For Training Purpose Only Rev: 00 B1.1 Basic/ M6-Materials and Hardware October 2019

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Contents
Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 10
Ferrous Aircraft Materials............................................................................................................. 11
Characteristics and Identification of common Alloy Steels .................................................................... 11
Characteristics of Materials .......................................................................................................... 11
Internal Structure of Metals .......................................................................................................... 13
Steel............................................................................................................................................... 17
Steel Production.................................................................................................................................. 18
Alloys ................................................................................................................................................... 21
Identification ....................................................................................................................................... 22
Designation by Alloy Content.............................................................................................................. 23
Material Numbers according to DIN EN 10 027 II ............................................................................... 25
Steels Commonly Used in Aeroplanes ................................................................................................ 29
Details on: Internal Structure of Metals ........................................................................................ 32
Details on: Secondary Melting Processes ..................................................................................... 33
Details on: Properties of Steel....................................................................................................... 36
Iron-Carbon Diagram .......................................................................................................................... 36
Other Steel Denominations ................................................................................................................ 39
Heat Treatment and Application of Alloy Steels ..................................................................................... 41
Hardening ...................................................................................................................................... 41
Surface Hardening ........................................................................................................................ 45
Case Hardening / Nitriding ........................................................................................................... 48
Tempering ..................................................................................................................................... 49
Quenching and Tempering ............................................................................................................ 50
Annealing ...................................................................................................................................... 51
Precipitation Hardening ................................................................................................................ 52
Prior Considerations Regarding Heat Treatments ........................................................................ 54
Further Annealing Processes......................................................................................................... 54
Testing of Ferrous Materials for Mechanical Loads ................................................................................ 54
Aims of Material Testing .............................................................................................................. 54
Hardness ............................................................................................................................................. 55
Tensile Strength .................................................................................................................................. 58
For Training Purpose Only Rev: 00

B1.1 Basic/ M6- Materials and Hardware October 2019
Fatigue Strength .................................................................................................................................. 62

Impact Resistance ............................................................................................................................... 63
Non-Ferrous Aircraft Materials .................................................................................................... 65
Characteristics and Identification of common Non-Ferrous Materials .................................................. 65
Aluminum ..................................................................................................................................... 65
Alloys ................................................................................................................................................... 68
Identification of Aluminum Materials ................................................................................................. 69
Titanium ........................................................................................................................................ 71
Identification of Titanium Materials ................................................................................................... 73
US-Grades ..................................................................................................................................... 75
Nickel ............................................................................................................................................ 75
Magnesium .................................................................................................................................... 76
Details on: Alloys ......................................................................................................................... 78
Cast Alloys / Wrought Alloys ............................................................................................................... 78
Details on: Identification of Aluminum Materials ........................................................................ 78
Denomination according to the Aluminum Association (AA) ............................................................. 78
Details on: Titanium ..................................................................................................................... 79
Structure of Titanium .......................................................................................................................... 79
Heat Treatment and Application of Non-Ferrous Materials ................................................................... 79
Aluminum ..................................................................................................................................... 79
Application of Aluminum Alloys .......................................................................................................... 83
Titanium ........................................................................................................................................ 83
Details on: Aluminum ................................................................................................................... 84
Details on: Titanium ..................................................................................................................... 85
Testing of Non-Ferrous Material for Mechanical Loads ......................................................................... 85
Aircraft Materials: Composite and Non-Metallic ......................................................................... 86
Composite and Non-Metallic Aircraft Materials ..................................................................................... 86
Non-Metallic Materials ................................................................................................................. 86
Composite Materials ..................................................................................................................... 86
Fiber Composites .......................................................................................................................... 87
Structure of Plastics ............................................................................................................................ 89
Production of Plastics.......................................................................................................................... 90
Classification of Plastics by Properties ................................................................................................ 93

Matrix ............................................................................................................................................ 95
Characteristics of Fibers Commonly Used in Composites ........................................................... 96
Glass Fiber ........................................................................................................................................... 96
Aramid Fiber........................................................................................................................................ 97
Carbon Fiber........................................................................................................................................ 98
Types of Fabric .................................................................................................................................. 100
Laminates .................................................................................................................................... 102
Prepreg .............................................................................................................................................. 102
Autoclave .......................................................................................................................................... 102
Sandwich Construction ..................................................................................................................... 104
Water Absorption ............................................................................................................................. 105
Metallic or Ceramic Matrix Composites..................................................................................... 106
Sealant and Bonding Agents ....................................................................................................... 107
Examples for Adhesive Bond Joints ........................................................................................... 107
Sealants ....................................................................................................................................... 107
Detection of Defects/Deterioration in Composite and Non-Metallic Material ........................... 109
Ultrasonic Inspection .................................................................................................................. 110
X-Ray / Computed Tomography ................................................................................................ 112
Repair of Composite and Non-metallic Material ........................................................................ 113
Repairs of Sandwich Materials ................................................................................................... 114
Injection Repair of Delamination (Layers of Fiber Separating, Bonded Repair) ....................... 116
Repair Patches ............................................................................................................................. 117
Wooden Structures ............................................................................................................................... 118
Construction Methods of Wooden Airframe Structures ............................................................. 118
Stress-Related use of Wooden Materials .................................................................................... 122
Types of Wood Used in Aeroplanes ........................................................................................... 124
Cutting, Machining ..................................................................................................................... 127
Forming, Bending ....................................................................................................................... 127
Glue ............................................................................................................................................. 129
Requirements to Aviation Wood Glue .............................................................................................. 130
Types of Glue Used in Aviation ......................................................................................................... 130
Preservation and Maintenance of Wooden Structures ................................................................ 131
Interior Conservation .................................................................................................................. 131
External Conservation ................................................................................................................. 131

Types of Defects in Wood and Wooden Structures .................................................................... 132
Defects in Wood and Wooden Structures ................................................................................... 133
Permitted Defects ............................................................................................................................. 133
Non-Permissible Defects ................................................................................................................... 133
Recognition of Defects in Wooden Structures............................................................................ 134
Repair of Wooden Structures ...................................................................................................... 136
Types of Glue Joints ................................................................................................................... 138
Fabric Covering ..................................................................................................................................... 141
Characteristics, Types and Properties of Fabrics used in Aeroplanes ........................................ 141
Inspection Methods for Fabric .................................................................................................... 143
Types of Defects in Fabric .......................................................................................................... 144
Repair of Fabric Covering .......................................................................................................... 144
Repair by Gluing ......................................................................................................................... 145
Repair by Sewing ........................................................................................................................ 145
Corrosion..................................................................................................................................... 147
Chemical Fundamentals ........................................................................................................................ 147
Formation by Galvanic Action Process, Microbiological, Stress ........................................................... 148
Galvanic Corrosion ..................................................................................................................... 148
Microbiological Corrosion .......................................................................................................... 150
Corrosion by Stress ..................................................................................................................... 150
Types and Causes of Corrosion ............................................................................................................. 150
Surface Corrosion ....................................................................................................................... 151
Intergranular Corrosion (Local Cell) .......................................................................................... 152
Pitting Corrosion ......................................................................................................................... 153
Crevice Corrosion ....................................................................................................................... 155
Filigrain/Filiform Corrosion ....................................................................................................... 157
Stress Corrosion Cracking .......................................................................................................... 159
Hydrogen-Induced Crack Corrosion ........................................................................................... 160
Fretting ........................................................................................................................................ 160
Microbiological Corrosion .......................................................................................................... 162
High Temperature Corrosion ...................................................................................................... 164
Details on: Filiform- / Filigrain Corrosion.................................................................................. 164
Concentration Cell Corrosion ..................................................................................................... 165

Cavitation Erosion ...................................................................................................................... 165
Mercury Contamination .............................................................................................................. 165
Corrosion Fatigue........................................................................................................................ 166
Acid Spillage............................................................................................................................... 166
Alkali Spillage ............................................................................................................................ 166
Material Types, Susceptibility to Corrosion .......................................................................................... 167
Ferrous Metals ............................................................................................................................ 167
Copper Alloys ............................................................................................................................. 167
Aluminum Alloys........................................................................................................................ 168
Magnesium Alloys ...................................................................................................................... 168
Titanium ...................................................................................................................................... 168
Influence of Mechanical Processing ........................................................................................... 168
Influence of Heat Treatment ....................................................................................................... 169
Fasteners ..................................................................................................................................... 170
Screw Threads ....................................................................................................................................... 170
Screw Nomenclature ................................................................................................................... 170
Helicoid ....................................................................................................................................... 170
Wedge Effect and Self-Locking.................................................................................................. 171
Nomenclature .............................................................................................................................. 171
Thread Forms .............................................................................................................................. 173
Dimensions and Tolerances for Standard Threads used in Aircraft ........................................... 176
Metric .......................................................................................................................................... 176
British.......................................................................................................................................... 177
US Standards............................................................................................................................... 177
Measuring External Threads ....................................................................................................... 179
Bolts, Studs and Screws ........................................................................................................................ 186
Bolt Types: Specification, Identification and Marking of Aircraft Bolts, International ............. 186
Standards ..................................................................................................................................... 186
Metric .......................................................................................................................................... 187
US Standards............................................................................................................................... 187
Nuts: Self Locking, Anchor, Standard Types ............................................................................. 191

Studs: Types and uses, Installation and Removal ....................................................................... 194

Self-Tapping Screws, Dowels ..................................................................................................... 196
Thread-Forming Screws.............................................................................................................. 196
Dowel Pins .................................................................................................................................. 198
Locking Devices ..................................................................................................................................... 200
Tab and Spring Washers, Locking Plates ................................................................................... 200
Locking Plates ............................................................................................................................. 200
Spring Washers ........................................................................................................................... 201
Locking Plates ............................................................................................................................. 202
Split Pins ..................................................................................................................................... 202
Palnuts ......................................................................................................................................... 203
Wire Locking .............................................................................................................................. 204
Quick Release Fasteners ............................................................................................................. 207
Camloc ........................................................................................................................................ 207
Dzus Quick Release Fastener...................................................................................................... 209
Airloc Quick Release Fastener.................................................................................................... 210
Keys ............................................................................................................................................ 210
Grooved Pins ............................................................................................................................... 210
Spring Pins .................................................................................................................................. 211
Circlips ........................................................................................................................................ 212
Aircraft Rivets........................................................................................................................................ 214
Types of Solid and Blind Rivets: Specification and Identification, Heat Treatment .................. 214
Specifications and Standards ...................................................................................................... 214
Types of Rivets ........................................................................................................................... 215
Solid Rivets ........................................................................................................................................ 215
Blind Rivets........................................................................................................................................ 218
Specialized Rivets .............................................................................................................................. 221
Heat Treatment of Rivets ............................................................................................................ 225
Pipes and Unions......................................................................................................................... 226
Rigid and Flexible Pipes and their Unions ............................................................................................. 226
Identification ............................................................................................................................... 230
Tube Lines — Identification LN 9105 (ISO 12) .................................................................................. 230
Designation of Tubes (Bulk Stock) .................................................................................................... 232

Designation of Tubes (Ready-made) ................................................................................................. 233

Identification of Hoses (Bulk Stock) .................................................................................................. 233
Identification of Hose Lines (Ready-made) ....................................................................................... 233
Standard Unions.................................................................................................................................... 235
Flared Tube Fittings .................................................................................................................... 235
Flareless Tube Fittings ................................................................................................................ 235
Swage Fitting / Harrison Type .................................................................................................... 237
Hose Connectors ......................................................................................................................... 237
Pneumatics .................................................................................................................................. 238
Leak-Proof Fittings ..................................................................................................................... 239
Quick Release Connectors .......................................................................................................... 240
PCA Lines (PCA Pre Conditioned Air) ...................................................................................... 241
Springs ........................................................................................................................................ 243
Types of Springs, Materials, Characteristics and Applications ............................................................. 243
Materials ..................................................................................................................................... 245
Metal Springs .............................................................................................................................. 245
Combination of Individual Cup Springs ..................................................................................... 248
Leaf Springs ....................................................................................................................................... 249
Elastomeric Springs ........................................................................................................................... 250
Gas Struts .......................................................................................................................................... 251
Details on Materials .................................................................................................................... 252
Bearings ...................................................................................................................................... 254
Purpose of Bearings, Loads, Materials, Construction ........................................................................... 254
Roller Bearings ........................................................................................................................... 257
Arrangement of Bearings ............................................................................................................ 258
Roller Bearings in Aviation ........................................................................................................ 259
Lubrication .................................................................................................................................. 261
Plain Bearings ............................................................................................................................. 263
Types of Bearings and their Application ............................................................................................... 265
Characteristics and Application .................................................................................................. 265
Plain Bearings ............................................................................................................................. 271
Bearing ........................................................................................................................................ 273
Details on Plain Bearings ............................................................................................................ 273
Transmissions ............................................................................................................................. 274

Gear Types and their Application ......................................................................................................... 274
Gear Transmissions ..................................................................................................................... 275
Gear Wheel Design ..................................................................................................................... 276
Basic Requirements to Gear Tooth Systems ............................................................................... 279
Gear Ratios ............................................................................................................................................ 280
Force-Closed Traction Drives ..................................................................................................... 290
Details on Planetary Gearboxes .................................................................................................. 294
Details on Bevel Gears................................................................................................................ 294
Details on Toothed Belt Drives and Toothed Belts .................................................................... 295
Reduction and multiplication gear systems .......................................................................................... 297
Belts and Pulleys, Chains and Sprockets .................................................................................... 297
Control Cables ............................................................................................................................ 302
Types of Cables........................................................................................................................... 302
Measuring Cables Diameters ...................................................................................................... 305
Lay Direction .............................................................................................................................. 305
End Fittings............................................................................................................................................ 306
Turnbuckles and Compensation Devices .............................................................................................. 307
Pulleys and Cable System Components ................................................................................................ 311
Bell Cranks.................................................................................................................................. 311
Deflection Pulleys ....................................................................................................................... 313
Sliding Guides / Fairleads ........................................................................................................... 314
Crosshead Tensioners ................................................................................................................. 315
Bowden Cables...................................................................................................................................... 317
Aircraft Flexible Control Systems .......................................................................................................... 318
Flexball ....................................................................................................................................... 318
Push-Pull-Cable .......................................................................................................................... 319
Electrical Cables and Connectors ............................................................................................... 320
Cable Types, Construction and Characteristics ..................................................................................... 320
Cable Jackets ............................................................................................................................... 321
Example of Wire: ABS0949 ............................................................................................................... 323
Examples of Cables: MIL-7078 / AIR 4524 / MIL-W-22759 ............................................................... 324
Example of Cable: DIN EN 2266-008 ................................................................................................. 324

Diameter ...................................................................................................................................... 325

Identification ............................................................................................................................... 325
Identification of Cable Bundles .................................................................................................. 327
High Tension and Coaxial Cables .......................................................................................................... 330
Shielded Cables ........................................................................................................................... 330
Coaxial Cable .............................................................................................................................. 330
High Voltage Cables ................................................................................................................... 331
Details on Shielded Cables ......................................................................................................... 333
Crimping ................................................................................................................................................ 333
Crimp Pins .................................................................................................................................. 335
Crimped Joining Elements .......................................................................................................... 337
Details on Crimp Connector Design ........................................................................................... 339
Types of Plugs ....................................................................................................................................... 339
Denomination .............................................................................................................................. 343
Contacts....................................................................................................................................... 343
MIL Standard .............................................................................................................................. 344
Current and Voltage Rating................................................................................................................... 346
Voltage Rating ............................................................................................................................ 346
Rated Current .............................................................................................................................. 346
Details on nominal voltage ......................................................................................................... 349

Aviation Training Hub P a g e | 10
Introduction
Aircraft manufacturers are confronted with ever higher requirements to their products'
performance. When ordering new aeroplanes, commercial operators, especially airlines, call for
higher efficiency, mainly in the form of increased fuel economy. Military operators expect a
performance advantage against potential adversaries, amongst other factors through increased
speed, payload or range (by increasing efficiency). Even sport pilots see the performance
advantage over other pilots as a key factor when deciding on a new purchase. Continuous
development can often only take place if there are new or improved materials to support more
modern designs. In many areas of aviation, there are designs for components or entire aircraft
that can't yet be produced due to the lack of suitable materials. As the high cost of developing
and producing innovative materials is carried by military and civil aircraft operators, the aviation
industry' often pioneers development, production and application of new or improved materials.
This textbook concerns itself with the characteristics of materials and how these may develop, as
well as putting a focus on materials that are used currently. Metals and the multitude of
characteristics and thus applications they have are treated just as well as the ever-growing sector
of fiber composite materials. The historically significant wooden construction and the production
of aerodynamic surfaces using fabric covering will also be introduced.
Nearly all current, historical and future materials are subject to corrosion effects. This text will
explain why and how corrosion occurs as well as the different shapes of corrosive effects.
No matter what material it is made out of, no individual component alone forms a functional
aircraft. Components always have to be joined with other parts. The design and application of
different joining techniques will hence be the subject of a further chapter.
Finally, the use of specific materials will be discussed on the example of different assemblies,
such as gearboxes, roller bearings, control elements or individual components like springs.

Ferrous Aircraft Materials

Characteristics and Identification of common Alloy Steels
Characteristics of Materials
From time to time, different media outlets, usually of the popular science type, report of
revolutionary breakthroughs in material science. They may write about "super-materials" without
delivering a realistic prognosis about whether the material in question is capable of delivering the
allegedly superior characteristics in practice.
Good materials fulfill the requirements posed to them. There is no "super-material" which, in
addition to its innovative, excelling quality, is downward-compatible by delivering all other
characteristics listed below. Examples for the limited possibilities of materials:
• Carbon fiber possesses a tensile strength superior to most metals, but almost no
compressive strength.
• The very hard composite carbide exhibits basically no plastic deformation.
• Gold is resistant to many corrosive substances but too expensive for technical use.
• The organic fiber asbestos is very heat resistant but carcinogenic when inhaled.
The following list includes numerous properties. Depending on the use case, one or more of
these characteristics is required. The suitability of a material to the given requirements is the
relevant factor.
• Physical characteristics:
Describe the state and state transitions of materials, for example density, melting point,
electric conductivity, thermal conductivity or thermal expansion.
• Mechanical-technological characteristics:
Describe the behavior of materials when subject to mechanical forces or moments, e.g.
rigidity, hardness, deformability, viscosity, fatigue strength, high temperature strength,
compressive strength, wear resistance.
• Manufacturing characteristics:
Provide information about the suitability of a material for a manufacturing procedure, as
well as the conditions for processing it. These characteristics include machinability,
castability, forgeability, weldability, hardenability.

