Fundamentals of Machining & Cutting Tools

Machining Processes
Fundamentals of Machining
Thursday, March 3, 2016
Dr. Ian Polyzois

MECH 3542: Engineering Materials 2
Machining Processes
Today’s Topics
Fundamentals of Machining
• Introduction to the Types of Machining Processes
• Introduction to Machining Tools
• Machine Tool Fundamentals
• Chatter & Vibration during Machining
Cutting Tools for Machining
Reference: Chapter 20 & 21 in “DeGarmo’s Materials and

Processes in Manufacturing” by J.T. Black and R.A. Kohser,
11th Edition, John Wiley & Sons, 2012
Thursday, March 3, 2016 MECH 3542 2

Machining Processes
Introduction
What is Machining?
• Machining is a process of removing unwanted material
from a workpiece in the form of chips
• For metals this is called metal cutting
• Machining is affected by:
– Prior work hardening of the material
– Properties of the materials
– Type of cutting tool (geometry, material, tool wear, temperature)
– Cutting fluids, chatter and vibration
– High strains and strain rates involved

Machining Processes
Fundamentals
• Machining Inputs:
– The machine tool selected to perform the process
– The cutting tool selected (geometry & Material)
– The properties and parameters of the workpiece
– The cutting parameters selected (speed, feed, depth
of cut)
– The work piece holding devices, fixtures, or jigs

Machining Processes
FIGURE 20-1 The fundamental inputs and outputs to

machining processes.

Machining Processes
Basic Chip Forming Processes

• 7 Types:
1) Turning
2) Drilling
3) Milling
4) Grinding
5) Sawing
6) Planing or Shaping
7) Broaching

Machining Processes
Types of Chip Forming Processes
• Turning is an example of a single-point tool process, as is shaping

• Milling and Drilling are examples of multiple-point processes

Machining Processes
Lathe (Turning, Boring, Facing, Grooving, parting or cutoff)
FIGURE 20-3 Turning a cylindrical workpiece on a lathe requires you to select the cutting speed, feed, and
depth of cut.

Machining Processes
Turning
• Turning is the most common operation done on a lathe

• Turning is a type of single-point cutting

Machining Processes
Types of Turning
• Straight Turning – tool is fed
parallel to the axis of the work to
reduce its diameter so that the
final diameter is the same at
each end
• Rough Turning – removing a

significant amount of material in
one pass
• Finish Turning – Finer lighter

cut that creates a smoother
surface finish

Machining Processes
Types of Turning
• Taper Turning – produces a taper along the axis of the
workpiece
– Tapers are produced by offsetting the tailstock from centerline or
by using a taper attachment
– Short steep tapers can be turned using a compound rest
• Contour Turning (Profiling) – originally performed by
having the single point cutting tool trace a template of
the desired profile shape
– Replaced by CNC turning in which the desired contour is
programmed into the machine which directs a cutting tool to cut
the contour

Machining Processes
Lathe Machining Parameters

Speed (V):
• Velocity of the cutting tool
relative to the workpiece
• Primary cutting motion (cutting
speed)
• Units: surface feet per minute
(sfpm); in/min, m/min; m/s
𝜋𝜋𝐷𝐷1 𝑁𝑁𝑆𝑆
𝑉𝑉 =
12
• D1 = initial diameter of workpiece
• NS = revolutions per minute of the
workpiece (rpm) programmed into
the lathe

Machining Processes

Feed (fr):
• The amount of material
removed per revolution or
per pass of the tool over
the workpiece
• In turning it’s in
inches/revolution and the
tool feeds parallel to the
rotational axis of the
workpiece

Machining Processes

Depth of Cut (DOC):
• In turning it is the distance
the tool is plunged into the
surface
• Equal to half the difference
in the initial diameter, D1,
and the final diameter D2:
𝐷𝐷1 − 𝐷𝐷2
𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 = = 𝑑𝑑
2

Machining Processes
• Lathe Input Parameters:

– DOC
– Feed Rate
– Rpm of the spindle
• Calculated Variables:
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
– Metal Removal Rate (MRR) ≅ 12𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓𝑟𝑟 𝑑𝑑 =
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇
𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶+𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
– Cutting Time (mins) =
𝑓𝑓𝑟𝑟 𝑁𝑁𝑠𝑠

