = 4s Sphere V=

Triangle P = add all sides Right circular cone V=

A=

A= V= (area of the base)

Trapezoid P = add all sides Pyramid
(height)

Circle A= C= Square pyramid V=

Triangles - A three sided polygon

 Acute triangle – is a triangle in which all angles are acute
 Right triangle – is a triangle in which one of the angles is a right angle
 Obtuse triangle – is a triangle in which one of the angles is obtuse
 Equiangular triangle – is a triangle in which all the angles are congruent
 Scalene triangle – is a triangle with no congruent sides
 Isosceles triangle – is a triangle with at least two congruent sides
 Equilateral triangle – is a triangle with all sides congruent
Quadrilaterals – a four sided polygon
 Parallelogram – is a quadrilateral with two pairs of parallel sides
 Rectangle – is a parallelogram with four right angles
 Square – is a rectangle with four congruent sides
 Rhombus – is a parallelogram with four congruent sides
 Trapezoid – is a quadrilateral with exactly one pair of parallel sides
Circle – is the set of all points in a plane with a given distance from a given point in the plane. The given point is called
the center
Cylinder – is a solid figure with two circular bases that are congruent and parallel
Cone – is a solid figure with one circular base and a vertex
Sphere – is a set of all points in space that are of the same distance from a given point called the center.
Rectangular prism – is a polyhedron with two rectangular base that are congruent and parallel
Triangular prism – is a polyhedron with two triangular bases that are congruent and parallel
Rectangular pyramid – is a polyhedron with one rectangular base and four triangular faces
Triangular pyramid – is a polyhedron with one base and three triangular faces
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Triangle congruence
1. Side-Angle-Side (SAS) - If two sides in one triangle are congruent to two sides of a second triangle, and also if the
included angles are congruent, then the triangles are congruent.
2. Side- Side-Side (SSS) - If 3 sides in one triangle are congruent to 3 sides of a second triangle, then the triangles are
congruent.
3. Angle-Side-Angle (ASA) - If two angle in one triangle are congruent to two angles of a second triangle, and also if the
included sides are congruent, then the triangles are congruent.

Triangle similarity
1. SSS similarity theorem -Triangles are similar if all three sides in one triangle are in the same proportion to the
corresponding sides in the other.
2. AAA similarity theorem - Triangles are similar if the measure of all three interior angles in one triangle is the same as
the corresponding angles in the other.
3. AA similarity theorem - Triangles are similar if the measure of the two interior angles in one triangle is the same as
the corresponding angles in the other.
4. SAS similarity theorem - Triangles are similar if two sides in one triangle are in the same proportion to the
corresponding sides in the other, and the included angles are equal.

VI. ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

Coordinate System /Cartesian coordinate System/Rectangular Coordinate System

- systematized by Rene Descartes (17th century French Mathematician)
- composed of two coplanar perpendicular number lines
o x – axis – horizontal number line
o y – axis – vertical number line
 origin – intersection point of x – axis and y – axis
 quadrants – regions formed as x – axis and y – axis intersect at the origin
 quadrant I
 quadrant II
 quadrant III
 quadrant IV
 ordered pair – set of two well – ordered real numbers called coordinates
 coordinates – numerical descriptive references of a point from the two axes
 x – coordinate/abscissa – first coordinate which corresponds to a real number on the x – axis
 y- coordinate/ordinate – second coordinate which corresponds to a real number on the y – axis

Slope
- measure of steepness of a line
- ratio of “rise” of the line to the “run” of the line

-
- If the slope is positive, the graph of a linear function points upward to the right, and the linear function increases
all throughout.
- If the slope is negative, the graph of a linear function points upward to the left, and the linear function decreases
all throughout.

Intercepts
 x – intercept
- abscissa of the point of intersection of the graph of a function and x – axis
- value of when
 y – intercept
- ordinate of the point of intersection of the graph of a function and the y – axis
- A – intercept of the function is .

Equation of Slopes
- Slope – Intercept Form : where

- Point – Slope Form : where

is a point

- Two – Point Form: where and

are points

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 - Intercepts Form: where
and
- Parallel Lines – equal slopes
- Perpendicular Lines – slope of one line is equal to the negative reciprocal of the slope of another line

VII. STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY

 Measure of Central Tendency
A. Mean – also known as the average. This value is obtained by adding all observation’s scores and dividing the sum by the number of
observation.
B. Median – when data is arranged in increasing order called an “ordered” array, the middle value or the five percentile is called the
median. This means that fifty percent of the data is below the median and fifty percent of the data is above. When the
number of observations is even the median is the average of the two middle numbers.
C. Mode – this is the number that occurs most often in the set of data.

 Permutation: an arrangement of all or part of a set of objects.

P(n, r) = n! / (n – r)!

 Combination: is concerned with selecting r objects from n without regard to order.

C(n, r) = n! / r! (n – r)!

 The number of permutations of n distinct objects is n!.

 The number of permutations of n distinct objects arranged in a circle is (n – 1)!.
 The number of distinct permutations of n things of which n1 are of one kind, n2 of a second kind, …, nk of a kth kind is n! / n1!n2!...nk!
 The number of ways of partitioning a set of n objects into r cells with n1 elements in the first cell, n2 elements in the second cell, and so
on, is n! / n1!n2!...nr!

Prepared by: Mr. Ken Abraham E. Saluta, LT, MSciEd Math (CAR) kensaluta@gmail.com LET March 2012

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