• Chemical-technical characteristics:
Capture the changes that materials go through when subject to substances that surround
them, for example environmental influence such as corrosion resistance, heat resistance,
inflammability, toxicity.
• Other application characteristics:

Include economic and social factors, for example surface quality, durability,
environmental considerations, availability, recyclability.
In order to achieve performance gains, aircraft designers are always searching for new, more
stable and lighter materials. Reducing a material's density is the most efficient way of saving on
the weight of structures, improving performance. It is estimated that reducing the density of a
material is three to five times more efficient than increasing rigidity or stiffness.
When choosing the material for a component, its mechanical-technological factors set out the
framework for the part's shape and dimensions.
• (Tensile) Strength
The resistance of a material against plastic deformation. There are different types of
strength, for example tensile strength, compressive strength, fatigue strength, or bending
strength. Tensile strength is the most commonly used quantity, as many components are
designed to absorb tensile forces. Tensile strength is defined by the maximum amount of
tension the material can oppose to a tensile force (usually in N/mm2). When the tensile
force is reached, the material is already being deformed permanently (plastic
deformation). The yield strength or elastic limit of a material is the highest force it can
absorb while only deforming elastically. After the force has subsided, the material returns
to its initial shape.
• Fatigue strength
A material's tensile strength is determined by applying a growing tensile load to the
material until it ruptures. In practice, materials are subject to changing loads (e.g. the
fuselage structure of a pressurized cabin aeroplane, helicopter rotor masts). In these
cases, the material may not be stressed to its tensile strength during each cycle, but only
to a substantially lower value, which it withstands for prolonged periods. The fatigue
strength is determined by testing.
• Hardness (impact resistance)

Hardness is the resistance a material puts up against a test piece that is pushed into it. The
shape of the test piece varies among the different common testing procedures:

• Brinell: Ball
• Vickers: Pyramid
• Rockwell: Cone
Furthermore, the size of the test piece and the force with which it is pushed into the material
may vary. These parameters have to be specified when test results are published. These test
procedures don't give any calculable measurements. The hardness of the material is
captured by the surface or the depth of the indentation. Measurements taken using the
different procedures listed above cannot be converted, only compared.
There is only partly a relationship between a material ' s strength and its hardness.
• Toughness
(Antonym: Brittleness) is the resistance of a material against cracking and fracture.
Example: Glass is a very brittle material. Cracks, as punctual their origin may be, usually
spread through the entire part. Aeroplanes components should exhibit a high degree of
toughness in order to prevent small damage from causing an immediate total failure of
the component.
• Stiffness
The stiffness of a material is specified by its elastic modulus (E modulus), a quantity that
usually can't be measured in practice. The elastic modulus is the force that is required to
elongate a material sample by 100%. Example: Steel alloys can have the same tensile
strength as a titanium alloy but an elastic modulus double of that of the titanium alloy.
Internal Structure of Metals
Similar to how the structure of a piece of wood can tell us about the growth process of the tree it
came from, a (usually microscopic) view of a metal sample helps determine what characteristics
the material has.
When cooling down, a metal melt starts solidifying at many points simultaneously. These crystal
nuclei are the starting point of the development of solid areas (crystals, grain) within the melt.
The solid areas grow until they meet other solid areas. The line where two solid areas meet is
called grain boundary. The entirety of these solidified grain areas is called microstructure.
The internal composition, shape and size of the metal crystals have an influence on the material's
technological properties and workability. Inserting additional crystal nuclei, influencing the cool-
down rate and post-solidifying heat treatments are used to change the material's characteristics.
Adding alloying elements to the melt can also change the metal's internal structure and hence its
properties.
The microstructure of a metal can be seen under a microscope after polishing the sample and
treating it with chemicals (except for galvanized street lighting poles or guard rails, where the
structure is very- visible).
Zinc structure on a galvanized street lighting pole
The two figures below show the microscopic structure of C45 steel (non-alloy multi-purpose
steel). In order to make the structure visible, samples were sanded, polished and etched. The left
picture shows the structure that forms if the cool-down and solidifying process takes place
without any external influence. The right image shows the same material without any change in
compound but after heat treatment (hardening: heating and quenching). It can be seen that the
microstructure cannot only be influenced by changing the elements (alloy) but also in other ways
to improve certain technological characteristics.

C45 steel structure prior to hardening
C45 steel structure after hardening
The properties of metals do not only depend on the different grain shapes and the chemical
compound. There are differences on an atomic level that cause metals to behave differently when
used as a material.
Figure a) shows the structure of a metal, containing grains and grain boundaries. The images b),
c) and d) each are magnifications of the respective previous picture. The circles in c) and d)
represent individual atoms. c) shows the microstructure of the grain within the body as a
multidimensional grid. The dimensional arrangement of the individual atoms is, in this case, a
cubic elementary cell (cubic unit cell).
Metal structures
Metals are characterized by the regular (crystal) arrangement of the unit cell atoms. Unit cells are
the smallest regular arrangement that atoms assume. Many elementary cells together form the
grid typical for the respective metal or alloy. The grid structure facilitates the transformability of
metals through shifting grid layers relative to another.
The following categories are distinguished by their geometric shape:
Geometric shapes
• Cubic face-centered (cfc)

e.g.: Iron above 9110 C, aluminum, copper, nickel, lead, gold
• Cubic body-centered (cbc)
e.g.: Iron below 9110 C, chrome, tungsten, vanadium
• Hexagonal
e.g.: Titanium, magnesium, zinc

Steel
Steels are iron-carbon alloys with a carbon content of 0.02 to 2.06%. If the carbon contents are
above 2.06%, the material is called cast iron. Other elements can be added to the alloy but may
not exceed the mass share of iron.
Steel and steel alloys aren't ideal aviation materials as they exhibit a rather high specific weight
(mass per volume). On the other hand, steel does have a combination of characteristics that make
it indispensable for certain applications. Steel is used mainly for small components that have to
withstand high stress. These steels have to offer a combination of high stability, hardness, wear-
and corrosion resistance in order to compensate for their high density. The possibility of
controlling the characteristics of steel by varying the amount of the different metals in its alloy,
as well as using mechanical and thermal processes, is another attractive property of steel. The
material is readily available and not very expensive, is easy to manipulate by machining (e.g.
turning, milling, drilling) and other (e.g. forging, deep-drawing, bending) manufacturing
processes.
Aviation-specific steel components are typically found in the landing gear (5-15% of the
aeroplane's empty weight), structural components such as control surface hinges (2% of the
aircraft weight), and engine components (2096 of the engine's weight). In addition to these
specific components, steel is used in roller bearings, gear wheels, nuts and bolts and high
pressure fastenings (e.g. hydraulic system). Modern developments such as ceramic material
roller bearings mostly do not exhibit the desired combination of characteristics (listed above) or
the reliability required for aviation applications.

Steel landing gear strut blank after forging
Steel Production
Iron is a natural resource, which is mined in the form of iron ore. These ores, coke and additives
are the primary ingredients for steelmaking in the blast furnace. The products of this melt are
cast iron (also: pig iron), with a carbon content of 3-596 to 4-5% and slag. As cast iron contains
rather high amounts of silicon, manganese, phosphor and sulphur (contaminants), it is hard,
brittle and unsuitable for processing into aviation materials.

Schematic of a blast furnace
Cast iron is used as a material for structures that aren't subject to plastic deformation after
manufacturing, for example gearbox or turbine housings and piston engine blocks. It is
especially suitable for components which have a size factor that prohibits the use of plastic
deformation manufacturing processes (e.g. forging).
The transformation of cast iron into steel mainly reduces the share of carbon and contaminants.
One possible process is based on blowing oxygen onto the pig iron melt, the "basic oxygen
steelmaking" process. The oxygen burns some of the carbon while the contaminants are oxidized
and bound as slag.
Steel has the property of being recyclable by melting without quality losses. Arc furnaces melt
the scrap metal between a number of graphite electrodes. Introducing large amounts of electrical
energy (up to 100MW) forms an electric arc that melts the material in the furnace.
Arc furnaces are mainly used for manufacturing quality and stainless steels, as the production
process doesn't introduce any contaminants such as phosphor or sulphur, which would reduce the
product's quality.

Arc furnace
Properties of Steel

Alloys
Alloys are metallic materials, which are produced by combining two or more elements in order
to achieve or improve the resulting material's suitability for a given application. Alloying hence
makes it possible to influence the characteristics of a material in a targeted manner. The
respective elements are mixed in a molten state.
Elements can be mixed in different ways. Alloying elements exhibit varying solubility, which
means that their tendency to bond with other elements differs. Not all elements can hence be
combined in a manner that results in a usable material.
The result of a mixture can be distinguished into solid solution or a mixture of metallic phases. In
solid solutions, the bond between the multiple elements takes place on an atomic level, the
alloying element's atoms add to or replace the initial element's grid structure's atoms. If the
metals remain separate grains, the material is a mixture of metallic phases.
Solid solution: The atoms of the alloying element (blue) are incorporated into the existing grid structure of the main element or
replace atoms in the initial grid.

Mixture of metallic phases The elements remain the same within the grain
Identification
Materials are identified by suitable systematic designations, which make complex analyzes or
descriptions partly dispensable. There is a multitude of norms, published by past national
norming authorities. Some large companies, such as Boeing, have created individual standards
for specific materials and components. A unified, global system for the denomination of steel
exists only to a certain degree.
A few systems allow identifying the steel's composition directly, others give information about
the material's mechanical properties. Some systems only allow us to find out about the steel's
characteristics when consulting lists that contain their numerical denomination.
Highly specialized aerospace steels, with trademarks such as AerMet100, 300M or Marage300
wouldn't sensibly be captured by a denomination system, as their composition is patented and
they are only produced by the patent's owner. The customer would therefore not have the
possibility of purchasing the same material from another supplier, even if it had a standardized
designation.
All material designations have in common that they don't provide definitive information about all
properties relevant for practical use, such as stabilities, required temperatures for heat treatment,
corrosion resistance, deformability, forgeability etc. In order to gain clarity about these
properties, the specific material data sheet has to be consulted. Data sheets are published by steel
producers and are usually freely available.

Designation by Alloy Content

1. Non-alloy steel:
Non-alloy steels designed for heat treatment are designated with the letter C. Although
the material contains no alloying elements, its technological properties can be improved
vastly by heat treatment.
Here: non-alloy steel with a carbon content of 0.45%.
2. Low-alloy steel:
In low-alloy steel, the sum of all alloying elements remains below 5% of the material's
mass. The chemical symbols of the alloying elements (omitting carbon) are listed in
descending order of their mass share from left to right. Not necessarily all alloying
elements are listed, but only those that have an influence on the specific type of steel. The
alloying denominators are listed in the same order as the chemical symbols.

Here: Low-alloy steel with a carbon content of 0.34%, 1.25% Cr, 1% Al and an unspecified
amount of molybdenum.
3. High-alloy steel:
If more than 5% of the mass of an alloy is represented by alloying elements, the steel is
called "high alloy'. Just like for low-alloy steel, the alloying elements are listed in
descending mass share order from left to right. Only the characteristic alloying elements
are listed, with the numbers following them giving information about the share in
percent. In contrast to low alloy-steels, no factors are used.

Here: High-alloy steel with a carbon content of 0.05%, 17% Cr, 496 Cu, 496 MD.
Material Numbers according to DIN EN 10 027 II

For electronic data processing, a number system was created in addition to the short names in
order to facilitate easy and unambiguous identification and registration of materials.
The number system exists in parallel to the short names and can be used alternatively.
For example:

Further major materials classifications:
Steel group numbers are partly organized by use cases, partly by chemical compound or
corrosion resistance. In this case: Material class 1: Steel, steel group 43: corrosion-resistant steel
with a nickel content of 2,5%, no MO, Nb, Ti alloying elements.
• United States Material Standards

The material standards set in the U.S. hold a special position among the multitude of
national standards, as the historically large aviation industry has led other countries to
adapt their systems to that of the United States Parts of the American material naming
system have been adopted by European countries, other denominations were adapted to
the European system.
In the 1930 s and 1940 s, the „American Iron and Steel Institute" (AISI) and the „Society
of Automotive Engineers" (SAE) developed number systems for the identification of
steels. These systems overlap and were combined over a few decades in the common
"AISI/SAE steel grades". Since 1995, SAE is the sole maintainer of this system. In
practice, the grades refer to both systems. The numbers are prefixed with AISI, SAE or
none of the two.
The four-digit alloy designation only gives some clue as to what properties the materials
exhibit. Further appendices specify the exact properties, heat treatment and shape in
which the material is produced. Example: 4140 in ASTM A108 represents the alloy 4140
in the variant for railway tracks. Aviation-related specifications are found in the
"Aerospace Material Specifications" (AMS).

• AISI/SAESystem1
Further SAE major classifications:
Here: Low-alloy steel, major class 4XXX: Molybdenum steel, steel grade 41XX: Chromium-
molybdenum steel, 0.3%C.
• AISI/SAESystem2
Stainless steel is classified by the three-digit number system developed by AISI and the
„American Society for Testing and Materials" (ASTM).
In this case: Stainless steel, Type 400: Ferritic and martensitic* chrome-alloyed steel, type
number 408: Heat-resistant, low corrosion resistance, 11%Cr, 8%Ni
* = Types of grain structures
• UNS-System
With the increasing development of new types of metals and alloys, the SAE/AISI
designation system reached its limits. ASTM und SAE thus developed a new system, the
five-digit Unified Numbering System (UNS). The UNS classifies common steels and
non- ferrous metals in a common number system. It exists in parallel to the AISI/SAE
system. In many, but not all cases, the UNS designations are similar to those used in
other systems. The AISI/SAE 4130 Steel, for example, carries the UNS designation
G41300.

Steels Commonly Used in Aeroplanes

The times in which the aviation industry went "bigger, faster, stronger" without considering the
cost involved in doing so are over. Today's requirements are different — for example high
reliability, long lifetimes and low maintenance and operation cost. Manufacturers expect
component prices to decrease, facilitating lower lifecycle cost. The focus has also shifted to the
environmental impact of airplane components, which, for example, prohibits the use of
chromium
and cadmium-based surface coatings.
This is why formerly common alloys such as H-11 and 300M lose importance. These materials
offer high strength, but are susceptible to stress corrosion cracking. Components made out of
these
materials are protected against corrosion using chrome or cadmium coatings or plating.

The steels that are commonly used in aviation can be classified into groups of materials with
similar composition and characteristics.
• High fracture toughness steels

Fracture toughness is defined as the resistance to crack spreading under varying loads.
Steels of high fracture toughness are characterized by their low carbon content, a fact that
provides good deformation characteristics. Nickel introduces hardenability, while cobalt
removes residue austenite, which would reduce the structure's stability.
Landing gear components are among the usual aviation use cases for these metals. Stress
corrosion cracking and lacking toughness are the main reasons for landing gear
component failures. There are materials that are less susceptible to these stresses than
conventional steels, for example the specially-designed AerMet100.
UNS denomination: K92580

Composition: 0.23% C, 3.1% Cr, 11.1% Ni, 1.2% MO, 13-4% Co,
Tensile Strength: ca. 2.000 N/mm2
Yield Limit: ca. 1.700 N/mm2
• Medium carbon low alloy steels

There are standardized denominations for this groups of steels both in the AISI and DIN
17000 2. The material denomination 4130 means that the steel is part of the 41XX series
(chromium content 0.5 to 0.95%, molybdenum content 0.13 to 0.2%) and contains 0.3%
of carbon. The 43XX series alloys are further examples of medium carbon low alloy
steels. Adding up to 1.8% of Ni, in addition to the chromium, increases stability,
hardenability and fatigue strength. Theses steels achieve high strength and ductility
through hardening and tempering processes. The values reached vary among the different
heat treatment processes.
SAE Other 1.7218, 25CrM04

4130 denominations
Composition: (according to specification 1.7218) *0.25% C, 0.25% Si, 0.7% Mn, 1.05%
Cr, 0.25% Mo
Tensile
strength: max. ca. 1.750 N/mm2
Yield limit: max. ca. 1.400 N/mm2

*=inaccuracies regarding the alloying element contents between different standard

systems have to be considered. According to AISI: max. 0.95% Cr, according to DIN: 1.05%
Cr / 25CrMo4: Cr.
SAE 4340 Other denominations 1.6565, 40NiCrM06

Composition: 0.4%C, 0.25% Si, 0.7% Mn, Cr, 0.25% Mo
Tensile strength: max ca. 1.950 N/mm2
Yield limit: max ca. 1.800 N/mm2
• Precipitation hardening* stainless steels (PH steel)
PH steels are another type of aviation alloy. Their major advantage over the two groups
listed above is their outstanding corrosion resistance. On the other hand, processing PH
steel is more difficult, as they can only be forged at lower temperatures to prevent
microstructure damage. This process requires 30-50% more forging force than, for
example, for 4340 steel. It is often rather difficult to machine these stainless steels as they
are very stable and elastically deformable, while being very ductile and not conductive to
heat. The behavior of PH steel in machining processes is often described as being
"rubbery". The material tends to produce built-up edges on tools, meaning the high
pressures and temperatures cause the chippings to weld to the tool's edge. These steels'
technological properties can be influenced using different heat treatments or cold
deformation processes.
*=During this type of heat treatment process, external atoms (alloying elements) are
introduced into the metal's structure by heating the material to up to around 5000Cfor
multiple hours. These alloying element atoms concentrate in impurity phases, which are
embedded homogenously within the metal's structure, their different crystal shape
preventing the movement of dislocations. Dislocations being a major carrier of plasticity,
this process hardens the metal significantly.
Example of a steel from this group
17/4 PH Other denominations 1.4542, X5CrNiCuN) 16-4, AISI 630

Composition: 0.04% C, 0.25 % Mn, Cr, 4-5% Ni, 3.25% Cu, 0.3% Nb
Tensile strength: max ca. 1.450 N/mm2
Yield limit: max ca. 1.380 N/mm2

• Maraging steels
The term "maraging" is a portmanteau of "martensitic" (a type of crystalline structure)
and "age hardening" (precipitation hardening). While the PH steels described above
depend on carbon forming the impurity phases that provide the stability, maraging steels
have a very low carbon content of up to 0.03%. In these metals, carbon has a negative
effect on stability, ductility and deformability. The stability-improving impurity phases
consist of nickel-based compounds, which cause the high nickel content.
Maraging steels exhibit very good hardenability characteristics as well as an

advantageous combination of stability, toughness and ductility. Maraging 300 is a steel
from this group that is commonly used in aviation.
Maraging Other
300 denominations: DIN 1.6354
Composition: 0.03% C max., 0.10 Si, 0.01% Si max., 0.01% P
max.,18%Ni
Tensile strength: max. ca. 2.400 N/mm2
Yield limit: max. ca. 2.300 N/mm2
All the types of steel listed above have technological properties that exceed those of steels used
in every-day applications, for example construction steel, by far. W1ich type of steel is used for a
certain airplane component depends on both the requirements to hardness, strength, corrosion
resistance and ductility and how important forgeability, weldability and machinability are.
Economic aspects are of ever growing interest to manufacturers. The cost of manufacturing, heat
treatments and the lifetime of components are economic factors.
Details on: Internal Structure of Metals
Combining multiple identical unit cells results in a three-dimensional grid (lattice) that is
connected by the material's atoms. If such a mesh is free of irregularities and impurities, the
structure is called an ideal crystal.
When stresses apply to a material, the shear stress causes layers of atoms to be displaced in
relation to another. The atoms of one layer have to move along the atoms of the neighboring
layer to be displaced — like a bicycle riding a long a cobbled road. The more force is required to
displace a layer, the more stable a material is. Lattice defects impede this displacement, like
potholes would break the exemplary bike's movement.
Lattice defects can occur without any external influence during the cool-down process, if

additional atoms sit between the expected positions (interstitial atoms) or are absent from their
positions (lattice vacancy). Alloying is a way of interlocking the lattice, with differently-sized
atoms taking the place of the initial material. The "Frenkel defect" is a special type of point
defect in a lattice. It occurs if an atom leaves its place in the lattice and moves to another space,
creating a lattice vacancy and becoming an interstitial atom.
In practice, ideal crystals rarely form — most materials are real crystals that include defects.
Lattice Defects
Details on: Secondary Melting Processes
The technological characteristics of a steel improve with the degree of purity. Reactive elements
such as sulphur, phosphor or gasses solved in the metal impair its purity. As the melt comes into
contact with the oxygen contained in the surrounding air during the common production
processes, oxides of the alloys metals themselves add to the list of impurities. In order to fulfill
the
requirements posed to steels, the manufacturing process is either carried out under air exclusion
or the material is re-molten in furnaces or arc furnaces to improve purity.