Machining Processes
Relationship Between Speed, Feed, and DOC

Machining Processes
Other Lath Operations – Boring

Machining Processes
Other Lath Operations – Chamfering
Cutting edge of tool removes

material at an angle on the
outer edge of cylindrical
workpiece or the inside edge
of a hole forming a chamfer

Machining Processes
Other Lath Operations – Facing

Machining Processes
Other Lath Operations – Grooving

Machining Processes
Turning & The Lathe https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8EsAxOnzEms

Machining Processes
Drilling

Machining Processes
Drill Press
Image Source:
http://www.molpage.org/2015/11/the-
best-drill-press-buyers-guide/

Machining Processes
Milling

Machining Processes

Machining Processes
Milling Machine
Horizontal Milling Machine

Machining Processes
Grinding

Machining Processes
Grinding
http://www.krebs-riedel.de/start.php?left=slv_nav&main=slv&lang=en

Machining Processes
Grinding Tools
• Hand Grinder

Machining Processes
Grinding Tools
• Bench Grinder

Machining Processes
Grinding Tools
• Floor Mounted Grinding
Machine

Machining Processes
Grinding Tools
• Reciprocating
Surface
Grinding
Machine

Machining Processes
Sawing

Machining Processes
Sawing Tools
• Hand Saw (wood)
• Hacksaw (metals)
• Rotary Saw
• Reciprocating Saw
• Table Saw

Machining Processes
Sawing Tools
• Vertical & Horizontal Band Saw
http://www.baileigh.com/

Machining Processes
Planing & Shaping
• Workpiece reciprocates against a stationary cutting tool producing a

plane or sculptured surface
• In shaping, the tool reciprocates across the stationary workpiece
• In planning, the workpiece reciprocates against a stationary tool

Machining Processes
Shaping Process

Machining Processes
Shaping Process https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BeXiX9xkHn8

Machining Processes
Broaching

Machining Processes
Reaming
A process that enlarges the

size of a previously formed
hole by a small amount but
with a high degree of accuracy
leaving smooth sides

Machining Processes

Machining Processes
Mechanics of Machining – Chatter & Vibration

• All workpieces vibrate to some degree during machining
• This vibration occurs in the elastic range of deformation
• Vibration or chatter are mechanisms by which a

machining process dissipates energy
• Rotational speed of a tool during machining greatly

affects the process stability and chatter

Machining Processes
Types of Vibration

Machining Processes
Types of Vibration

Machining Processes
Types of Vibration

Machining Processes
Mechanics of Machining – Chatter & Vibration

• Chatter –a self-excited vibration that is caused by the closed
loop force-displacement response of the machining process
during metal cutting
• When more energy is input into the dynamic machining

system, (e.g. increase in cutting velocity) that can be
dissipated by mechanical work, dampening, and friction,
equilibrium is achieved through the generation of chatter
• Typically detected by a change in sound

• Operators commonly listen to machining noise and modify the
speed of operation

Machining Processes
Chatter https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=swC1XdOIEvc

Machining Processes
Chatter Marks – Boring

Machining Processes
Chatter Marks – Turning

Machining Processes
Chatter Marks – Face Milling

Machining Processes
Chatter Marks – End Milling

Machining Processes
Factors Affecting Chatter

• Cutting Stiffness—material property related to shear flow
stress, hardness, and work hardening
– Defines the machinability of materials
• Speed— of the tool or workpiece

– Select a speed which eliminates chatter
• Feed— feed per tooth defines the average uncut chip

thickness and magnitude of cutting force
– controls the severity of the vibration

Machining Processes
Factors Affecting Chatter

• DOC— primary cause and control of chatter
– Defines the chip width
– Stability limit of machining can be determined by incrementally
increasing the DOC until onset of chatter
• Total width of chip = DOC multiplied by # cutting edges

engaged in cut
– Directly influences the stability of the process
– With a fixed DOC, increasing the number of cutting edges
decreases stability

Machining Processes
Cutting Tools for Machining (Ch. 21)

• Success in metal cutting depends on the selection of a proper
cutting tool
• Cutting materials include:

– High-carbon steels, low-/medium-alloy steels, high speed steels
– Cast cobalt alloys
– Cemented carbides, cast carbide, coated carbides
– Coated high-speed steels,
– Ceramics, cermets, whisker-reinforced ceramics
– SiALON (Silicon, Aluminum, Oxygen, Nitrogen) Ceramics
– Sintered polycrystalline cubic boron nitride (CBN)
– Sintered polycrystalline diamond, single-crystal natural diamond

