72 BasiElectrical Engineering ee bemacings A de machine is a device that converts mechanical energy to electrical energy or vice ~ versa. DC machines are divided into two categories: (i) Generator (ii) Motor A generator is a machine that converts mechanical energy at its prime mover to produce electrical energy at its output. A motor is a machine that converts electrical energy at its input to produce mechanical energy. 72____ PRINCIPLE OF OPERATIONS A de generator is @ machine which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy, whereas a de motor is a machine which converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. Construction wise there is no basic difference between a de generator and a de motor. Any de machine can be used as a de generator or as a de motor. - Working Principle of a Generator When armature conductors are rotated externally in the magnetic field produced by field windings, an emf is induced in it according to Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction. This emf causes a current to flow which is alternating in nature. It is converted in unidirectional current by the commutator. Working Principal of a Motor When field winding is excited and armature conductors are connected across the supply, it experiences a mechanical force whose direction is given by Fleming’s left-hand rule. Because of this force, the armature starts rotating. It cuts the magnetic field and an emfis induced in the armature winding. As per Lenz’s law, this induced emf acts in the opposite direction to the armature supply voltage. This emf is known as back emf (£,). 7 CONSTRUCTION 7S ae ee ee ‘Adc machine, either a generator or a motor, essentially consists of the following main parts: (@ Field windings - ii) Armature core and armature windings (iii) Commutator (iv) Brushes A Field Windings ‘The ficld windings are mounted on the pole core and they produce altematenorth and south poles asseen in Fig, 7.1. The field windings forman electromagnet which provides the main magnetic field in the machine. When a current flows through theconstruction 73 ficld winding, it establishes a magnetic flux. The windings are generally made of OPP wire, core Field winding Fig.7.4 Armature Core andArmature Windings The armature core shownin Fig. 7.2 ismounted ona shaft and rotates in the magnetic field. The armature core is made of laminations of sheet steel. The outer surface of the core is cylindrical in shape. It is provided with a large number of lots into which the armature conductors are placed. The ends of the armature windings are brought to the commutator segments as shown in Fig. 7.2. Commutator A commutator is used for collecting current from the armature conductors. It is made of a number of wedge-shaped segments of copper. These segments are insulated from each Fig.7.2, Armature other by thin layers of mica. Each commutator segment is connected to the armature conductor. The commutator converts the ac current induced in the armature conductors into unidirectional current across the brushes. Brushes The brushes are used to collect current from the commutator and supply it to the external circuit. The brushes are usually made of carbon. Types of Armature Winding Depending upon the manner in which the armature conductors are connected to the commutator segments, there are the two types of armature winding: Lap Winding In this arrangement, the armature conductors are connected in series through commutator segments in such a way that the armature winding is divided into74, Basile Engincering as many parallel paths as the number of poles. If there are Z conductors and P poles, there will be P parallel paths, each containing Z/P conductors in series. The total emf is equal to the emf gencrated in any one of the parallel paths, The total armature current divides equally among the different parallel paths. It is used in low-voltage high-urrent machines. Wave Winding In this arrangement, the armature conductors are connected in series through commutator segments in such away that the armature winding is divided into two parallel paths irrespective of the number of poles. If there are Z conductors, 2 conductors will be in series in each parallel path, The total emf is equal to the emf generated in any one of the parallel paths. The total armature current divides equally between two parallel paths. It is used in high-voltage low-current machines. 