• Vacuum Induction Melting Furnaces (VIM)

VIM are among the most common secondary steelmaking processes, refining molten
steel by improving the preciseness of their chemical compound. In this process, steel is
produced in a vacuum within an arc furnace. This prevents the inclusion of non-metallic
oxides and prevents reactive contaminants from oxidizing. In conventional furnaces, the
alloying element aluminum can bind gasses and remove slag. The vacuum of the VIM
process does this more effectively, as the gasses in the melt move into the vacuum
environment automatically.
VIM facility: Both melting and cool-down take place in the vacuum chamber.
• Vacuum Arc Re-melting (VAR)
In addition to the purifying effect of the VIM process, the VAR process facilitates
influencing the metal's microstructure. The process can be used for steels as well as
titanium and nickel alloys. The reactivity of heated titanium makes it a requirement to use
vacuum processes. In order to carry out this process, the material has to be prepared by
being shaped, usually into long cylinders. A high DC current (multiple kA) is applied to
the cylinder in a vacuum chamber. A defined distance between the cylinder and a ground
plate creates an arc between the plate and the material to be molten. After melting, the
material solidifies. The main challenge of the VAR process lies in controlling the
solidification process by controlling the cool-down rate in order to achieve the desired
metal microstructure.

VAR facility: The material cylinder (black) is contained in a vacuum and molten by an arc during a continuous process before sol
d fling under controlled conditions.

Details on: Properties of Steel
Iron-Carbon Diagram
Iron and carbon, depending on the mixture of both elements and the temperature, form different
lattices and metal structures.
Lattice and microstructure changes can take place both in fluid and solid state.
Iron-carbon diagram
Characteristic points in the diagram are represented by standardized letters, as are the lines on
which the states of the carbon-iron mixture change due to temperature and carbon content
changes. The line along the letters A-E-C-F is called solidus line, as the mixture is completely
solid below this temperature. The line A-C-D is called liquidus line, as the mixture is completely
fluid in this area. The G-S-K line has to be crossed for hardening steels.

As steels, according to the definition, have a carbon content of 2.06%, the following section will
concentrate on the respective area of the carbon-iron diagram.
The 'steel corner" of the carbon-iron diagram

The element iron can only solve a limited amount of the element carbon, just like a glass of
water can only absorb a certain amount of sugar. If this amount is exceeded, the sugar remains in
crystal form. If the amount of soluble carbon in the microstructure is exceeded, it is incorporated
in another shape.
Different microstructure types exhibit different solvability (the amount of carbon that can be
absorbed by a given amount of iron). The structure also varies with temperature. Along the G-S-
K line, the structure called Austentite transforms into structures that can solve different amounts
of carbon. The resulting processes on an atomic level and the microstructure changes that follow,
are employed in heat treatment.
The resulting microstructure components have different properties:
• Austentite consists of mixed crystals with a body-centered cubic structure. The maximum
solvability for carbon is 2.06%. The microstructure isn't very hard but deformable and is
hence used in forming processes.
• Ferrite has a body-centered cubic structure. Pure ferrite has a carbon content of below
0.02%.
• Cementite is an iron-carbon compound that can't be solved in iron. Its chemical
compound is Fe3 C, iron carbide. Cementite has a very complex microstructure, with a
needle-shaped composition. It is very hard and brittle, making it wear-resistant but
unsuitable for forming processes.
• Perlite is a mixture of ferrite and finely-striped cementite inclusions, resulting in a hard,
brittle, lamellae-shaped microstructure.
Alloying elements can change the way these microstructures form. There are hence separate
phase diagrams for each alloy. Nickel, cobalt and manganese promote the creation of austentite
and ensure that the microstructure stays austentite at room temperature if present in sufficient
quantity. Ferrite-creating alloys have the opposite effect — for example chrome, molybdenum,
vanadium, aluminum or titanium. It has to be considered that alloying elements can also have an
effect on other alloying elements.
The microstructure changes shown in the phase diagram form in that way if the solidification
takes place slowly. Abrupt quenching causes different processes, which lead to a different
microstructure.

Other Steel Grades (Selection)
Other Steel Denominations

• Machining steel
In most cases, phosphor and sulphur are unwelcome components of steel and are seen as
contaminants. For the use as machining steel, these elements are used as alloying
elements. Phosphor and sulphur have the effect of decreasing the length of shavings.
Machining steel isn't suitable for welding, it is used for processing into machined parts on
automatic lathes. The short-breaking shavings are a requirement for disruption-free
operation. Long, spindle- shaped shavings that are generated when turning other types of
steel, have to be removed by hand in order to prevent them from collecting on the tool
edge and disturbing the process. When using machining steel, human labor is only
required for mounting and removing the work piece. Machining steel is mainly used for
low-stress small parts that require significant machining process time, such as small
fixings and fastening elements, small shafts or hydraulic actuator pistons.
1.0715 Other denominations 9SMn30

Composition: C, S, 1,196 Mn, P
Tensile strength: depending on strain hardening: ca. 400-800 N/mm2
Yield limit: ca. 350-700 N/mm2
Here: Steel grade 07 — high P or S content, low-alloy, machining steel used for the mass
production of fastening components (bolts, nuts, pins) in automotive production and steel
construction.

• Case hardening steel

In order to facilitate hardening by heat treatment, steel has to have a certain minimum
carbon content. Increased amounts of carbon have negative effects on other factors, such
as forgeability. In order to harden low carbon steels, it can be put into a carbon-rich
environment — the carbon diffuses into the outer layers of the material. This process is
called case hardening.
Although all low carbon steel can be hardened by employing this process, mainly case
hardening steels as per DIN EN 10084 are made subject to the procedure. These steels
have a carbon content of between around 0.1 and 0.3%, e.g. 1.7131 (16MnCr5) and
1.6587 (18CrNiM07-6).
• Hot-forming tool steel

Hot-forming tool steels assume continuous temperatures above 2000C when in operation.
Temperature peaks occurring during operation may exceed this value. Hot forming tool
steel is used for forming processes on work pieces consisting of ferrous and non-ferrous
materials that take place at high temperatures. It is the material of choice for forms and
dies used in die casting, drop forging, extruding or tube and glass manufacturing. The
contact of tool and hot work piece adds thermal stress on the contact patch between tool
and work piece to the numerous other stresses it is subject to. Hot forming tool steels can
be both low and high- alloy.
• High speed steel

Machining tools (drills, lathe chisels, cutters), can consist of high speed steel (HSS). The
alloying elements tungsten, molybdenum, vanadium and cobalt as well as heat treatment
give high speed steel wear-resistance, high hardness, heat resistance up to 6000C and
tempering resistance. High speed steel is denominated by the abbreviation HS and,
separated by hyphens, the average percentages of the alloying elements tungsten
molybdenum (MO), vanadium (V) and cobalt (Co). For example: HS 12-1-4-5:
Composition ca. 12 % tungsten, 1 % molybdenum, 4 % vanadium, 5 % cobalt.
• High-grade steel
In everyday use, the term high-grade steel is often used synonymously with stainless
steel. It does actually describe the absences of contaminants such as phosphor or sulphur.
There are types of high-grade steel that do corrode. High-grade steel differs from other
types of steel by the improved removal of oxygen from the melt, more complex
manufacturing and a more exact compound.
Steel grades can overlap. Low- or high-alloy steels can be used as tool steel and case-hardened.
If the tool manufactured from it is used as a hot forming die, the steel could also be called hot

forming tool steel.
Heat Treatment and Application of Alloy Steels
The technological properties of steel can vary between steels of the exact same chemical
compound. Mainly
• Hardness (—Hardening)
• Stability (—Hardening, Refining)
• Processability (—Tempering)
can be improved by heat treatments. The exceptional stability, ductility and hardness values of
aviation material can only be achieved using heat treatment processes. The improvements are
based on a change in the metals' microstructure.
Hardening
Steel is a composite of iron and carbon. As hardening processes employ the interactions between
iron and carbon atoms, a minimum carbon content of 0.2% C is a prerequisite for the following
procedures.
Iron can only absorb a limited amount of solved carbon (similar to the solubility of sugar in
water). The solubility of carbon in iron depends on temperature.

Heating above the GSK line (ref. iron-carbon diagram): face centered cubic austentite microstructure lattice absorbing additional
carbon atoms
When the metal cools down below a temperature of 7230C, the lattice transitions from the face-
centered cubic shape to the smaller body-centered cubic shape.

Below the G-S-K line: Re-transformation from face-centred cubic back to body-centred cubic — the C atom diffuses out of the
lattice, agglomeration of cementite
If the cool-down process is accelerated by quenching the material in water or oil, the lattice
structure changes at the speed of sound (the lattice "folds"). The carbon doesn't have the time to
diffuse out of the lattice, it is "trapped" in the face-centred cubic lattice and has to compete for
space with the Fe atoms. This tensions the crystal and slightly changes its dimension. Tension
within the lattice make the material hard.
The resulting crystalline structure is called martensite.

Quenching: Unit cell deformed by the lacking space for the carbon atom that didn't get enough time to diffuse out of the crystal.
Microscopic view of martensite (enlarged 300x), typical fine acicular structure

The process steps consist of heating the material and maintaining its temperature above the G-S-
K line (solution annealing) until the elements have solved completely and abrupt quenching.
Temperature profile during hardening
Surface Hardening
Many applications require high hardness steel. The heat treatment carried out to achieve high
hardness values increase brittleness, making the component sensitive to impact and shock loads.
A combination of soft, ductile core material and hard, wear-resistant surface can be achieved
using surface hardening processes, which heat a defined layer of the surface of the material to the
required temperature for hardening. After quenching, the change in crystalline structure (see
above) has only taken place in the areas that were heated to a sufficient temperature. The core
maintains the structure it had before hardening.
Examples of parts that employ surface hardening are gear wheels, roller bearing components,
crankshafts and camshafts.

Heating can be effected by a gas-oxygen flame, with a subsequent spray of water preventing the
core of the component from heating up excessively.
Flame hardening: The vertical shaft is heated up by an annular burner, which is followed by a quench The shaft IS fed through
the assembly at a constant speed
Induction hardening uses a radio frequency coil instead of the burner for heating the material to
be treated. The arrangement is similar to a transformer, with the coil acting as the primary
winding and the work piece representing the secondary winding. At a sufficient frequency, the
induced currents only heat the outer layer of the work piece.

Induction hardening I: the surface of a gear wheel is heated inductively

Induction hardening Il: Quenching by water jets
Case Hardening / Nitriding
Case hardening also produces components that exhibit a hard surface but soft core. As opposed
to the purely thermal process of surface hardening, case hardening and nitriding are
thermochemical procedures.
The processes described above require the steel to have a carbon content of at least 0.3%. If the
steel's carbon content is below that limit, it can be enriched by diffusing carbon from a carbon-
rich atmosphere into the material at temperatures of around 9000C. Carburization takes place in a
powder bed, salt bath or in an environment filled with carbon-rich gas.
Carbon or nitrogen (nitriding) is incorporated into the metal surface by diffusion. Case hardening
effects higher hardness during a later hardening process while nitriding forms hard metal nitrides
in the surface. These metal nitrides constitute the hardening element instead of the martensite
structure fulfilling this role in normal hardening processes. Nitride hardening has the advantage
of requiring lower temperatures of around 450-5800C, which minimizes warping and reduces the
amount of rework. Drawbacks include the weak connection between the hardened layer and the
core material, which can lead to chipping under high surface pressures.
Nitride hardening processes end with the removal of the work piece from the nitrogen-rich
atmosphere. Carburizing for case-hardening is the starting point of the sequence of hardening,

quenching and annealing processes.
Case hardening has the advantage of delivering higher potential case depths. Drawbacks include
the high process temperatures of around 9000C.
Micrograph of a case-hardened gear wheel's tooth.
Tempering
After quenching, the steel is glass-like as the hard and brittle martensite carries lattice tensions
that become visible as changes in dimension and shape (quench distortion) or hardening cracks.
In order to prevent premature brittle fractures that may occur as a consequence, the freshly-
hardened material is heated to a temperature below the critical point. After being held at that
temperature for some time, the material is cooled down slowly. The tempering temperature for
non-alloyed steels is around 2500C-3000C, while high-alloyed steels are tempered at between
5000C and 6500C. Tempering reduces the metal's brittleness and increases the degree of ductility.
Hardness is only decreased marginally, as the crystal structure changes are little.
Tempering temperature and time have to be adjusted to the steel type in question and the desired
characteristics.

Quenching and Tempering
Quenching and tempering is a heat treatment used to increase ductility at a defined tensile
strength and elongation at fracture. The procedure is a sequence of hardening and tempering
processes. As in other hardening processes, the material is heated above its transformation
temperature (7230C-9000C) before being quenched in water or oil. W1ich quenching agent is
used depends on the carbon and alloying element content of the steel in question.
After heating and quenching, the hardened steel is tempered. The difference between the
quenching and tempering steps lies in the different tempering temperatures. Tempering employs
temperatures of between 4500C and 7000C. The martensite formed during quenching
decomposes to ferrite while at the same time generating fine cementite. The fine grain
microstructure is produced by carbon diffusion from the also fine-grained martensite during the
quick cool-down process.
Tempering gives the steel some ductility in order to fulfill all mechanical requirements. This is
especially sensible for components subject to abrupt and dynamic loads that hence need to be
highly ductile.
Quenching and tempering thus produces steel offering a good compromise between stability,
hardness and ductility.
Temperature profile during quenching and tempering

Annealing
Annealing is a combined heat treatment that involves heating the material to a defined
temperature and maintaining that temperature prior to a slow-rate cool down. It is used to
improve certain material characteristics.
Annealing processes are distinguished by the desired result:
• Normalization
Normalization is used to make a heterogeneous, large-grained structure unified and fine-
grained, giving the material optimum stability and deformation characteristics. It is used,
for example, on cast-iron components or welded assemblies.
Structure change during normalization
• Stress-relief annealing is used where the work piece may distort or fracture due to the
residual stresses present. These stresses may be result of the lattice volume increase
occurring during the creation of martensite, uneven temperature changes or cold
deformation.
• Soft annealing (Spherodising)
The structure resulting from soft annealing delivers the best processability for steels with
a carbon content of above around 0.5%. The grainy cementite structure delivers optimum
deformability for all types of cold deformation, e.g. by extruding, heading or drawing.

Structure change during soft annealing
• Subcritical annealing (process annealing, recrystallization annealing)

Cold deformation (drawing, rolling, extruding, heading) elongates the metal's structure in
the direction of deformation, increasing its stability. This effect decreases the material's
deformability (strain hardening). After a certain degree of deformation (depending on the
material), the work piece has to be annealed for recrystallization, returning it to its initial
structure.
Structure change during subcritical annealing
Precipitation Hardening
The process of precipitation hardening (age hardening) can only be used for certain types of steel
alloys. It is initially identical to conventional hardening treatments. The mixture of alloying
elements are homogenized by solution annealing. Quenching produces a solid solution
containing a higher amount of an element than it could solve at room temperature. This state is
called oversaturated structure. By re-heating the material to a temperature far below the G-S-K
line, the excess atoms in the lattice start to move and collect in impurity phases. These phases
tension the lattice and hinder the movement of dislocations.

Temperature profile of precipitation annealing
Effect of the impurity phase in the lattice

Prior Considerations Regarding Heat Treatments
Due to the large number of available heat treatments, all carrying advantages and drawbacks, it is
important to take certain decisions in the design phase:
• How should the manufacturing process take place?

• In which process are what distortions (dimension changes) relevant?
• Which stresses occur? (e.g. impacts, corrosion, temperature, abrasion)
• What budget is available for heat treatment?
• Which material is to be used?
• How deep does the hardening need to be and which process is the most suitable?
• Which pre-treatments are necessary in which process step?
Further Annealing Processes
• Diffusion annealing (homogenization annealing)

Diffusion annealing is used to homogenize differential alloying element distributions in
the lattice. The desired end result is an even array of solid solution crystals. The
temperatures for diffusion annealing are between 11000C and 13000C and have to be
maintained for 40 to 50 hours. The resulting grain coarsening can be remedied by
normalization annealing.
• Coarse-grain annealing is a process for fine-grain structure steels containing less than
0.4% of carbon. As these steels tend to form continuous chips, making the surface
uneven. The treatment produces a slightly more brittle ferrite-perlite structure, which is
less stable but easier to process in machining. Annealing takes place over multiple hours
at temperatures about 1500C above the G-S-K line before the material cools down slowly.
Subsequent normalization annealing processes can improve the mechanical properties.
Testing of Ferrous Materials for Mechanical Loads

Aims of Material Testing
• Determining characteristic values of material properties (for research, design, technology,

manufacturing)
• Determining the cause of damage (aiming to prevent future damage)
• Accompanying material development and the economic application of materials
The following section will introduce four mechanical material testing procedures for the
properties hardness, tensile strength, fatigue strength and impact resistance.

Hardness
Hardness is tested using different methods. All standard testing procedures involve a test piece
(indenter) through which a constant, defined compressive force is applied to the body. The
indentation left by the indenter is then measured. The magnitude of the force and the geometry of
the indentation is used to calculate a hardness value. The testing procedures introduced below
are static tests, meaning the indentation takes place at a slow rate and the indenter doesn't bounce
back from the surface of the material to be tested.
Schematic of a hardness tester
When working with different hardness test procedures, it may be necessary to convert hardness
values measured using one test method to one of the others. This is why there are empirical
conversion values that were determined in a multitude of comparative tests. These conversion
values are listed in tables that are standardized in EN ISO 18265 (formerly DIN 50150).