Machining Processes
Cutting Tool Materials

Machining Processes
Parameters for Cutting Tool Material Selection

Parameters affecting tool material selection:
• Work material characteristics, hardness, chemical and
metallurgical state
• Part characteristics (geometry, accuracy, finish, and
surface-integrity requirements)
• Machine tool characteristics, including workholders
(adequate rigidity with high horsepower, and wide speed
and feed ranges)
• Support Systems (operator’s ability, sensors, controls,
method of lubrication, and chip removal)

Machining Processes

Machining Processes
Cutting Tool Material Properties

• Cutting forces are concentrated in small areas near the
cutting edge so these forces produce large pressures
• All tool material must be hard (to resist wear) and tough (to
resist cracking and chipping)
• Tools must also be able to withstand impact loading due to

interrupted cutting
• Tool materials must sustain their hardness at elevated

temperatures (maintain a hot-hardness) however high
hardness requires a trade-off with toughness

Machining Processes
High Temperature Properties of Cutting Tools

• Tool temperatures of 1000°C and high local stresses
require that the tool have the following characteristics:
– High Hardness even at high temperatures
– Resistance to abrasion, wear due to severe sliding friction
– Chipping of the cutting edges
– High toughness (impact strength)
– Strength to resist bulk deformation
– Good chemical stability (inertness or negligible affinity with the
work material)
– Adequate thermal properties
– High elastic modulus
– Correct geometry and surface finish

Machining Processes
Hardness of Various Cutting Tool Materials

Machining Processes

Machining Processes
Tool Steels
• Carbon steels and low-/medium-alloy steels, called tool
steels, were once the most common cutting tool
materials
• Plain-carbon steels of 0.90-1.30% carbon were

hardened and tempered to have good hardness and
strength and adequate toughness for cutting

Machining Processes
Tool Steels
• Alloying elements such as molybdenum and chromium
improve hardenability
• Tungsten and molybdenum improve wear resistance
• Tool steels lose hardness and temperature above 205°C

because of tempering and have largely been replaced by
other materials
• Consequently tool steels are used for in-expesive cutting

processes or low-speed cutting

Machining Processes
High-Speed Steels
• Retain cutting ability at temperatures up to 595°C
• Can operate at 2X, or 3X the cutting speed than normal

tool steels
• Contain significant amounts of tungsten, molybdenum,

cobalt, vanadium, and chromium alloying elements
• Have great toughness—superior transverse rupture

strength; easily fabricated by 3 methods: cast, wrought,
and sintered (PM)

Machining Processes
TiN-Coated High Speed Steels

• Coated high-speed steels provide significant
improvements in cutting speeds (10-20% increase)
• Used to make reamers, taps, broaches, bandsaw, and

circular saw blades, and an assortment of milling cutters
• Coating is deposited by physical vapor deposition
• Has reduced tool wear

Machining Processes
Cast Cobalt Alloys

• Known as stellite tools
– Cobalt rich, chromium-tungsten-carbon cast alloys
– Properties are intermediary between high-speed steel and
cemented carbides
• Retain their hardness to a much higher temperature than

high-speed steels
• Can be used at higher cutting speeds (25% higher) than

HSS

Machining Processes
Cast Cobalt Alloys

• Cast cobalt alloys are hard as cast and cannot be
softened or heat treated
• Contain a primary phase of cobalt-rich solid solution

strengthened by chromium and tungsten and dispersion
hardened by complex hard, refractory carbides of
tungsten and chromium

Machining Processes
Carbides or Sintered Carbides

• Carbides are nonferrous alloys which are sintered (or
cemented) by powder metallurgical techniques
• They are divided into 3 groups:

1) Tungsten carbide (used for machining cast iron, austenitic SS,
and nonferrous and non-metallic materials)
2) Tungsten alloyed with titanium, tantalum, columbium (used for

machining ferritic workpieces
3) Titanium carbide (used for finishing and semi-finishing ferrous

alloys)