74 CLASSIFICATION Depending upon the method of excitation of field winding, de machines are classified into two classes: () Separately excited machines (ii) Self-excited machines Separately Excited Machines In a separately excited machine, the field winding is Provided with a separate de source to supply the field current as shown in Fig. 7.3. Self-excited Machines In case of self-excited de machines, no separate source is provided to drive the field current, but the field current is driven by its own emf generated across the armature terminals when the machine works as a generator. Self- excited machines are further classified into three types, depending upon the method in which the field winding is connected to the armature. (a) Shunt-wound machines (b) Series-wound machines (c) Compound-wound machines Ry R, Fig.7.3. Separately excited machine Shunt-wound Machines In this type of de machines, " B ‘a field winding is connected in parallel with the armature ) as shown in Fig. 7.4. The number of tums of the field winding may range from 300 to 1000, Fig.7.4 Shunt wound machinesue tquation 75 Series-wound Machines In this type of machines, the 5 field Winding is connected in series with the armature aS shown in Fig, 7.5, This number of tums of the field Winding is small (2 to 10 tums) and the field winding O will have a heavy area of cross-section to carry the large : armature current. Compound-wound Machines Compound — machines carry both the shunt and series field windings. The Fig-75. Series-wound compound machines are further classified into long f shunt and short shunt, depending upon the direction of current flow in the two types © field windings as shown in Figs 7.6 and 7.7. Both the shunt field winding and the series field winding are generally wound on the same pole. machine & R Fig.7.6 Long-shunt compound wound machine Fig.7.7_ Short-shunt compound machine In case of a generator, load is connected across the armature whereas in case of a + motor, de supply is connected to the armature. 25 EMF EQUATION Let = Flux per pole in webers é Total number of armature conductors N= Speed of the armature in revolutions per minute (rpm) P = Number of poles A= Number of parallel paths When the armature completes one revolution, each conductor cuts the magnetic flux, Therefore, flux cut by one conductor in one revolution of the armature = Flux per pole x Number of poles = oP webers ‘ : 60 Time taken to complete one revolution = WV seconds Hence, average emf induced in one conductor __ Fluxcut oP Timetaken 60/N78. Basie Electrical Engineering = vous Induced emf —_ (Z) = Resultant emf per parallel path : = Average emf per conductor x Number of conductors in series per parallel path 1 motor, the induced emf opposes the applied emi and hence, its called back emf (E;). 7.6 VOLTAGE-CURRENT RELATIONSHIPS AND APPLICATIONS (a) Generator When the machine runs as a generator, the generated emf (E, ‘g) Must be sufficient to supply both the terminal voltage (V) and the internal voltage drop. Voltage and current relationships for different types of generators arc as follows: Shunt generator Applications ( Ordinary lighting and power supply (ii) Charging batteries attr > Series generator 4h i, tt © — Ey = V4 1, (R,+R,) Application As boosters in distribution | systems Fig. 7.9 60 4 | In case of a de generator, this emf is called generated emf (£,). In the case of a de : 1 “7 % R RY \ | |Voltage-Current Relatlonshins nd Applications 77 Compound generator Short shunt ng hy 4 Ry Ey=V+I,Rj+I,R, Fig.740 Long shunt Fig. 7.11 Applications (Lamp loads (ii) Heavy power service such as electric railways (iii) Are welding (b) Motor When the de machine runs as a motor, the applied voltage (V) across its terminals must be sufficient to overcome the back emf (E;) and supply the intemal voltage drop. Voltage and current relationships for different types of motors are as follows: Shunt motor ,ae 4 BR L=h- E,=V-1,R, Applications (i) For driving lathes ii) Centrifugal pumps (iii) Blowers and fans 4 R, I, Fig. 7.13 Series motor fe 1,=1,=1, R, E,=V-1,(R,+R,) Applications (D Electric locomotivesF2 eae | 7.8. Basic Electrical Engineering (ii) Cranes and hoists (iii) Conveyors Compound motor Short shunt Leh Eaiey V-LR Ry Ey=V—-I,Ry-IR, Long shunt =h-l v E R -E,=V—-I,(R,+R) = Application : (i) Elevators Gi) Conveyors ii) Rolling mills (iv) Air compressors Solution J = 0.018 Wb N= 600 rpm Z= 840 For lap-wound armature, A=P=6 Generated emf gZNP. 0.018 x 840 x 600 x 6 604 60x6 =1512V