• Brinell hardness test
Steel ball indenter and the respective indentation

• Vickers hardness test
Pyramid-shaped indenter and the respective indentation

• Rockwell hardness test
Cone-shaped indenter under minor load (left), minor load + major load (right)
Tensile Strength
Tensile testing in accordance with DIN EN ISO 10002 is a procedure that determines the
strength
of a material under tensile stress. These tests facilitate analyzing the behavior of a material
subject
to continuously growing tensile stress distributed evenly along its cross-section. The tensile load
can be generated by hydraulic or threaded spindle assemblies.
A standardized specimen is elongated in the testing assembly until it ruptures, with the force and
elongation being recorded. The force, relative to the sample's initial cross-section, gives stress
and
the percent increase in length the strain (elongation).
• Stress
Stress = Force / Area
The calculation result has the unit N/mm2. The index "T" of the formula symbol "o"
represents the tension.

• Strain
Strain = Length change / Initial length

Strain values are either dimensionless numbers or, multiplied by 100, percentages.
Deformation of a tensile strength sample

Stress and strain, when plotted on a diagram, give a characteristic curve for the respective
material. The curve visualizes, amongst others, the peak stress the material can resist — ultimate
strength. The stress-strain curve also shows how far a material can be elongated elastically,
meaning without plastic deformation. This value is called yield strength Re and is usually more
relevant for practical application, as plastic deformation of components should usually be ruled
out. The example shows a rather clear transition from elastic to plastic deformation. If the
transition isn't as abrupt but more fluid, plastic elongation is defined as above 0.2% of permanent
deformation. The stress value in this point is called elastic limit Rp 0.2
The stress-strain diagram also shows how far a material can be elongated plastically before
rupturing.
Tensile strength testing results of different materials in a stress-strain diagram

a. Construction steel: uneven transition from elastic to plastic deformation

b. High-strength ferrous materials (e.g. annealed steel): no clearly visible yield limit, hence
elastic limit. Withstands higher forces than a) before deforming plastically.
c. Soft metallic materials (e.g. copper): Low yield limit, high plastic deformation before
rupture. (uncritical rupture characteristics)
d. Carbon fibre/ glass fibre: withstand high tensile forces without plastic deformation.
Elastic deformation is followed immediately by rupture.
Schematic of a tensiometer

Fatigue Strength
The characteristic values determined in material tensile testing only give information about static
load state behavior. As nearly all components are subject to dynamic loads when in operation,
materials are tested in dynamic fatigue tests. These tests involve applying material-specific load
cycles. For aviation components, 108 load cycles are a typical value. The result of these tests is
called S-N curve (also Wöhler curve). The S-N-curve contains two main pieces of information:
• Fatigue limit:
The fatigue limit captures the load, at which a component theoretically withstands an
infinite number of cycles. If this load is increased, the component fails.
• Fatigue strength:
Fatigue strength defines at which load the component withstands a given number of
cycles. If the number of cycles is increased, the component fails.
S-N curve

Impact Resistance
Beam impact testing (or Charpy impact testing) is procedure used to qualitatively determine the
impact resistance of a material. A pendulum held at a defined height is dropped onto the notched
specimen that rests in a support. The pendulum fractures the specimen when hitting it. The
difference between the initial height of the pendulum H and the height it reaches after
rebounding h is a measure of the work required to fracture the material. Brittle materials put up
less resistance to the pendulum than ductile materials.
Schematic of a pendulum impact testing machine

Shape of the specimen: Top view (left), side View

Non-Ferrous Aircraft Materials

Characteristics and Identification of common Non-Ferrous Materials
Aluminum
Density: 2.7 kg/dm3
Tensile strength: Pure Al: Depending on the heat treatment between 25 and 110 N/mm2, alloyed
and heat treated: up to 530 N/mm2
Yield limit: Pure Al: up to 80 N/mm2 alloyed and heat treated: up to 450 N/mm2
Elastic modulus: ca. 70.000 N/mm2
Crystal structure: Face-centred cubic
Due to its strength and, compared to steel, low weight, aluminum is a traditional aviation
material. Airships were first built around an aluminum structure in 1911. These airships were
soon followed by the first full metal aluminum structure aeroplanes, such as the Junkers F13
(1919).
Aluminum is the most-used material in the majority of today’s jet airliners. New designs with a
high share of fiber composites, such as the Boeing 787 and the Airbus A350 will reduce the
dominance of aluminum as an aerospace material. Nevertheless, newly developed aluminum
alloys will ensure the attractiveness of aluminum for some time to come.
Material shares

As aluminum alloys offer a multitude of advantageous properties, they are of special importance
to the aerospace industry. These properties, depending on the alloy, include:
• Favorable strength to weight ratio

Aluminum alloys exhibit similar strength to weight ratios as the stronger, but heavier
steel and titanium alloys.
• The possibility of varying strength, hardness and processability within wide ranges. In a
soft-annealed state, components are easily deformable. Subsequent heat treatments can
significantly increase hardness after forming.
• Good cold and hot deformability
• Good machinability
Machining processes can be carried out at high cutting speeds while the requirements to
machining tools are rather basic. The good thermal conductivity of aluminum allows easy
heat transfer through cooling agents during machining.
• High availability and hence rather low purchase prices
• Excellent corrosion resistance of pure aluminum
Pure aluminum forms a thick oxide layer on its surface when coming into contact with
aerial oxygen. This oxide layer prevents further oxygen or corrosive from reaching the
core material and causing corrosion there. Pure aluminum passivates.
Aluminum alloys commonly used in aviation do not passivate and are susceptible to
intergranular corrosion. This type of corrosion only occurs if the material comes into contact
with electrically conductive fluids (electrolytes). In order to isolate the core material from
electrolytes, aluminum sheets are plated with a layer of pure aluminum of 2-3% of the total
thickness.

Plated sheet metal (schematic)
In spite of the rapid rise of fiber composite materials in aircraft construction, it is too early to
disregard aluminum as a material. Evolutions of Al alloys offer advantages that will continue to
make them attractive even compared to composites. Lithium, as an alloying element, gives
aluminum a higher elasticity modulus (stiffness) while reducing its density by up to 15%.
Problems of these alloys regarding corrosion resistance and brittleness have been cured by
modern developments. Al-Li alloys offer weights saving of up to 10% compared to conventional
aluminum aviation materials.
Aluminum has the advantage of being compatible with conventional manufacturing processes,
while the development of series production processes for composite primary structure
components took years of research for the Boeing 787 and A350.
From 2020 on, Boeing with put the new generation of the long-range Boeing 777 into service. In
contrast to the main competitor, the A350, its fuselage structure will consist entirely of Al-Li
alloys. The structure of the next generation of Boeing 737 s will also employ conventional
aluminum materials. Compared to composite fuselages, conventional fuselages save around 30%
of maintenance and repair cost.
Alloys
In contrast to steel, aluminum is seldom used in a non-alloyed form, as the technological
properties of pure aluminum render it unfit for most uses. Pure aluminum is only used in special
applications that necessitate characteristics such as electric conductivity and corrosion resistance.
Unlike non-alloyed steel, the stability, hardness and ductility of pure aluminum cannot be
improved by heat treatment.
The most common alloying elements for aluminum are:
• Copper
• Produces heat-treatable alloys
• Increases strength and hardness
• Reduces corrosion resistance
• Magnesium
• Substantially increases strength
• Accelerates the curing process during heat treatment
• Improves strain hardening
• Zinc
• Increases strength and hardness
• Produces heat-treatable alloys when combined with magnesium
• Increases the risk of stress corrosion cracking
• Silicon
• Produces heat-treatable alloys when combined with magnesium
• Improves corrosion resistance
• Manganese
• Increases ductility and yield strength
• Improves corrosion resistance
• Lithium
• Reduces the alloys density (weight savings)
• Increases stiffness
• Producing the alloy while preventing heterogeneous structures, brittleness and
corrodibility is rather complex

Aluminum materials
Identification of Aluminum Materials

Similar to the denomination of steels, aluminum and its alloys are named after the conventions of
different systems. In the globalized world of aviation, it is important to be familiar with the
denominations used in international systems.
The following three examples show how the same material is denominated in three systems.
The material is a precipitation hardening wrought alloy with:
0.5% Fe
0.5% Si
3.8-49% Mg
0.3-0.9% Mn
1.2-1.8% Mg
as well as Cr, Zn, Ti. This alloy was first used in 1931 and is one of today’s most frequently used
aluminum materials for the structure (stringers and bulkheads) and skin of airplane fuselages and
wings. It exhibits a good combination of stiffness, strength and fatigue resistance.

The material is available in different tempering states (here: T3). These suffixes are usually
carried over into all international nomenclatures.
Aluminum Association (AA) Naming Scheme
Aluminum Association (AA) designation

Designation according to EN10 027
Designation accord ng to EN 10 027
Designation According to EN 573
Designation accord ng to EN 573
Titanium
The outstanding strength to weight ratio of titanium and titanium alloys is what makes them
suitable for aviation applications. Titanium alloys are as strong as high-alloy steel at significantly
lower weight.

Titanium is also highly corrosion-resistant, passivating when it comes into contact with oxygen
(similar to Al). The resulting passive layer makes the material resistant to corrosion against a
multitude of aggressive media. Reactions do take place with dry chlorine, hydrogen, liquid
oxygen, phosphate-ester based hydraulic fluid, phosphor acid and others.
Titanium alloys are substantially more resistant to fatigue than other materials, which is why
they are often used as a material for high-stress pressure bulkheads in pressurized cabins or for
structural components in fighter jets. In both examples, load changes are of high amplitude and
frequency.
Due to the excellent properties of titanium, it represents 42% of the Lockheed-Martin F-22 s
structural mass. 8.3% of the Boeing 777 consists of titanium materials. The engines of passenger
jets employ titanium materials for the fan, low pressure compressor and two thirds of the high
pressure compressor.
The low potential for corrosion when in contact with carbon fiber materials is another advantage
titanium materials have over aluminum alloys. Components subject to high compressive loads
that hence require a wear-resistance surface or components whose manufacture from composite
materials aren’t economically sound will continue to be made out of metals. Where these metals
meet carbon fiber, there is a danger of contact corrosion. As titanium is closer to carbon on the
electrochemical series than aluminum, the potential for electrochemical corrosion in the form of
contact corrosion is lower if metal components are made out of titanium instead of aluminum.
Moreover, many titanium alloys maintain the characteristic of passivating while the Al-Cu alloys
commonly used in aviation don't passivate, losing the natural corrosion protection layer.
The limiting factor when using titanium is the high cost relative to steel or aluminum alloys,
caused by the complex production and processing methods. Relating to mass, titanium
components are 10 times more expensive in production and processing than aluminum parts.
Increasing demand on the global titanium market will lead to growing prices for the foreseeable
future.

Titanium components: BO 105 main rotor hub
Itanium components: GE CFE fan blades
Identification of Titanium Materials

Similar to other materials, titanium and its alloys are denominated according to the guidelines of

different international systems. Some systems use identification standards comparable to those
for other materials, while other systems are only applicable to titanium.
The following three examples describe the same material. Internationally, the most common
designation for this material is Ti6Al4V. It is the most commonly used titanium material, for
example for compressor blades and disks. The alloy passivates very quickly and is hence rather
corrosion-resistant. Its strength can be increased significantly by heat treatments.
• Compound: 6% Al,4% V
• Tensile strength: min. 895 N/mm2
• Yield limit min. 830 N/mm2
According to EN 10 027
According to EN 10 027
As DIN short name
As DIN short name

In practice, the position of the numbers representing the percentage share of alloying elements
varies. Depending on the publication, the same material may be called TiA16V4.
US-Grades
Grade 5
The American standard system allocates titanium materials with running grades. There are 38
grades, which don't convey any information about the respective material's chemical compound
or mechanical properties.
Nickel
Due to its high density of 8.9 g/cm3, nickel doesn't seem like a suitable material for aviation at
first glance. As nickel-base alloys (nickel content > 50%) are highly resistant to thermal,
mechanical and corrosive stress, they are indispensable in the high-temperature sections of jet
engines. Since the maximum power output and efficiency of a jet engine depend on high turbine
inlet temperatures, Engine manufacturers aim to increase this parameter. The material of guide
vanes and turbine disks are the limiting factor. During engine start-up, the turbine engine
temperature can reach up to 1.4000C, dropping to 1.1500C in cruise flight. As these values are
above the melting point of high temperature resistant alloys (e.g. INCONEL 718: 1260-13360C),
additional turbine blade cooling is required.
The advantages of nickel alloys include:
• High thermal and mechanical strength, corrosion-resistance

• Material characteristics can be adjusted by varying alloying elements and production
processes
• There are no structure changes below melting temperature
• High availability
• Processability, weldability, solderability (as oppose to powder metallurgical metals
and ceramic materials)
• Relatively immune to abrasive wear (on the turbine blade and disk connection point)
Their main drawbacks are as follows:

• More expensive than steel
• Relatively high density
• Harder to process than steel
• Relatively high thermal expansion coefficient
High temperature resistant alloys usually aren't denominated according to a standard but referred
to by the manufacturer's trademark name. These names are often suffixed with numbers that
don't signify the exact chemical compound, e.g.:
• Inconel 100: 60% Ni, 10%Cr ,15% Co,3% Mo, 4.7%Ti, 5.5% Al
• Inconel 718: 52,5% Ni,19% Cr, 3,0% MO, 5,1% Nb, 18,5 % Fe
Turbine blade consisting of a nickel-base alloy
It is hence always necessary to consider the exact specification of the material used. Freely
available material data sheets give detailed information. Further groups of high temperature
resistant materials include Hasteloy, Nimonic, Waspaloy. Cobalt-base alloys are also used as
high temperature-resistant materials, e.g. Haynes25: 50% Co, 20% Cr, 10% Ni, 15% W, 3% Fe.
Cobalt-base alloys exhibit lower strength values than nickel-base alloys. They are thus mainly
used for low mechanical stress applications where thermal strength and corrosion resistance are
key. Examples include turbine inlet guide vanes. These components experience the highest
degree of thermal stress in a jet engine, while there is little to no mechanical stress (as opposed to
the centrifugal force acting on a turbine blade).
These alloys are part of the group of materials colloquially known as "superalloys". This group
isn't clearly defined, the term is used for metals that are outstandingly corrosion and temperature
resistant. Many of these alloys are similar to non-corrosive steels from a metallurgical point of
view, but contain significantly more alloying elements.
Magnesium
Looking at the very low density of magnesium (around 1.7 kg/dm3), one could assume it plays a
major role in the production of airplane components. In practical application, the material is
subject to certain restrictions that lead to magnesium only being of limited relevance in this

industry. The use of magnesium has continuously decreased ever since world war Il. Magnesium
alloys compete with aluminum alloys for use in structural components. Compared to high
strength aluminum alloys, magnesium alloys exhibit lower strength (tensile strength of 140 —
350 N/mm2 (Mg) compared to 270 — 550 N/mm2 (Al)). Magnesium does have a lower density,
making it competitive in terms of specific strength and stiffness. Magnesium alloys have a
hexagonal microstructure that usually requires the material to be heated up prior to forming,
while aluminum can be processed at room temperature. The hexagonal microstructure
additionally creates anisotropic mechanical characteristics in cold rolled components. Moreover,
magnesium alloys are more expensive than comparable aluminum alloys. The most significant
limitation of the material is its low resistance to corrosion. Magnesium assumes the highest
position of all anodic elements on the electrochemical series, giving it a high potential for
corroding.
Corrosion on a helicopter
Some more modern magnesium alloys exhibit corrosion resistance similar to that of aluminum
alloys. Still, corrosion-protection surface treatment is indispensable. If the component's surface is
too uneven for further processing, it is smoothened using primer, which usually consists of zinc
chromates or titanium oxide. Magnesium alloys are often protected against corrosion using the
electrochemical process of anodising (anodic oxidising).
Magnesium alloys have extraordinarily good damping characteristics, which is why magnesium
components are often found in areas subject to strong vibration, for example helicopter
transmission casings.
By alloying titanium with aluminum, its strength, hardness and castability can be improved
greatly. Adding more than 6% of aluminum enables precipitation hardening. Zinc is the second
most important alloying element in magnesium alloys, refining the impurity phases in Mg-Al
alloys.
Details on: Alloys

Cast Alloys / Wrought Alloys
Aluminum alloys are usually classified into three categories: non-precipitation-hardenable

wrought alloys, precipitation-hardenable wrought alloys and cast alloys. Initially, all three types
of alloy are cast material. Cast aluminum is a rather brittle and badly formable material. The
material is worked to homogenize the coarse, heterogeneous microstructure, making it more
suitable for forming processes (e.g. rolling).
Non-precipitation-hardenable alloys cannot be hardened using precipitation hardening processes.

These alloys are usually hardened in strain hardening procedures. Strain hardening uses any
plastic deformation (rolling, bending, stretching) to admix pre-existing, strength-increasing
lattice defects. The interaction between these irregular areas tensions/deforms the lattice,
increasing strength. Increased strength at the same time increases brittleness. This raises the risk
of fracture in these sections of the component as well as decreasing its resistance to crack
propagation.
Details on: Identification of Aluminum Materials
Denomination according to the Aluminum Association (AA)

Aluminum alloys can be registered with the AA by the limits of their alloying compound:
• The "teal sheets" "International Alloy Designations and Chemical Composition

Limits for Wrought Aluminum and Wrought Aluminum Alloys" list the registered
aluminum wrought alloys.
• The "pink sheets" "Designation and Chemical Composition Limits for Aluminum
Alloys in Form of Castings and Ingots" list all registered aluminum cast alloys.
The *American Society for Testing and Materials" (ASTM), „Society of Automotive Engineers"
(SAE), a well as military and regulatory standards conform with the AA system of denomination.
Aluminum manufacturers produce and supply materials registered in the data sheets introduced

above. A "2024" alloy produced by a certain manufacturer may be within the limits specified in
the data sheet but actually exhibit a chemical compound of much tighter tolerances in order to
achieve characteristics desired by the customer. In order to fulfill these application requirements,
manufacturers can suffix the original specifications to further define the base alloy. These
suffixes aren't standardized by the AA. The manufacturer ALCOA, for example, offers the 6022
alloy, amongst others, in the variants 6022-T43, 6022-T4E15, 6022-T4E32.
It is hence recommended to not only identify the material by the number but also by the system
one refers to, e.g. AA 2024, EN AW-2024 or Alcoa 2024.
Details on: Titanium

Structure of Titanium
There are two distinct crystal structures (phases) of titanium. The first phase is present at room
temperature, is called alpha (a) phase and exhibits a hexagonal structure, while the beta (13)
phase, above 8820C, consists of body-centred cubic unit cells. Pure titanium at ambient
temperature hence consists mainly of the phase. Adding alloying elements changes the mass
ratios of the phases as well as the phase transition temperature. Elements that raise the transition
temperature by stabilizing a phase are called alpha stabilizers. Alpha stabilizers include
aluminum, oxygen, nitrogen and carbon.
Beta-stabilizers lower the phase transition temperature, enabling phase structures to persist at
room temperature. These elements are, amongst others, molybdenum, vanadium, columbium and
tantalum. Another group of beta stabilizers creates intermetallic phases in the microstructure, for
example manganese, chrome, silicon, iron, cobalt, nickel or copper.
Titanium alloys are categorized by the ratio of alpha to beta phase. There are alpha-, near-alpha-,
alpha-beta- and beta titanium alloys. The most common titanium alloy, Ti6A14V is an alpha-
beta alloy, with aluminum stabilizing the a- and vanadium the 13 phase. Both phases are hence
part of the alloy at room temperature.
Heat Treatment and Application of Non-Ferrous Materials

Aluminum
The most common heat treatment of aluminum in aviation components is precipitation

hardening. The name of this process may be misunderstood, as it isn't its primary goal to increase
hardness but strength.
The process comprises the following three steps:

1. Solution annealing in a convection air furnace or salt bath furnace

2. Quenching, usually in water
3. Ageing
The presence of alloying elements whose solubility in aluminum rises with temperature is a
prerequisite for precipitation hardening. Common aviation aluminum alloys feature copper as an
alloying element for precipitation hardening. During solution annealing, the alloying element
atoms are solved in the aluminum.
Copper atoms (orange) being solved in the aluminum lattice (solid solution). Atom structure during solution annealing and
quenching
After solution annealing, the alloy is quenched in water. The foreign atoms are "frozen" in their
positions and the solution is "supersaturated". The foreign atoms start to move and diffuse into
impurity phases within the aluminum lattice, tensioning and distorting the lattice and
strengthening the alloy by preventing dislocations in the lattice.
The curing and hardening process can be slowed by storing the material at low temperatures.
This effect is used in the heat treatment of aluminum rivets. In a cured state, the rivets are too
hard to be set. Deformation is possible after solution annealing and quenching. In order to
prevent the rivets from curing after quenching, they are stored in dry ice containers.