Machining Processes
PM process for Making Cemented Carbides

Machining Processes
Coated Carbide Tools

• Coating tools can improve tool life 200-300%
• Coatings add abrasion resistance, hardness, and

provide chemical inertness to prevent the tool and
work from interacting chemically during cutting
• Coatings tend to be thin, chemically stable, hard and

refractory, and have a low coefficient of friction

Machining Processes
Coated Carbide Tools

• Coatings include: TiC, TiN, Al2O3, HfN, HfC
• Multiple coating combinations can also be used

– TiN/TiC/TiCN/TiN and TiC/Al2O3/TiN
• Coatings are made using Chemical Vapor

Deposition (CVD) or Physical Vapor Deposition
(PVD)

Machining Processes

Machining Processes

Machining Processes
Ceramics
• Made of pure aluminum oxide (Al2O3) or Al2O3 used as a
metallic binder
• Made using PM—very fine particles are formed into cutting

tips under a pressure of 267-396 MPa and sintered at about
1000°C
• Ceramics are in the form of disposable tips and operate at 2X-

3X the cutting speeds of tungsten carbide
• Almost completely resistant to cratering, can be run with no

coolant, and have about the same tool life at high speeds that
tungsten carbides have at low life

Machining Processes

Machining Processes
Cermets
• Used in finishing processes
• Made from ceramic TiC, nickel, cobalt, and tantalum
nitrides
• TiN and other carbides are sued for binders
• Have superior wear resistance, longer tool life, and can
operate at higher cutting speeds with superior wear
resistance
• Cermets have higher hot hardness and oxidation
resistance than cemented carbides
• Produced by cold pressing

Machining Processes
Diamonds
• Hardest known material
• Industrial diamonds are made of polycrystalline
compacts used to machine aluminum, bronze, and
plastics
• Diamond machining is done at high speeds
• Have good thermal conductivity; ability to form a sharp
edge of cleavage (single-crystal natural diamond); very
low friction; nonadherence to most materials; ability to
maintain a sharp edge for a long period of time

Machining Processes
Polycrystalline Cubic Boron Nitride (PCBN)

• Widely used in automotive industry for machining
hardened steels and superalloys
• Made in a similar fashion to sintered polycrystalline

diamonds
• Although not as hard as diamond, PCBN is less reactive

with materials such as hardened steels, hard-chill casti
iron, and nickel- and cobalt-based superalloys

Machining Processes

Machining Processes

Machining Processes
Tool-Coating Process
• Two most effective coating processes for improving life
and performance of tools are:
– Chemical Vapor Deposition
– Physical Vapor Deposition
• Coating materials include Titaniun Nitride (TiN), Titanium

Carbide (TiC), and Aluminum Oxide (Al2O3)

Machining Processes
Chemical Vapor Deposition

• An atmosphere-controlled process carried out at
temperatures between 950-1050C
• Cleaned tools ready to be coated are staged on

precoated graphite work trays and loaded onto a central
gas distribution column; then placed into the CVD
reactor
• The tools are heated under inert atmosphere until the

coating temperature is reached

Machining Processes
Chemical Vapor Deposition

• The coating cycle is initiated by the introduction of
titanium tetrachloride (TiCL4) vapor, hydrogen, and
methane (CH4) into the reactor.
TiCl4 + CH4  TiC + 4HCl
• To form titanium nitride, a nitrogen-hydrogen gas mixture

is substituted for methane:
2TiCl4 +2H2 + N2  2TiN + 4HCl

Machining Processes
Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) Process

Machining Processes
Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD)

• A substrate is coated by condensation of metal vapor
formed from a source material called the charge whish is
heated to a temperature just below 1000°C.
• Methods of PVD include reactive sputtering, reactive ion

plating, low-voltage electron-beam evaporation, triode
high-voltage electron beam evaporation, cathodic
evaporation, and arc evaporation.