Accumulation of foreign atoms in an impurity phase
The accumulation of foreign atoms in a strengthening impurity phase takes multiple days at room
temperature. This process is called natural ageing. Heat treated sheets or rivets hence only reach
their full strength and ability to withstand the defined loads after that time.

Natural ageing of sheet metal
Heating the material during artificial aging has a positive effect on the dislocation of foreign
atoms. This effect causes a growth in the size of impurity phases of around 1 um, which
increases strength and hardness.

(Step-) artificial ageing of sheet metal
If the aging process takes place at temperatures above 1700C, the precipitations are relatively
large in size, up to 3 µm. This overcuring can decrease the material's strength.
Application of Aluminum Alloys

Due to their resistance to damage and crack propagation, 2XXX series aluminum alloys
(according to the Aluminum Association naming system) are often used for the outer skin of
airplane fuselages. The lower surface of civil airplane wings is also often clad with that alloy,
while the upper surface usually consists of 7XXX series alloys, as high strength is the primary
consideration for that area.
Titanium
Pure titanium assumes a hexagonal structure. If heated above the transformation temperature
(8820C for pure titanium), the lattice transitions to a body-centred cubic structure. Alloying
elements affect the crystal structure at room temperature. Usually, the material consists of a
mixture of hexagonal and body-centred cubic crystals. The temperatures chosen during heat

treatment is varied depending on the structure and distribution of differently-shaped crystals as

well as the properties to be achieved by the heat treatment. The annealing temperature and cool-
down rate influence the material's microstructure. Alloys of identical chemical compound may
hence exhibit drastically different microstructures, which bring about different mechanical
properties.
Details on: Aluminum
The solubility of copper in aluminum depends on temperature. Above the solubility curve, the
elements are in solid solution. Below the line, at lower temperature, the solid solution isn't stable
and a heterogeneous mixture of solid solution crystals and A12Cu impurity phases forms.
Solubility of copper in aluminum

Details on: Titanium
The properties of titanium alloys can be varied using different heat treatments. As the
possibilities are manifold and differentiated, we speak of "forming the structure". In contrast to
the hardening processes for steel, which aim to create a martensitic structure, varying the
parameters annealing temperature, time, cool-down rate and aging time produces different types
of microstructure that have distinct properties. The parameters have to be adjusted to the alloy.
Parameters for titanium alloy heat treatment
Adjusting the ratio of α and β phase in the material is one aim of heat treatment. If the annealing
temperature exceeds the alloy-specific transformation temperature, the share of β phase structure
grows. The cool-down rate determines what share of the β phase transitions back to α phase as
well as the microstructure in which the phases mix. The microstructure determines the alloys
mechanical properties.
Testing of Non-Ferrous Material for Mechanical Loads
Testing procedures for non-ferrous material regarding hardness, tensile strength, fatigue strength
and impact resistance don't vary from those for ferrous materials.

Aircraft Materials: Composite and Non-Metallic

Composite and Non-Metallic Aircraft Materials
Non-Metallic Materials
Non-metallic materials include the following categories:
• Plastics
Artificial, organic materials (organic chemistry concerns itself with carbon-based
compounds)
• Ceramics
Inorganic substances, base substances for technical ceramics include:
• Oxides
• Carbides
• Nitrides
• Borides
• Silicides
• Natural materials
Organic materials such as wood and leather
Composite Materials
When talking about composites, the focus quickly turns to the group of fiber composites. The
term composite generally describes any material consisting of a combination of two or more
materials that have different properties than the base materials.
• Particle-reinforced composites
e.g. sintered hard metal: Badly meltable, hardly alloyable intermetallic phases such as
metal carbides and metal nitrides are refined as very fine powder and sintered under
high pressure and temperature. The particles do not melt, but atoms diffuse on the
contact points between the different particles, connecting them. Application example:
Cutting plates for turning and milling machines.
• Impregnated composites
Lubricants can be incorporated into porous metal structures, lubricating plain
bearings over long times without having to add oil or grease.
• Layer composites
The different components are arranged in a number of layers.

Application example:
• Plated aluminum sheets: A layer of pure aluminum is rolled on the surface of a

strong, but corrodible aluminum alloy. The surface of the pure aluminum forms a
passive layer when coming into contact with air oxygen, protecting the core
material.
• Plywood: Thin layers of wood joined by glue. Arranging the individual layers at
different fiber orientating balances directional strength (anisotropy).
Fiber Composites
Fiber composites offer a multitude of advantages and are hence indispensable in modern
aviation. They are lightweight, can be tailored to the respective requirements, giving optimum
strength and stiffness for the application. Fiber composites are corrosion-resistant and can reduce
the number of parts and fastening elements if the right design is chosen. The high specific
strength (strength to weight ratio) and stiffness of high strength fibers for fiber composites,
especially carbon fiber, are sometimes higher than the peak values reached by aviation metal
alloys, leading to significant weight savings and hence improved performance. The use of fiber
composites in aeroplanes can thus increase their payload and range while saving fuel.
The first applications of fiber composite materials in aeroplanes took place in military aviation.
The F-14 and F-15 fighter jets featured fiber composites in small fuselage components and as
control surfaces. As saving weight was a major concern in the development of the VFOL AV-8B
"Harriel” 27% of its structure consisted of fiber composites (maiden flight in 1978).

Structural share of fiber composites in different aircraft
The first large-scale application of fiber composite components in civil aviation was the 1985
Airbus A320, being the first aircraft to be equipped with a fiber composite vertical and horizontal
stabilizer. The Airbus A320, A330 and A340 series exhibit fiber composite structural shares of
around 1596. Compared to military aircraft, the percentage share of fiber composites in civil
aeroplanes is rather small, but the respective components are much larger. The fiber composite
horizontal tail of a Boeing 777, for example, has the same area as the wings of a Boeing 737. The
Boeing 787 and Airbus A350 represent a major stepping stone in the use of fiber composites,
with about 50% of their structure consisting of these materials.

Principle: Fiber + Matrix gives fiber composite after curing
Structure of Plastics
Plastics are organic compounds that do not occur independently in nature. Organic chemistry,
save for a few exceptions, concerns itself with the compounds carbon forms with itself and other
atoms. These compounds include the building bricks of known life. Currently, there are about 40
million known organic compounds.
Gas and oil usually are the basis for plastics, as they mainly consist of compounds containing
carbon.
Plastics don't exhibit a crystalline structure like metals but consist of filiform macro molecules
(macro: Greek for large, far, long).

Typical structure of a macromolecule
Production of Plastics
The macromolecules discussed above are also called polymers (poly: Greek for "many") and are
made up of up to 40.000 smaller units, so-called monomers (monos: Greek for "alone", "single").
The accumulation of monomers to polymers usually takes place in one of three procedures:
Polymerisation, condensation polymerisation, and polyaddition.
Ethen (C2H, also Ethylene) is an example of a monomer. It is produced by cracking mineral oil
and exhibits a double bond. This double bond is a prerequisite for the reaction that combines the
monomers into the polymer typical for plastics.
1. Polymerisation
Ethene molecules are the base products of polymerisation.

In order to facilitate the reaction that forms the macromolecule, first the double bond has to
be split, either by light, heat or radicals (catalysts).
The split double bond creates two reactive interfaces for further molecules to attach to.
This combination continues to form a chain with additional molecules joining.

Materials such as polyvinyl chloride (PVC) or polystyrol are products of polymerisation.
2. Condensation polymerisation
Condensation polymerisation combines two or more different types of pre-combined
molecule components. The reaction from base element to macro molecule may take place
in multiple steps. The reaction produces macromolecules as well as elimination products
such as water, alcohols, ammonia or hydrogen chloride.
3. Polyaddition
During polyaddition, two or more different types of molecular components combine. The
reaction from base substance to macromolecule, similarly to the process of condensation
polymerisation, may take place in multiple steps but does not produce any elimination
products.

Product of polyaddition: Polyurethane
Classification of Plastics by Properties

Plastics are classified into three categories by their internal structure: Thermoplastics,
thermosetting plastics and elastomers. Each category is characterized by a differentiated internal
structure, giving materials from the same category similar mechanical properties under the
influence of heat.
1. Thermoplastics
During polymerisation, the macromolecules form a cotton ball-like structure. None of the
molecules are chemically bound to their neighboring molecule chains. The re-
introduction of heat at a later stage causes the chain molecules to absorb energy, but not
to liquefy. The material can only be plasticized (made softer). Thermoplastics are hence
suitable for hot forming processes such as bending and creasing, blowing, deep-drawing,
stretching or embossing. In granulate form, thermoplastics can be die cast. In aviation,
thermoplastics are used as cabin paneling, films or profiles (seat rests, door panels, etc.).
Thermoplastic structure: Filiform macromolecules without interconnection.

2. Thermosetting plastics
It is possible to produce long chain macromolecules that incorporate double bonds at
regular intervals along their length. Polymerisation hence produces a highly viscose resin,
which is "pre-polymerized". In this state, the resin can't be used as a material. The double
bonds incorporated into the molecule chain can be split by adding a second substance that
also contains double bonds. This substance is called hardener. The split double bonds can
now form new bonds with reactive interfaces of neighboring macromolecules. The
interconnection between the macromolecules forms a spatially connected and hence
spatially rigid structure of chain molecules. In addition to the loosely intermixed
threadlike molecules of thermoplastics, the threadlike molecules of thermosets interlink
wherever they contact. The contact points between the polymer chains are called cross-
links. A once hardened, cross-linked macromolecule grid can't be plasticized in a defined
manner, neither by introducing heat nor using solvents. The stability decrease below
decomposition temperature is minimal. Above decomposition temperature, the molecule
structure is destroyed permanently, the plastic burns or chars.
Structure of thermoset: Filiform macromolecules with numerous cross-links
3. Elastomers
Elastomers are formed by macromolecules that are intermingled and cross-linked in a
wide mesh. Elastomers can be deformed by multiple hundred percent by external force,
returning to its initial shape after the force seizes. The behavior of these plastics under
force is rubbery- elastic. Heat only slightly changes the elastic properties of elastomers,

making them slightly softer. Excessive heat causes elastomers to decompose without
gaining plasticity as thermoplastics would.
Structure of an elastomers, properties under load
Matrix
The matrix has the task of giving the fiber composite material the shape. The fibers are
embedded as uniformly as possible in the matrix.
Function of the matrix:
• Supporting and connecting the fibers in fiber composites

• Transmitting all forces into the fiber
• Keeping the fibers in position and direction
• Determining heat resistance and chemical resistance
Matrix materials
• Unsaturated polyester resin (UP resin)

Polyester resins are relatively low priced. They harden quickly and are often used for low
cost applications. Special UP resins that produce little smoke when coming into contact
with flames are used for airplane cabin components.

• Vinyl ester resins

The processability and hardening characteristics of vinyl ester resins are very similar to
those of conventional polyester resins. Corrosion resistance and mechanical properties of
these resins exceed those of standard polyester resins by far.
• Epoxy resins (EP resin)

The generic term epoxy resin describes a multitude of resins that exhibit varying
characteristics. EP resins reach high strength and stiffness, good adhesion and resistance
to chemicals, a low degree of hardening contraction and good processability. The main
drawbacks include the brittleness of the hardened matrix and the negative impact of
humidity on the material's properties. EP resins take longer to harden than UP resins. The
required temperatures vary between resins, from room temperature to 1800C.
• Phenol formaldehyde resins

These resins were first used at a large scale at the beginning of the 20th century. Urea
formaldehydes and melamine formaldehydes were introduced as alternatives for
application with low temperature variation. Phenol resins are used for cabin components
due to their self-extinguishing characteristics.
Characteristics of Fibers Commonly Used in Composites
The main task of fibers is to provide the required stiffness and stability in fiber composite
materials.
There is a multitude of fibers for different aviation and non-aviation laminate applications. In
aviation, glass fiber, aramid fiber and carbon fiber are the most common materials.
Glass Fiber
Glass fiber is the most common reinforcement material due to its combination of low cost and
good mechanical properties. Glass fibers are transparent but usually appear white due to light
refraction.
• E-glass (e=electric) is the most common type of glass fiber and is used on a large scale
for different fiber composite components.
E-glass is cost-efficient and offers rather low stiffness and fatigue strength compared to
carbon fiber. Density. 2.55-2.58 g/cm3, tensile strength: around 3-400 N/mm2, elastic
modulus: approx. 72.000 N/mm2

• S-glass (s structural) was developed as reinforcement for medical casts and for the body
of solid fuel rockets. Density, performance and cost are higher than those of e-glass or
carbon fiber.
Density: 2.45 g/cm3, tensile strength: around 4-500 N/mm2, elastic modulus: around.
86.000 N/mm2
• Quartz fiber is a very expensive, highly pure glass fiber mainly used for challenging
electrical applications.
Density: 2,2 g/cm3, tensile strength: around 3-300 N/mm2, elastic modulus: around
69.000 N/mm2
The melt used for producing e-glass contains pure quartz, limestone, kaolin and boric oxide. In
addition to Si02 (silicon oxide), it includes different amounts of metal oxides. The substances are
mixed in solid form before being molten in an oven. The molten glass flows through spinning
nozzles (bushing plate) at velocities of up to 60 m/s and temperatures of around 1250 oc before
cooling down immediately. The diameter of the fiber is determined by the nozzle diameter,
velocity, temperature, the viscosity of the melt and the cool-down rate. The fiber is susceptible to
mechanical abrasion decreasing its strength after manufacturing. It is therefore coated with a thin
layer of a lubricant and starch. This coating is removed using solvents or heat after the fibers
have been woven, being replaced by a coating that improves adhesion between matrix and fiber.
There are coatings that protect the fiber and improve adhesion at the same time. These coatings
remain on the fiber throughout the manufacturing process.
Aramid Fiber
Aramid fiber is an organic material whose stiffness and strength lie between glass fiber and
carbon fiber. The fiber "Kevlar" produced by DuPont is the most used aramid fiber. Other
common trademarks include "Nomex" or "Twaron". Without colouring, aramid fibers are of a
light yellow. UV radiation can make them change color to a bronze brown.
Aramid fiber is synthesized by condensation polymerisation. The fibers can only be produced
from solvents as the melting point is above the thermal decomposition point. The polymer
solution is extruded through small bore spinning nozzles before being washed, dried and coiled.
In contrast to glass and carbon fibers, aramid fibers require no surface coating.
Aramid fibers offer a combination of high tensile strength, stiffness while being lightweight,
ductile and impact resistant. Due to the low degree of adhesion between fiber and matrix, aramid
fibers laminates exhibit low strength abeam the fiber direction, low pressure strength and a
higher risk of delamination (decomposition of matrix and fiber) under shearing loads.
Due to its organic structure, the maximum application temperature of aramid fiber is around

1800C. Aramids are inflammable but self-extinguishing after the fire source ceases. The fibers
don't melt, giving the material a fire-retardant effect. Its heat conductivity is low.
Aramid fibers are resistant to solvents, fuels, lubricants, salt water etc. Some strong acids and
bases may damage aramid fiber composites. In contrast to glass and carbon fiber, aramid fiber
composites absorb humidity.
Example data for the fiber „Kevlar 49": Density: 1.44 g/cm3, Tensile strength: around
3800 N/mm2, elastic modulus: ca. 131.000 N/mm2
GE CFE engine with an aramid fiber composite nacelle. In case of a failure, the aramid fiber composite nacelle prevents ruptured
fan blades from exiting the engine and potentially damaging the airframe.
Carbon Fiber
Carbon fiber is the go-to fiber for high performance fiber composites. Carbon fiber composites
can be manufactured with a wide range of properties. Generally, they offer exceptional tensile
and compression strength, are stiff, resistant to aging and don't corrode. The fibers are black.
The terms carbon fiber and graphite fiber are sometimes used synonymously, although the
designation "graphite fiber" is reserved for material heated above 30000F (16500C during
manufacturing, whose atoms are arranged in a spatial lattice, consist to more than 99% of carbon
and have an elastic modulus of more than 344 kN/mm. Carbon fiber often has a lower carbon
content (93-95%) and is heated to lower temperatures during the production process.

Base substances for carbon or graphite fiber include pitch (tarry, highly viscose fluid produced in
the distillation of oil or coal) or polyacrylonitrile (PAN). The majority of today’s carbon fiber is
produced from PAN. Pitch-based carbon fibers aren't as strong as PAN fibers, but can show
extremely high stiffness (elastic modulus of up to 1000 kN/mm2). The strength and stiffness
increase is caused by the uniform direction of molecule chains in the fiber as a result of the heat
treatment.
The PAN fibers are processed into carbon fiber in a multi-stage process:
• Pre-treatment in oxygen-rich atmosphere at temperatures between 2000C and 3000C, with

the fiber under tension.
• Pyrolysis (carbonization) between 800-15000C in an inert gas atmosphere.
• Final high temperature treatment between 20000C and 30000C. Temperature and stress on
the fiber determine the fiber's properties, as it has a major influence on the carbon
molecule chains' orientation.
By varying the process parameters listed above, the properties of the produced fibers can be
adjusted within a wide range.
• Normal strength fiber

• Produced at graphitization temperatures around 10000C
• Tensile strength: 900 N/mm2
• Elongation at rupture: 1.3%
• Elastic modulus: low
• High tenacity (HT) fiber

• Graphitization temperature: 1.4000C
• Tensile strength: 3-400 N/mm2
• Elongation at rupture 1.4 %
• Elastic modulus: 235 kN/mm2 (low)
• High modules (HM) fiber

• Tensile strength: 2.300 N/mm2 (low)
• Elongation at rupture 0.6 % (very low)
• Elastic modulus 400 kN/mm2 (very high)
• Ultra high modulus (UHM) fiber


• Tensile strength: low

• Elongation at rupture < 0.5% (very low)
• Elastic modulus: very low. Due to the low elongation at rupture, this material is
only used for special applications.
Example data for the high performance aviation fiber „HexTow IM7”:
Density: 1.78 g/cm3, tensile strength: ca. 5.600 N/mm2, elastic modulus: around 276.000 N/mm2
Types of Fabric
The individual fibers or strands of fibers are usually woven into fabric. The manner which warp
and weft threads cross is called weave. Most fabrics contain a single type of fiber. Combining
different types of fiber in hybrid fabrics can be used to achieve desired properties, for example
the
tensile strength of carbon fiber and the impact resistance of aramid fiber.
• Unidirectional fabric
The weft fibers mainly serve to keep the weft fibers aligned. The fabric hence has very
little lateral strength but high strength in the fiber direction.
Unidirectional fabric

• Plain
The simplest type of weave is the plain weave, giving the tightest mesh of warp and weft.
The even intermeshing of the two fibers gives the fabric identical strength in both
directions. Plain fabrics have good anti-slip properties, meaning that they are easier to
handle in a dry state, as warp and weft have little tendency to displace and deform the
weave. The plain weave doesn't offer much in terms of drapability (the ability to adapt to
contours).
Plan weave
• Twill
The term twill covers a multitude of variations. It is characterized by the diagonal,
parallel lines that form on the fabric due to the sequence of weave points (where warp
and weft meet). Compared to plain, twill offers superior drapability but less slip-
resistance.
Twill weave

• Satin
In satin weaves, the weft passes over up to seven warp fibers, giving a fabric that shows
different shares of warp and weft fibers on its two sides. The typical characteristic of
satin is that the weave points don't neighbor. In contrast to twill, satin exhibits an even,
closed, seemingly smooth surface. Drapability is superior to both twill and plain.
Satin
Laminates
Prepreg
"Prepreg" is short for pre-impregnated fibers. The fiber weave is impregnated with the matrix
before being processed. Continuous cooling prevents the matrix from hardening prematurely.
Prepregs are suitable for automatic industrial processes, facilitating shorter cycle times. The fiber
to matrix ratio is higher than for hand-laminated composites. As the fibers deliver the bulk of the
material's strength, its specific strength (strength to weight ratio) increases. Hardening requires
an autoclave, which "bakes" the multi-layer composite components in a vacuum.
Autoclave
In order to maximize the share of fibers in the laminated component, the share of the matrix has
to be minimized. The fiber layers have to be pressed together to ensure a laminar bond without
dry spots or air inclusions. This is achieved by creating a vacuum under an air-tight vacuum bag
enclosing the laminate component. In addition to the vacuum in the bag, the autoclave itself is
pressurized. The autoclave hence is a pressure-resisting container into which the components are
placed. The hardening process is activated by heating the autoclave's contents.

Autoclave operating principle

Autoclave
Sandwich Construction
The fibers in fiber-reinforced plastics give the material high tensile strength, while their bending
strength, being determined by the matrix, is rather low. One way of curing this deficit is to
manufacture components out of many layers of fiber (monolithic construction). This approach
increases the component's weight by a significant margin. The sandwich construction method is
another solution to the problem. Sandwich materials incorporate a light foam core between two
composite skins. The component's geometry transfers tensile and compressive forces into the
skins, giving it substantially higher stiffness at a small weight increase.
Principles of force transfer in sandwich construction materials

Core materials (selection):
• Hard foam
• Aramid honeycomb
• Aluminum honeycomb
• Balsa wood
Aramid honeycomb is based on Nomex paper, which consists of aramid fibers bound by phenol
resin. It is suitable for supporting large area fiber-reinforced plastic components. Good bonding
between the core and the skin material is key for optimum strength. The paper structure of the
base material makes it easy to glue the aramid honeycomb to fiber composites. The surface
tension causes the laminate resin to collect in the fillet between the honeycomb and the skin
laminate, forming a fillet bond that provides excellent force closure between the two
components.
Aramid honeycomb cores are available in different cell diameters and densities, allowing
designers to choose the suitable core material for every application.
Water Absorption
Although glass and carbon fiber don't absorb water, microscopic gaps between the fibers and the
matrix generate capillary forces that "pull" fluids into the composite. Water contained in a
component expands when freezing, potentially causing damage that accelerates the above
process.
Lightning strikes may evaporate the absorbed water abruptly, increasing its volume and also
potentially damaging the component.
Fiber composite materials are thus coated (paint, etc.). Even very small paint damage can
accelerate the process described above.

Highly enlarged depiction of a synthetic fiber and the gaps between the fibers
Metallic or Ceramic Matrix Composites
Metal matrix composites (MMC) offer advantages over their base materials, for example higher
specific strength, stiffness, heat resistance, a lower heat expansion coefficient and in some cases
better wear resistance. On the other hand, they are more expensive than the base metals and less
ductile. Compared to fiber-reinforced plastics, metal matrix composites give advantages, as the
drawbacks of polymer-based matrices, such as the low strength against stresses absorbed by the
matrix (e.g. compressive stress) or the low heat resistance of polymers, are balanced out by the
metal matrix. As MMC are even more expensive than fiber composites and the manufacturing
capacities are currently rather low, these materials are rarely found in civil aviation. They might
play a major role in the development of hypersonic (> Mach 5) aircraft.
Ceramic materials exhibit numerous characteristics that make them very attractive for use in
aviation. These properties include high stiffness, pressure, heat and wear resistance, high
hardness and chemical resistance. Due to their rather low fracture toughness (the resistance the
material puts up against the spread of cracks), ceramic materials are only suitable for a few
components. Ceramics have a low resistance against damage caused by use or manufacturing

errors. Even very small damage can lead to critical cracks and hence sudden structural failure.
While the fibers in fiber reinforced plastics and metal matrix composites increase strength, those
in ceramic matrix composites (CMC) serve the purpose of increasing toughness.
Sealant and Bonding Agents
Manufacturing cost makes up around 50% of a typical airframe's cost. Composite materials
facilitate drastic reductions in the number of fasteners and thus assembly time. Smaller
components can be combined in a single bonded assembly. Larger single-part composite
structures have impressively demonstrated the potential for component reduction. In wide-body
jet airliners, using composites can save multiple hundreds of thousands of fastening elements
(especially rivets). This is why bonds are usually lighter than connections made using single
fasteners.
The superior distribution of tensile stress along the components is another advantage of bonding.
Every rivet or bolt is the cause of a tension peak if force is applied to the component, stressing
the surrounding material selectively and hence increasing the likelihood of damage in these
points. Adhesive bonding distributes the load evenly along the entire length of the glued joint,
keeping tension lower (tension: force/unit area).
There is a multitude of bonding agents and glues with different characteristics. Some become
hard and rigid after hardening, while others remain soft and flexible. Structural bonding agents
are always heated at room temperature or higher temperature, as they have to withstand the
forces occurring in operation.
Structural airplane assemblies are usually bonded using chemically setting adhesives, which
harden through a reaction between components of the adhesive that forms polymers.
Examples for Adhesive Bond Joints
Co-curing is a process in which fiber layers are bonded with other materials such as honeycomb
cores for sandwich constructions while at the same time being laminated and cured. In co-
bonding processes, components that already have been cured are bonded to other components,
for example the aircraft skin, while the skin is being cured.
Sealants
Aircraft are subject to a wide range of meteorological conditions. The likelihood of humidity
accelerating corrosion is hence quite high. Many parts of the aircraft can't be accessed after it has

been assembled or are only inspected after long intervals. Sealants are hence used to prevent
water or other aggressive media from causing corrosion on materials.
Sealing components such as O-rings and surface seals are installed in a manner that causes the
contacting components to exert contact pressure on the seal, making it effective. Setting sealants
use a different principle, requiring adhesion to the components to be sealed as well as internal
cohesion.
In practice, seals often fail due to a lack of adhesion to the component surfaces caused by
contamination with grease, oil, dust, dirt, etc. The contact surfaces hence have to be prepared
accordingly, removing all foreign objects and contamination.
In addition to preventing corrosive media from entering the aircraft, sealants are used to keep
fluids from escaping (especially operating fluids). Most passenger aircraft, for example, aren't
equipped with tank containers as such. The structure of the wings, consisting of ribs, spars and
stringers are sealed on the joints, forming an integral tank in which the fuel is stored.
Sealed structure: Integral tanks

Next to the group of chemically setting adhesives, there are physically setting adhesives. These
adhesives form a bond on a purely physical basis after setting (there is no chemical reaction).
Specifically, this means that the adhesive's effect is based on an inner bond formed by the
evaporation of a solvent or a fluid cooling down. Processes include:
• Wet bonding
Bonding using adhesives that contain significant amounts of dispersion agents or solvents
when the components are combined. Example: Bonding wood components using
polyvinyl acetate glue.
• Contact bonding
Bonding by combining seemingly dry films of adhesive under pressure. The adhesive
layers can only be glued together for a given time.
• Activation bonding
Bonding using layers of adhesive activated (made adhesive) by external influence.
Example: Activation of dry adhesive coating on covering fabric by organic solvents or
hot melt adhesive, where an adhesive that is solid at room temperature is applied as a
melt.
Detection of Defects/Deterioration in Composite and Non-Metallic Material
On metallic materials, external influence, such as impacts or blows, leave marks such as
scratches, dents or cracks. The damage is easily recognizable. Composite materials may appear
superficially intact while being damaged structurally. Purely visual checks hence aren't
sufficient.
A simple check is carried out by knocking on the structure to be inspected with a hard object.
Changes in the sound produced by the knock can hint to damage. The pressure on the surface has
to produce a sufficient sound but not damage the component. This procedure has the drawback of
only delivering rather imprecise information about the presence of damage and its scope.
Moreover, it requires a high degree of experience and knowledge about the component's internal
structure.
Imaging procedures, which recognize damage to composite components below the surface
include:
• Thermography

Thermography is one of the numerous approaches to damage or defect recognition in

components. The component is heated up by infrared radiation emitted by a lamp for a
shot period. An infrared camera is used to visualize the heat distribution within the
component. Delamination, cracks or air inclusions cause irregularities in the way they
absorb and transfer heat. These irregularities can be recognized visually.
Layout of a thermography inspection
Ultrasonic Inspection
An ultrasonic transmitter emits an ultrasonic signal into the component. The frequencies
classified as ultrasound are above the human hearing range. The impulse reflection method uses
a combined transducer, which emits and receives signals. The receiver module registers
transmitted signals reflected by the component's walls. Attenuation methods use separate
transmit and receive probes. The two sensors are placed on opposite sides of the specimen. By
measuring the time between transmission and reception (the speed of sound in the material has to
be known), the method can even detect the material's thickness. In homogenous, damage-free
material, only the bottom echo described above distorts the signal. Damage such as cracks,
inclusion or other irregularities cause additional refraction, which is registered and displayed by
the receiver.

Principles of ultrasonic failure detection
Ultrasonic inspection methods have long been in use for metallic materials. The heterogeneous
structure of fiber composite materials requires computer-based signal processing devices which
have only become available recently. Modern inspection devices mostly use "phased array” type
probes. These devices use a number of transducers arranged side by side. Pulsing the signals
from the transducers at different times creates a pattern of consecutive interference that results in
a beam set at an angle that can be focused on punctual areas or scan the material similar to a
search light. Computer signal processing visualizes the reflected signals as a spatial
representation of the specimen's internal structure. Ultrasonic testing has several advantages over
thermography, including the simpler testing layout and the cheaper and easier to transport
inspection equipment.

Portable phased array ultrasonic testing equipment
X-Ray / Computed Tomography
Scanning the object to be inspected using X-rays gives a view of the specimen s internal
structure. X-rays are sent through the object and captured by an X-ray-sensitive film. The film is
exposed to a degree depending on the material's capacity for absorbing X-rays. Material defects
spreading in a direction perpendicular to the X-rays direction of travel (e.g. delamination) are
hard to recognize. Defected spreading in parallel to the radiation direction are displayed clearly.
The weakness of direction-dependent defect recognition is remedied by computed tomography

technology (CT, CAT). These devices use a rotating X-ray tube assembly that scans the object at
different angles.

Most fiber composite materials absorb very little X-ray radiation, only necessitating a low
intensity of radiation. Still, X-rays are harmful to animate beings, requiring safety precautions for
all attending staff. The high number of pulses emitted during computed tomography causes a
much higher dose of radiation than normal X-ray scans.
Due to the harmful radiation and the size of the required devices, X-ray and computed
tomography scans can't be used within the aircraft but only for stationary inspection, for example
during component manufacturing or refurbishing.
Repair of Composite and Non-metallic Material
Fiber composite materials require different repair procedures than conventional metal aircraft
structures, although the requirements posed to repairs are identical: The repair has to provide the
same strength and stiffness as the original state, ideally without adding weight. Moreover, the
repair should be carried out as quickly as possible to minimize aircraft downtime, even if the
manufacturer's tools and equipment aren't available.
Repairs always have to be carried out in accordance with the manufacturer's instructions.
Standard repair procedures are defined in the Structure Repair Manual (SRM). If the suitable
procedure for a repair can't be found in the SRM, the manufacturer has to be contacted, who then
issues a Repair Design Approval Sheet (RDAS).
In the case of small repairs, a compromise between aerodynamic surface quality (smoothness)
and repair effort is often made. Larger defects may necessitate removing the component from the
aircraft to carry out more complex repairs requiring stationary equipment (e.g. an autoclave).
The two most important repair techniques are:
• Riveted repairs
• Bonded repairs
• Laminate repairs
• Core repairs
Riveted repair procedures are derived from conventional metal structure repairs. It is the quickest
way of restoring damaged structural components. Metal plates, for example aluminum (not on
carbon fiber for reasons of corrosion), titanium or hardened laminate are riveted or bolted onto
the damaged area. This method is suitable for returning the aircraft to service as quickly as
possible,
but usually doesn't provide the strength of the original state. It is hence only suitable as an
interim solution before carrying out a final repair. Riveting usually necessitates additional cut-

outs in the component, further weakening the structure. The punctual load distribution through
the bolt or rivet causes an uneven distribution of tension.
Bonded repairs are usually more durable and reliable than riveted repairs, as there is no need for
boreholes and the loads are distributed evenly without tension peaks in the structure. Laminate
damage can be repaired by bonding reinforcements consisting of metal or fiber composites to it
in layers. Depending on the repair manual, metal films and fiber composites may also be bonded
to the repair area. The contact pressure required for a correct bond without air inclusions is
created using vacuum bags or films, under which a vacuum is created. Most matrix materials are
hardened under the influence of heat. The required thermal energy is provided by heating mats,
fans or radiant heaters.
The most complex, but high-quality repair method is scarfing, which involves sanding the repair
area down in steps. This has the aim creating a wide bonding area for the repair patch,
facilitating force transfer identical to that in the original part. As the repair area is sanded down
prior to bonding the repair patch to it, the amount of material added by the repair is minimal,
allowing a smooth surface after hardening. The sanding process means that scarfing is the most
labor- intensive and hence expensive repair method.
Possibilities of bonding patches
Repairs of Sandwich Materials

Damage in sandwich material components is usually detected by visual or other non-destructive

methods. The scope of the damage can often only be determined after removing the laminate
layers above the damaged core material. After determining the size of the damaged area, the
affected core material is removed and replaced using identical material. The core is glued into
place using a mixture of thickened resin/hardener, adhesive film or other permitted adhesives.
The laminate skin layers are reattached according to the repair manual.
Removing layers of laminate and sanding down the damaged core material

Bonding in a repair patch of identical core material
One common problem of core material repairs is humidity that enters the core material through
microscopic cracks in the laminate skin. If this has happened, the skin has to be removed in order
to dry or replace the open structure. If any humidity were to remain in the material, it would
evaporate during the curing process, growing in volume and blast the structure open.
Injection Repair of Delamination (Layers of Fiber Separating, Bonded Repair)
Small delamination spots in fiber composite components can be repaired by injecting a mixture
of resin and hardener. How successful the repair is, depends on the type of damage. If the
adhesion between the layers is insufficient due to mistakes in the manufacturing process, such as
insufficient contact pressure during hardening or contaminated component surfaces, injection
repairs usually don't produce good results, requiring a more complex repair that involves
removing the skin layer down to the damaged area. Internal delamination caused by mechanical
stress can often be repaired by injecting adhesives, given that no oil has reached the damaged
area. The procedure is to inject the resin directly into the damaged area. This can take place
without creating additional openings if the damage is close to edges, corners, rivet or bolt holes.
In other cases, access and ventilation holes have to be drilled. Before injecting the resin, the
component is heated up to 700C in order to decrease the resin's viscosity, ensuring it spreads into
the entire damaged area.
Currently, the repair of fiber composites is limited to non-bearing components. Newly developed
resins have produced results that deliver the same compressive strength as the original structure

even though the delamination was contaminated with sea water, fuel or hydraulic fluid before the
repair was carried out under laboratory conditions.
Repair Patches
The structure of modern aircraft such as the Boeing 787 or Airbus A350 consists of carbon fiber
by up to 50%. Long downtimes due to relatively small damage, caused, for example by ground
vehicles running into the aircraft, wouldn't be acceptable. For this reason, automated repair
procedures have been developed. Modern systems allow automatic scarfing on convex surfaces,
while computers calculate the size of repair patches which are then cut out on automatic cutting
machines.
Automated scaring

Wooden Structures
Construction Methods of Wooden Airframe Structures
The term "wood" captures a wide range of materials and properties. Light and easy to process
balsa is part of this category, as is the very hard ebony.
The key advantage of wood in aircraft structures is its favorable strength to density ratio.
Further positives of wood include:
• Availability
• Processability
• Easy to join and hence suitable for long lengths
The most important drawback of using wood is its tendency to rot. Moreover, wood contracts or
expands under the influence of changing temperature or humidity.
Wooden airframe structures exhibit a low degree of integration, meaning they consist of many
separate components that have to be joined together. The wooden skin only absorbs a small share
of the loads that apply to the airframe, with the internal structure taking the remainder. Wooden
fuselages are usually shaped by the bulkheads and stringers (longitudinal). The fuselage of
passenger aircraft with pressurized cabins have to absorb significant stress due to the pressure
difference. As there are no wooden aircraft with completely pressurized cabins, concepts for the
realization of such a design are superfluous.
Wooden wing structures usually consist of one or multiple spars that serve as the central load-
bearing component. The ribs that give the wing its aerofoil are attached to the spar. Wooden
wing skins may be glued, bolted or nailed to the structure.