Machining Processes

• A TiN coating is formed by reacting free titanium ions
with nitrogen away from the surface of the tool and
relying on a physical means to transport the coating onto
the tool surface

Machining Processes

Machining Processes
Differences between CVD and PVD

• CVD is done at higher temperatures so the adhesion of
coatings are superior to PVD
• CVD coatings are normally deposited thicker than PVD
• CVD coated tools must be heat treated after coating
• The CVD process is gaseous so it results in a tool that is
coated uniformly all over (including blind spots and
holes)
– PVD is a line of sight process
• PVD requires fixturing of each part

Machining Processes
Applications of CVD
• Loosely tolerance tooling
• Piercing and blanking punches, trim dies,

upsetting punches
• AISI A, D, H, M, and air-hardened and tool steel

parts
• Solid carbide tooling

Machining Processes
Applications of PVD
• All HSS, solid carbide, and carbide-tipped
cutting tools
• Fine blanking punches, dies (0.001 in. tolerance

or less)
• Non-composition dependent process; virtually all

tooling materials, including mold steels and
bronze

Machining Processes
Tool Failure and Tool Life

• Tool Failure is classified into two broad categories:
1) Physical Failures:
Flank wear—gradual tool wear on the flank(s) of the
tool below the cutting edge
Crater Wear—wear on the rake face of the tool
2) Chemical Failures:
mainly on the rake face of the tool

Machining Processes
Tool Failure and Tool Life

Machining Processes
Machinability
• The ease with which a metal can be machined to an
acceptable surface finish
• Based on Material Properties: the ease or difficulty with
which the metal can be machined
• Based on Tool Life: defined by the relative cutting speed
for a given tool life while cutting a material compared to a
standard material cut with the same tool material
• Based on Cutting Speed: dependent on the maximum
speed at which a tool can provide satisfactory
performance for a specified time under specified
conditions

Machining Processes
Machinability
• Machinability is also dependent on:
– the ease of removal of chips
– Quality of surface finish of the part
– Dimensional stability of the process
– Cost to remove a given volume of metal

Machining Processes
Cutting Fluids
• Traditionally water was used to lower the temperature of
machining and increase tool speeds and tool life
• Cutting fluids act as both a coolant and a lubricant
• carry away chips and reduce friction between tools and
workpieces
• Water causes rust and is not an effective lubricant but
has a good coolant capacity
• Oils offer a less effective coolant capacity but do not
cause rust and have some lubricant value

Machining Processes
Cutting Fluids
• Various chemicals are added to serve as wetting agents
or detergents, rust inhibitors, or polarizing agents to
promote the formation of a protective oil film
• Chip removal is important in heat removal so coolants

are added in large amounts and with great velocity

Machining Processes

Machining Processes
Next Topics
Turning and Boring Processes
• Fundamentals of Turning
• Types of Lathes & Terminology
• Workholding in Lathes
Reference: Chapter 22 in “DeGarmo’s Materials and

Processes in Manufacturing” by J.T. Black and R.A.
Kohser, 11th Edition, John Wiley & Sons, 2012

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Machining Processes

Thursday, March 3, 2016

Dr. Ian Polyzois

Reference: Chapter 20 & 21 in “DeGarmo’s Materials and

Thursday, March 3, 2016 MECH 3542 2

Thursday, March 3, 2016 MECH 3542 3

Thursday, March 3, 2016 MECH 3542 4

FIGURE 20-1 The fundamental inputs and outputs to

Thursday, March 3, 2016 MECH 3542 5

Basic Chip Forming Processes

Thursday, March 3, 2016 MECH 3542 6

Types of Chip Forming Processes

• Turning is an example of a single-point tool process, as is shaping

Thursday, March 3, 2016 MECH 3542 7

Lathe (Turning, Boring, Facing, Grooving, parting or cutoff)

Thursday, March 3, 2016 MECH 3542 8

• Turning is the most common operation done on a lathe

Thursday, March 3, 2016 MECH 3542 9

• Rough Turning – removing a

• Finish Turning – Finer lighter

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Lathe Machining Parameters

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Lathe Machining Parameters

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Lathe Machining Parameters

Thursday, March 3, 2016 MECH 3542 14

Lathe Machining Parameters

• Lathe Input Parameters:

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Relationship Between Speed, Feed, and DOC

Thursday, March 3, 2016 MECH 3542 16

Other Lath Operations – Boring

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Other Lath Operations – Chamfering

Cutting edge of tool removes

Thursday, March 3, 2016 MECH 3542 18

Other Lath Operations – Facing

Thursday, March 3, 2016 MECH 3542 19

Other Lath Operations – Grooving

Thursday, March 3, 2016 MECH 3542 20

Turning & The Lathe https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8EsAxOnzEms

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Fundamentals of Machining & Cutting Tools

Fundamentals of Machining & Cutting Tools

Fundamentals of Machining & Cutting Tools