Wooden wing structure: Multi-layer box spar, ribs with strutting, glued skin
The best strength values are produced by wood that features between 5 and 10 annual growth
rings per 10 mm of cross-section. If the number of growth rings is lower (5-8), the darker
latewood ring should not be wider than the brighter early wood ring, as the resin content would
otherwise be too high, making it difficult to glue the components.

Growth rings
The best quality of wood is taken from the area of the log marked "X", between the core and the
bark area.

Types of lumber in a log
Belts, beams and lamellae are to be cut to ensure the fiber direction is as parallel as possible to
the longitudinal cut. The maximum deviation is 1 mm per 20 mm of length.

Flawless wooden structure
Flawless wood structure
Stress-Related use of Wooden Materials
As the structure of wood is dominated by its grain and layers, the direction of stress has to be
considered when cutting wood.

Stress directions
• Axial: Wood has the highest tensile and compressive strength in grain and layer direction.
• Tangential: The strength of wood against force from a direction perpendicular to the
grain direction is substantially lower than axially: Pinewood 7-9% of axial strength,
hardwood 10- 30%.
• Radial: The strength of wood is lowest if the applying force is perpendicular to the grain
direction and at an angle to the layer direction: Pinewood 2-5%, hardwood 10-25%.

Examples for correct and incorrect use of wooden profiles under load
Larger cross-sections (above 20-30 mm of thickness) are usually made from multiple layers of
wood that are glue laminated for reasons of manufacturing efficiency, improved choice of woods
and recognition of defects in the wood structure. The direction of the growth rings has to be
considered for gluability, cleavage strength and resistance to deformation in humid conditions.
Use of wooden profiles
Types of Wood Used in Aeroplanes

• Pine
Used for practically all stressed components with ideally longitudinal expansion, such as
spar caps, stringers, struts, ribs and bulkheads.

• Spruce
Similar to pine, but less strong and dense. Used for unstressed components such as profile
strips or filling blocks.
• Beech
Manly used as laminated wood. Has a tendency to warp under varying humidity if used
as plywood.
• Birch
Exclusively used for producing plywood.
• Ash
Used for components subject to elastic deformation, such as glider skids, skis, wing tips
or control surfaces.
• Limewood
Exceptionally homogenous structure. Strength perpendicular to the grain direction is
comparatively high. Used preferably for fittings cut form a single block of material.
• Balsa
Balsa is the lightest wood used for technical purposes. Delivers practically no difference
no strength, but is very easy to process. Used, for example, as core material for fiber
composite sandwich components.
The mechanical properties of wood can be improved by cutting the material into veneers or
lamellae before gluing it back together, increasing mechanical strength and shape retention.
• Laminated wood
In laminated wood, all veneers have the same grain direction. Mainly pine and beech
wood is used for laminated wood.

Laminated wood
• Plywood
In plywood, the layers of neighboring veneers are displaced by 900. In aviation, plywood
is near exclusively birch, in some cases beech. Plywood is always composed of an
uneven number of veneers, giving the outer two layers the same fiber direction.
Plywood
The strength values of laminated wood highly depend on the direction of the load applied to it,
while the displaced grain directions of plywood give it more uniform strength.

Birch plywood has to exhibit tensile strength that adds up to at least 140 N/mm3 in the two
directions!
Cutting, Machining
Industry standard wood processing machines and tools are used for aviation applications.
Drawing blades are of use for the finishing of surfaces, especially scarfing patches.
When sanding wood, the pressure with which the components is pressed against the grinding
wheel has to be controlled. The grinding process has to be paused every two to three seconds to
prevent the friction heat from burning the wood. Burnt or charred wood cannot be used in
follow- up processes, as its structure is destroyed and it can't be glued.
Forming, Bending
Lumber and plywood can be deformed or bent within its elastic range. Due to the susceptibility
of wood against compressive stress, excessive bending first causes the fibers on the pressure
area's outer side to buckle, if fibers on the pressure side haven't separated from the structure
before, sticking out tangentially.

Bending wood
The risk of damage can be reduced substantially by wetting the area to be bent thoroughly with
water.
In case of tight bending radii, the material has to be pre-bent, as excessively high restoring force
would render gluing impossible. Pre-bending after an approximately 12-hour moistening process
(using cloths), can take place on the component itself or in special jigs.

Moistening
Glue
Glue is used for joining prepared wooden components under compressive force. After hardening,
the joint is inseparable without destruction of the glued joint.
While other adhesives purely rely on an adhesive joining the two surfaces, wood glue uses a
certain layer below the surfaces to which the glue is applied. The glue enters the wood's pores,
anchoring itself there during hardening, achieving form closure. Wood glue is thus only effective
on porous surfaces. In order to ensure that the glue intrudes into the wood, it has to be applied
under pressure. The required pressure differs greatly between types of glue. In general, the
forming pressure should be as high as possible without damaging wood fibers or deforming the
component.

Forming pressure
For a correctly glued joint, a small amount of glue has to bulge out between the two components.
Excess glue drops should be wiped off, as the glue contracts by 6-1096, potentially damaging the
surface below it. Due to this shrinkage, the glue shouldn't be scraped off too thoroughly, as the
glue
in the joint also draws back.
Requirements to Aviation Wood Glue

• Minimum shear strength after seven days: 5-5 N/mm2
• Hardening non-reversible, neither by heat nor solvents
• Resistant to water and humidity to the greatest possible extent
• Low degree of shrinkage during hardening
• No adverse effects on the wood
• Elasticity behavior similar to wood
Types of Glue Used in Aviation

• Casein glue
• Urea-formaldehyde glue
• Phenol- formaldehyde glue
• Resorcinol-formaldehyde resin glue
• Epoxy resins

Preservation and Maintenance of Wooden Structures

Interior Conservation
All wooden interior components have to be protected against the influence of changing humidity.
In most cases, painting the wood with cellulose or spirit varnish is sufficient. Transparent paint is
suitable, as it allows recognizing which areas have been covered while still in the process of
painting or spraying. Colored paint hides the wood's structure, making it difficult to recognize
cracks, buckling or other damage. Interior surfaces that have already been coated with resorcinol
glue during gluing don't have to be preserved additionally.
Surfaces that hold fittings should be double-coated. Boreholes for rivets or bolts have to be
preserved before installation.
Aeroplanes used in particularly humid conditions should be treated with fungicides or

insecticides to make the wooden components resistant to rotting, mold, putrefaction or pest
infestation.
External Conservation
External conservation doesn't only protect the aircraft against the elements, but also:
• Protects the surfaces against chemical and mechanical influence (fuels, cleaning agents,
oils, rain erosion)
• Shielding the subjacent components from UV radiation
• Forming a visually and aerodynamically smooth surface
In order to fulfill all of these requirements, the preservation has to consist of a multi-layer
structure:
1. Sealer (preservation, primer for the overlying layers)

2. Filler and putty for smoothing the surface
3. Base coat for coloring the entire surface
4. Top coat
The type-specific requirements published by the manufacturer have to be considered when

choosing products. If there is a choice, or if the specified product isn't available, other
preservative agents or paints may be used. The products used should be sourced from a single
manufacturer to ensure compatibility of the layers.
If there are doubts about the compatibility, suitability or how to apply a product, it should first be

tested on a sample of identical material.
The following points may serve as a decision aid when deciding on an alternative:
• Colorless paint should be avoided on components exposed to sunlight, as the lacking

pigmentation allows the UV share of sunlight to pass through unhindered, accelerating
the aging process.
• Except for when using epoxy resin putty, the wood surface always has to be primed. Due
to the very good adhesion characteristics of epoxy resin putty on wood, it can fulfill the
function of filler and primer.
• Base and top coat shouldn't be too dark a colour, as they would otherwise heat up too
quickly in sunlight, resulting in excessively high temperatures that weaken the glue joint.
• The common single component synthetic resin and nitrocellulose paints are usually easy
to spray and reasonably priced. On the other hand, this type of paint practically can't be
sanded or polished and isn't resistant to fluids and fuels.
• As opposed to these paints, two-component paint based on UP (unsaturated polyester
resin), PUR (polyurethane), DD (named after the components desmodur and desmophen)
or acrylic resin are resistant to solvents after hardening and can be sanded and polished.
• Fabric covered surfaces may not be coated with any preservatives. After the covering is
painted with span paint, it is sanded lightly before the top coat of paint is applied. The top
coat should only be thick enough to cover the surface evenly. Excess paint can lead to
paint crack in areas where the covering fabric meets panels, ribs, stringers etc. Rain water
can enter through these cracks and damage the covering.
If there are doubts about the compatibility, suitability or how to apply a product, it should first be
tested on a sample of identical material.
Types of Defects in Wood and Wooden Structures
Water is the biggest enemy of wooden structures. If the humidity within the wood remains over
20% for prolonged periods, the natural rotting process, caused by fungus, reduces the structure's
strength. Ideally, the degree of moisture is between 8 and 12%.
Cracks: Changing humidity can cause the wood to expand (high humidity) or contract (low
humidity). If the wooden component is attached to a material that doesn't perform this change in
volume, there may be stress cracking in the wood. Example: Plywood cladding on solid wood.
Glue separating from components is usually caused by processing mistakes or continuous contact
with humidity.

Defects in Wood and Wooden Structures
Permitted Defects
Not all deviations from the ideal grain direction are exclusion criteria. Diagonal, wavy, ripply or
felted grain can be permitted if they are within defined limits. Knots and pitch deposits may also
be allowed within certain limits. Damage or decomposition by putridity leads to the wood being
discarded.
• Uneven grain direction, diagonal grain, slanted grain or a combination of those is allowed
if the fiber direction doesn't deviate from the material's longitudinal axis by more than 1
in 15 (deviation/length). All four sides of the board have to be checked for deviations.
• Wavy, ripply or felted grain is permitted if local irregularities don't exceed the limits for
slanted and diagonal deviations (1 in 15 ratio).
• Solid knots (without any signs of decomposition) up to diameter of 3/8 of an inch, given
that:
1. They aren't part of a projecting section of an I-beam, along the edges of rectangular or
slanted non-curved beams, or on the edges of box spar flanges (apart from in lightly
stressed areas).
2. The don't cause radial fibers exceeding the 1 in 15 limit on the board's edges or beam
flanges.
3. They are situated in the center third of the beam and at a distance of at east 20 from
the next knot or other type of damage (for 3/8" knots, smaller knots may be
proportionally closer together).
• Clusters of small knots are allowed, given that they have little influence on the grain
direction.
• Pitch pockets are permitted in the center section of a beam if they are at least 14" away
from other pitch pockets in the same growth ring and don't exceed the maximum
dimensions of 1 1/2 1/8 1/8 inch. Furthermore, they may not be part of a projecting
section of an I-beam, along the edges of rectangular or slanted non-curved beams, or on
the edges of box spar flanges.
Non-Permissible Defects
• Uneven grain direction: Not permitted apart from the exceptions defined above.
• Wavy, ripply or felted grain: Not permitted apart from the exceptions defined above.
• Half knots: Not permitted apart from the exceptions defined above.
• Clusters of small knots: Not permitted if they have an influence on the grain direction.
• Splay knots: Knots that run into the center of the beam perpendicularly to growth rings.
Wood containing this type of defect is unsuitable.
• Pitch pockets: Not permitted, except if they are within the limits defined in above.

• Mineral streaks: Not permitted if accompanied by decomposition.
• Wind cracks: Not permitted if accompanied by decomposition. Wind cracks usually

spread in perpendicular to growth rings, while other cracks form between rings.
Continuous cracks are caused by artificial tension. Wood exhibiting this type of defect is
to be discarded.
• Tension wood: This type of defect has negative effects on the wood's strength and is
difficult to recognize. It is characterized by high density and has the appearance of
excessive latewood growth. In most types of wood, the difference between earlywood
and latewood is rather small. If in doubt, the wood should be discarded. Alternatively,
specimens can be strength tested to determine the wood's quality. Materials containing
tension wood are unsuitable.
• Compression wood: These defects are caused by excess compressive force on the wood,
either by natural force during growth, logging in rough or uneven terrain or the handling
of log sections or lumber. Compression wood is characterized by kink bent fibers
occurring on the material's surface mostly in perpendicular to the grain direction. The
damage may be easy to recognize or occur as very fine threads that aren't plainly visible.
If in doubt, the would should be discarded or tested further.
• Putridity: All spots and discolouration have to be checked to determine whether they are
superficial or in a state of advanced putridity. All work pieces have to be free of putridity,
incipient decay, red or pink core wood and all other types of decomposition.
Recognition of Defects in Wooden Structures
Wooden aircraft components or aeroplanes can only be inspected if they are dry. They should be
placed in a dry, well-ventilated hangar prior to inspection with all access flaps and covers
opened, allowing all cavities to dry out. Moisture or even very humid air causes wood to expand,
impeding a thorough inspection of glue joints.
Damage can usually be recognized by visual inspection. Further inspection techniques include
knocking, testing the resistance against force applied through a pointed metal object or olfactory
testing for putrid smells.
External inspection begins with the visual overall appearance of the aircraft's surface. Wavy,
dented, bulged, or in any other way irregular sections may hint to damage. Especially the
entering and outlet edges of wings and tails have to be checked for damage, as they may indicate
structural overload and internal damage. If there are cracks in wooden covering, it has to be
determined whether the damage has been caused by external influence or by damage to the
structure below it.

A complete inspection of an aircraft’s wooden components and glue joints requires

disassembling some assemblies, as critical areas that need to be inspected aren't accessible
during operation. It may be necessary to cut access openings in the covering in order to inspect
these sections. This work may only take place according to the manufacturer's specifications.
There are certain areas in a wooden structure that are especially susceptible to damage. The
following picture shows the areas with an above average damage rate.
Potentially damaged areas
Another way of recognizing excess humidity in wood is to remove screws or fastening bolts on
fittings and checking the metal for corrosion.
Inspecting glue joints raises a number of challenges. Even in places where the joints are easily
accessible, it is difficult to make a judgement about their state and quality. The aging process of
the glue, accelerated by extreme temperature variation, humidity, fungus, loads on the joint and
the contraction and expansion of wood is difficult to judge by visual inspection.
If the joint is covered with paint, it first has to be exposed. Visual checks are carried out using a
magnifying glass. Where the glue appears to decompose or separate for the wood, a feeler gauge
has to be used to check whether the joint can be split. If it is possible to push the gauge into the
joint, it is defect.

Inspecting glue joints
Fungal decay and dry rot are usually easily recognized. Fungus is indicated by dark-coloured
deformation or softening of the wood. Dry rot is actually a misnomer, as all types of fungus
require a certain minimum amount of humidity in order to grow. The term is used for a multitude
of types of rot, but usually refers to a type that transforms the wood into a dry powder in the later
stages.
Another way of recognizing excess humidity in wood is to remove screws or fastening bolts on
fittings and checking the metal for corrosion.
Areas surrounding metal fittings have to be checked carefully, as they are often subject to
substantial concentrated loads that have to be transferred into the wooden structure. This
category includes landing gear attachment points, control surface fittings and control cable
mounts.
Special attention has to be paid to compressive damage on wooden components. This type of
damage appears as cracks running through the fibers and doesn't only occur in components under
linear load but is also caused by bending force on the compressed side of beams. Compressive
damage can occur on wing spars after hard landing that causes the wings to flex downwards. In a
loadless state, this type of damage is hard to recognize. It helps to use a flashlight to shine over
the damaged structure, making the protruding fibers visible.
Repair of Wooden Structures

Specific repair instructions issued by the manufacturer always have priority over general
guidelines such as the repair procedures described in the following section. The aim of any repair
is to restore the damaged components to a state where it exhibits the same strength as it initially
did. Larger damage may necessitate replacing entire assemblies, while smaller damage is
repaired by removing and replacing the damaged area. This replacement may be executed using
gluing, gluing and nailing, gluing and screwing or screw-reinforced scarfing.
The wood used in repairs has to be of the highest quality and certified for aviation applications.
The certification requires traceability of the wood's origin as well as information about the type
and duration of drying. Wood of this quality is not available from conventional wood suppliers
and hence has to be sourced from specialized dealers or the aircraft manufacturer. Replacement
assemblies should, if possible, be sourced from the manufacturer, or alternatively from a certified
production organization.
Repairs on wooden structures practically always feature glue joints as the key joining technique.
In order to produce durable and highly stable glue joints, the following factors have to be
considered:
• Correct humidity of the wood used (8-12%)

• Prepared glue surfaces: Even, dust- and fat-free, not sawed
• Right choice of glue for the repair, right mixture, good condition (not stored for
excessively long periods)
The surfaces have to be clean, dry and free from oil, grease, wax, paint or other contaminants.
Cleaning the surface with a vacuum cleaner is well suited as a final step to remove any dust.

Scarfing Example 1: Contact surfaces well aligned, strong bond Example 2 Contact surfaces form cavities, the bond lacks
strength
Types of Glue Joints
In addition to the joining techniques of wedging, dowelling, clinching, nailing, screwing etc.,
there are 5 different ways of gluing wooden components to another.
1. Butt joint
Drawbacks: Facilitates basically no force transfer, as the force direction is perpendicular
to the gluing surface and glue joints generally only withstand compressive force.
Butt joint

2. Lap joint
Drawbacks: Force lines are redirected at the ends of the components leading to bending
stress and a notching effect.
Lap joint
3. Simple fish joint

Drawbacks: Susceptible to damage by bending force on the fish plate and notching effect
Advantages: Low complexity, simple execution
Simple fish joint

4. Double fish joint

Drawbacks: Notching effect and increased space usage
Advantages: No deformation under load
Double fish joint
5. Scarf joint
Scarf joints are the most important gluing technique in wooden airplane manufacturing.
Drawbacks: Requires high precision when matching the parts
Advantages: Continuous force line direction, no notching effect, no additional space
required, glue joint nearly parallel to the force direction
Scarf joint

Fabric Covering
Characteristics, Types and Properties of Fabrics used in Aeroplanes
Covering aircraft surfaces with fabric is one of the oldest methods of producing aerodynamically
effective surfaces. The main advantage of fabric covering is its low weight. The design is limited
by wing loading and air speed. Further disadvantages include flammability and limited
durability.
Initially, covering fabrics consisted of organic fibers such as cotton or linen. These fabrics are
still available today but are supplemented by a wide range of synthetic fiber textiles such as
nylon, glass or aramid fiber.
Cotton and linen were the usual choice of fabric covering from World War I to the 1950's.
Increasing maintenance cost and the short lifetime of these organic fabrics lead to their near
complete replacement by synthetic polyester and glass fibers.
There is a wide variety of synthetic fabrics certified for aviation use and classified as "polyester".
Different specifications vary in terms of density, mass per area, contraction, strength and weave.
Synthetic fibers consist of the basic substance polyethylene terephthalate (also known as
polyester). Well-known manufacturers include Du Pont and Glanzstoff AG (Diolen).
The most common type of Dacron fabric is called "Ceconite". It is certified and continuously
tested by the FAA.
Aramid fabric is very ductile and resistant to tensile stresses, however, requires special resins for
processing. It is also called Kevlar fabric.
Glass fiber exists in different weaves (see section "Types of Weave of Fiber Composite Fabrics")
and fiber diameters.
Following table gives a selection of organic fiber fabrics:

*=Mercerization is a treatment for cotton. The fiber is placed in a sodium hydroxide bath under
tensile load. The fibers swell and their cross-section changes shape from round to kidney-shaped,
while the fiber contracts by up to 25%. This process improves dyeability, strength and
dimensional stability.
Inspection Methods for Fabric
Fabric covering doesn't have a hard lifetime limit. It can be used without any restrictions as long
as there is no damage.
Damage to fabric covering is mainly recognized by visual inspection. A sufficient number of

access holes are hence necessary. The following points need to be considered when checking
covering:
• Separation of reinforcement strips

• Chafing under cover panels
• Brittle/ cracked spots, tears, separations, creases in the covering (creases may occur
temporarily if the covering is of poor quality, absorbing rain, dew or fog)
• Glass fiber covering can be checked for separated areas using a large vacuum cup.
There are no other certified methods or requirements for measuring the correct tension of fabric
covering. Too little tension causes the fabric to flap at high airspeeds, excessive tension can
damage the subjacent structure.
Exact statements about a material's tensile strength can only be made by subjecting a specimen
cut from the covering to tensile testing after removing all layers of coating. The specimen should
be cut from an area subject to meteorological influence, usually an upper surface. If the surface is
painted in different colours, the specimen is to be taken from the darkest area, as that area
absorbs more UV radiation.
Mechanical devices that test fabric by pushing onto its surface (Maule testers) aren't certified as
the base of decisions about the quality of fabric covering surfaces by the aviation authorities.
Using these devices can help technicians to form a general opinion on the fabric's state. These
testers may also only be used on unpainted fabric.
If pushing the Maule tester onto the surface at the specified force on the scale causes damage to
the tested surface, it is very likely that the covering is weakened to an extent requiring repair or a
complete replacement of the covering.
Seyboth testers always leave a hole in the fabric, which is why they are rarely used in practice.
They feature a color scale that indicates what state the fabric is in. Both testers can't give any
definitive about the material's tensile strength. Tensile strength can only be determined by
cutting out a specimen and rupturing it under predefined conditions.

Seyboth tester and Maule tester
Types of Defects in Fabric
Natural fibers such as cotton or linen are always vulnerable to natural rotting processes. This is
why these fabrics always have to be protected from external influence, especially humidity.
Polyester fibers only age through contact with LTV radiation, for example by being exposed to
sunlight. As long as the coating is intact, the covering's lifetime is unlimited. It is thus important
to protect the structure from direct sunlight by applying and maintaining lightproof coatings.
Repair of Fabric Covering
Repairs are to be carried out in a manner that restores the covering's initial strength and tension.
New sections may either be glued or sewed on (glue-on patches or lengths). Covering fabric or
adhesive tape may not be glued onto wings painted with aluminum paint or other paint.

If the covering is to be reinforced with fabric, the old dope has to be softened, scrape doff or
sanded down to the base coat of colorless dope. Colorless dope is also used to bond the new
fabric to the surface. After the new fabric is installed, it is treated with the normal surface
coating.
Basic rules include:
• Repairs have to conform with the manufacturers guidelines (if available).

• Repair material has to have at least the same quality as the original fabric, paint, thread
• Repairs are carried out by sewing, gluing or a combination of both.
Repair by Gluing
1. Tightening the fabric using dope:

The length of fabric is affixed on the structure using glue paint. This may take place as a
co- curing process, where the fabric is pressed onto the still wet glue paint, or co-
bonding, where the glue paint is applied to the fabric, cured and then solved on the areas
to be glued on using solvents after it has been laid onto the structure. In order to prevent
the covering from buffeting, it is tightened using dope, which consist of solutions of
nitrocellulose or cellulose acetate (plastics) in acetone. After the dope is applied, the
acetone evaporates, leaving an elastic film that contracts, tightening the covering.
Multiple steps of applying dope are usually required before the surface is ready for
painting.
2. Special polyester fabrics contract under the influence of heat. If these fabrics are used as
covering, the elaborate process of tightening the covering by applying multiple layers of
dope can be omitted. Instead, the fabric covering is tightened using an iron or a heat gun
after it is applied to the structure. Modern materials such as ORATEX 60009 are colored
and coated with a UV-resistant coating, which means that they don't require any further
treatment after being tensioned.
Repair by Sewing
In case of tears in the covering, the edges are sewn off with "baseball stitches" before a strip of
fabric with jagged edges is glued over it. The repair strip is then sewed on, starting from one end
of the tear. The edges of the tear have to be pulled together tightly during the sewing process. If a
trigonal inspection hole has to be closed, sewing starts in one of the corners in order to pull the
edges together. Spherical styluses and waxed yarn is used for sewing repairs. Before the patch is
applied the repair area, the respective section is dry rubbed with a clean cloth or softened with
fresh dope before being scraped with a knife. Dope solvents or acetone may be used for this
purpose, but it has to be made sure that no fluid contacts the inner surface of the opposite side

covering, potentially causing the dope to form bubbles.
A patch of covering fabric extending the tear by 4 cm on all sides is cut out, its edges are
engrailed or frayed by 0.7 cm. The publication "Acceptable Methods, Techniques, and Practices
— Aircraft Inspection and Repair AC 43.13-1B" by the Federal Aviation Administration
contains a good overview of repair methods.
Covering repair with baseball stitching and patch

Corrosion
Chemical Fundamentals
Only platinum, silver and gold occur in nature as pure metals, all other metals are only found as
chemically more stable compounds. These compounds have to be separated by applying energy.
For example, the iron oxide in iron ore is reduced to pure iron in a furnace. While mechanically
stable, these reduced metals are chemically instable, tending to return to their natural, chemically
stable state. The effects of this chemical reaction are known as corrosion.
chemically stable = natural state
In Germany alone, corrosion causes damage of up to €100bn per year, equal to around 3-4% of
the gross domestic product. About half of that damage could be prevented simply by applying
existing knowledge. The cost of corrosion to the US aviation industry is estimated at about
$2.2bn per year. This number splits into cost for corrosion protection measures (So.2bn),
maintenance due to corrosion (Sl.7bn) and the cost of additional maintenance downtime (So
.3bn).
New developments raise the requirements materials have to fulfil, such as increased pressure,
higher temperatures, higher flow velocities and more aggressive contamination strain materials.
Their developments pose new challenges to corrosion protection.
In contrast to many technical subjects, the corrosion behavior of components and systems can't
be expressed as a formula, table or general rule. This is due to the fact that the corrosion behavior
of a material depends on three factors:
• The metal (seen as a technical material of specific properties)

• The environment (seen as a corrosive medium with specific characteristics)
• The system design, ranging from microscopic surface structure to the combination of
materials to the overall layout.
As illustration, consider the following examples:
• A steel classified as stainless under normal atmospheric conditions can show sign of
corrosion up to total failure when subject to even small amounts of aggressive chemicals.

the titanium only corrode with hydrogen
• Titanium, which is resistant to a great number of aggressive substances, becomes brittle
when coming into contact with media containing hydrogen.
Furthermore, it has to be considered that the actual corrosion stress on a component may be
superimposed by other stresses. The combination of mechanical stress and corrosion, for
example, can lead to corrosion cracking. The combination of frictional stress and corrosion stress
acting on a material surface is called corrosive wear.
corrosive wear = frictional stress + corrosion stress
Formation by Galvanic Action Process, Microbiological, Stress

Galvanic Corrosion
Galvanic corrosion (also electrochemical corrosion) is characterized by the presence of a

corrosive
cell. A corrosion cell is a shorted galvanic cell, consisting of an anode, cathode and an electrolyte
the facilitates electron transfer between anode and cathode.
Corrosive elements can be classified as:
• Contact Cell (with two metal contact)

on the contact patches between two substances of differing electrochemical potential
• Local cell (inside of metal)
caused by different metal grain components on a microscopic level
• Concentration cell ( concentration with liquid)
caused by varying concentrations of oxyæen atoms solved in the electrolyte or metal ions
in gaps/holes
Galvanic corrosion is a significant threat to aircraft, as it occurs wherever different metals or

fiber composite materials meet. Aircraft consist of a multitude of materials, whose special
properties are required, making it impossible to manufacture a structure from a single type of
material. If two or more of these materials are joined by bolting, riveting, soldering etc. and an
electrolyte is present, a contact element is formed and an electric current flows. During this
process, the more anodic metal is dissolved. Depending on which metals are present, more or
less of a current flows, and more or less destruction occurs.
Electrolytes are electrically conductive, watery fluids (high humidity may be sufficient), for
example rain or tap water. A cell is only formed if the two contacting metals are immersed in a
fluid.

The magnitude of the corrosion potential and hence the likelihood of corrosion occurring as well
as the strength of corrosion symptoms depend, amongst other factors, on the position of the
respective substances on the electrochemical series. Metals have a varying tendency to accept or
release electrons. How high this tendency is can be determined by connecting the metal to a
hydrogen electrode while measuring the electric current. The voltage is material-specific
materials with a high electric potential absorb electrons and are called noble metals, while
materials with a negative potential release electrons and are called anodic or base metals.
Electrochemical series (for a selection of elements)
alloys
These observations are valid for a homogenous metal-electrolyte system. Technical metallic
materials are mostly inhomogeneous, as they exhibit different microstructures and contain
alloying elements, anisotropies (direction-specific material properties, e.g. tensile strength),
lattice defects, impurities and show different degrees of deformation or heat treatments. This is
why contact with the electrolyte causes microscopic areas of different energy.
Surface defects are especially prone to reach an energetically lower state, leading to a high
corrosion potential. This effect is called a local cell.
A concentration cell can form on a single material in contact with an electrolyte, although certain
constructional factors have to be given. The varying enrichment of the electrolyte with oxygen at

the bottom of holes or cracks compared to open areas causes local anodic or cathodic areas. A
flow of electrons between these areas causes corrosion.
As the differing oxygen concentration varies the pH value within the electrolyte and the electron
flow is motivated by the tendency to balance the pH values; this type of cell is also called pH
cell.
Microbiological Corrosion
Microbiological corrosion is caused by the metabolism of microorganisms resulting in material-

damaging reactions. In simpler terms, some microorganisms (e.g. viruses, bacteria, funguses and
algae) produce enzymes that trigger or accelerate certain chemical processes, for example
oxidation and hydrolysis, causing the material to corrode.
Corrosion by Stress
Types of corrosion are distinguished by whether or not they occur under mechanical stress or
not. When classifying corrosion symptoms, it is important to consider that mechanical stress isn't
just an additional factor but that corrosion damage is caused by a combination of the corrosive
medium, the material's specific characteristics and mechanical influence.
Typical types of corrosion under mechanical stress include stress corrosion and corrosion
fatigue.
Types and Causes of Corrosion

There are two general classifications of corrosion that cover most of the specific forms: direct
chemical attack and electrochemical attack. In both types of corrosion, the metal is converted
into a metallic compound such as an oxide, hydroxide, or sulfate. The corrosion process always
involves two simultaneous changes: The metal that is attacked or oxidized suffers what may be
called anodic change, and the corrosive agent is reduced and may be considered as undergoing
cathodic change. material that corrode is called anodic
And corrosive agent is called cathodic
Direct chemical attack, or pure chemical corrosion, is an attack resulting from a direct exposure
of a bare surface to caustic liquid or gaseous agents. Unlike electrochemical attack where the
anodic and cathodic changes may be taking place a measurable distance apart, the changes in
direct chemical attacks are occurring simultaneously at the same point. The most common agents
causing direct chemical attack on aircraft are:
• spilled battery acid or fumes from batteries

• residual flux deposits resulting from inadequately cleaned, welded, brazed, or soldered
joints
• entrapped caustic cleaning solutions
An electrochemical attack may be likened chemically to the electrolytic reaction that takes place
in electroplating, anodizing, or in a dry cell battery. The reaction in this corrosive attack requires
a medium, usually water, which is capable of conducting a tiny current of electricity. Vv7hen a
metal comes in contact with a corrosive agent and is also connected by a liquid or gaseous path
through which electrons may flow, corrosion begins as the metal decays by oxidation. During the
attack, the quantity of corrosive agent is reduced and, if not renewed or removed, may
completely react with the metal, becoming neutralized. Different areas of the same metal surface
have varying levels of electrical potential and, if connected by a conductor, such as salt water,
will set up a series of corrosion cells and corrosion will commence.
All metals and alloys are electrically active and have a specific electrical potential in a given
chemical environment. This potential is commonly referred to as the metal's "nobility." The
lower the nobility of a metal, the more easily it can be corroded. The metals chosen for use in
aircraft structures are a studied compromise with strength, weight, corrosion resistance,
workability, and cost balanced against the structure's needs.
The individual materials used to form an alloy also have specific electrical potentials that are
generally different from each other. Exposure of the alloy surface to a conductive, corrosive
environment or medium causes the more active metal to become anodic and the less active metal
to become cathodic, thereby establishing conditions for corrosion. These are called local cells.
The greater the difference in electrical potential between the two metals, the greater will be the
severity of a corrosive attack.
severe---to---severity
The conditions for these corrosion reactions are the presence of a conductive fluid and metals
having a difference in potential. An effective corrosion control prevention program with
procedures carried out on a regular basis will be able to prevent most corrosion from forming.
The corrosion that occurs on avionics equipment is similar to that which occurs on the basic
airframe structure. The primary difference is the amount of corrosion that is detrimental. A small
amount of corrosion on avionics equipment can cause serious degradation or complete system
failure. However, the same amount of corrosion on aircraft exterior surfaces might go unnoticed.
Surface Corrosion
Surface corrosion describes chemical corrosion on a metallic surface without a large effect on the
material's depth. On polished surfaces, surface corrosion first becomes visible as dull areas. If the

corrosive action isn't counteracted, the surface becomes increasingly rough, giving the
component an iced finish. Surface corrosion can be the basis for other types of corrosion such
pitting corrosion, as it erodes the protective surface.
Intergranular Corrosion (Local Cell)
Electrochemical corrosion isn't limited to situations where components consisting of different

metals touch, for example a steel bolt and an aluminum component under the presence of an
electrolyte or assemblies of different materials. On a microscopic level, the components of a
heterogeneous microstructure (e.g. in a non-solid solution alloy) may have a different electric
potential, facilitating corrosion. In this case, the microstructure components do not have to be
pure elements. Intermetallic phases such as cementite (FE3C) coming into contact with ferrite in
alloy steels create a corrosion potential. If an electrolyte joins these two components, all
prerequisites for corrosive action are given.
Principle of intergranular corrosion in an AICu alloy
In aviation, intergranular corrosion mainly occurs on heat treated aluminum alloys of the 2XXX-
T3 and 2XXX-T4 series (according to the Aluminum Association standard) that haven't been
quenched quickly enough to keep all alloying elements in solid solution. If aluminum-copper
alloys are cooled slowly, large copper deposits form on the grain boundaries (CuA13 and
CuMgAl3). These deposits within the supersaturated (not fully solved) microstructure change the
electrochemical potential, producing local cells.

The formation of these less corrosion-resistant phases starts along the grain boundaries. If these
precipitations form an interconnected mesh, the structure may decompose along the grain
boundaries or even disintegrate entirely into single lattices.
Other alloying elements such as magnesium, silicon, manganese and vanadium are added to
2XXX alloys in order to improve different mechanical properties. The susceptibility of alloys to
intergranular corrosion is mainly determined by the copper content along grain boundaries. The
likelihood of this type of corrosion is hence mainly determined by the manufacturing process,
which influences the amount, size and distribution of the different intermetallic phases.
Corrosion resistance is improved by heat treatments that bring about a homogeneous distribution
of precipitations (e.g. —T8: Solution annealed, quenched, cold worked, artificially aged) or by
limiting the amount of alloying elements (e.g. copper) that increase the corrosion potential. A
quick cool-down rate after heat treatment is recommendable.
Intergranular corrosion on a wrought AL alloy, magnified 500x
Pitting Corrosion
Corrosion on aluminum surfaces is found drastically more often as pitting corrosion on a number
of points rather than homogenous surface corrosion. Pitting corrosion produces small pits or
pinprick-like indentations. The affected areas are usually bounded clearly, with the surrounding
areas being unaffected, maintaining the full wall thickness. Pitting corrosion decreases the load-
bearing wall's thickness and may even lead to holes in the component, which lead to failure more
quickly than even surface corrosion.
Pitting corrosion can occur as anything between shallow depressions and cylindrical holes. The

opening of the corroded area is usually round, the indentation is hemispherical. This shape
distinguishes pitting corrosion from intergranular corrosion, where the corrosion forms tunnels
along the grain boundaries, even below the surface. Both types of corrosion may occur in
combination, with lateral intergranular decomposition originating from vertical pitting corrosion.
lateral = intergranular
vertical = pitting
Pitting corrosion on an aluminum alloy, magnified 200x
Pitting corrosion advances in steps through different mechanisms of action.
1. On passivating materials, (e.g. corrosion-resistant chrome and chrome-nickel alloy steels,

titanium or pure aluminum), pitting corrosion is caused by specifically damage-
generating ions. For these materials, chloride and bromide ions are triggers of pitting
corrosion, fluoride ions add to the list for titanium. Many media contain at least traces of
chloride ions (e.g. cleaning products), which can cause corrosion damage even in low
concentrations by destroying the protective layer.
2. When non-oxidized aluminum comes into contact with chloride ions, aluminum chloride
(AIC13), forms in the pores. The concentration of aluminum chloride increases trough
progressing corrosion or repeated wetting and diving when in contact with water. A
saturated AICl3 has a pH value of 3-5, which prevents the surface from passivating. The
corrosion progresses as long as the corrosive electrolyte reaches the bottom of the pit. In
this initial stage, pitting corrosion becomes visible as a powdery deposit above small
holes on the metal's surface.
3. Moreover, the oxygen concentration at the opening of the cavity is higher than at the
bottom, as the corrosive reaction with the metal requires oxygen which can't be replaced
by oxygen from the environment if the electrolyte isn't stirred. This situation creates a
concentration cell, with the low-oxygen area in the pit acting as an anode and the oxygen-
rich area around the hole as a cathode.

The ability of a material to re-passivate and withstand pitting corrosion is generally determined
by the alloying elements it contains. Chrome and molybdenum are the two most important
elements for resistance to pitting corrosion.
Pitting corrosion can be prevented by the following measures:
• Reducing the environment's aggressiveness, for example by reducing the concentration of

chloride ions, temperature, acidity of surrounding media and oxygen-rich substances.
• Choosing different materials, for example in aviation by using 5XXX or 7XXX alloys if
possible. If high-strength alloys are necessary, they have to be plated.
• Changing the design, for example reducing gaps or allowing media to circulate on the
material's surface to prevent different concentrations of aggressive elements.
Graphic summary of the different processes involved in pitting corrosion
Crevice Corrosion

If an electrolyte (usually water) is contained in a crevice between two metallic or one metallic
and
one non-metallic surface, it may form an oxygen concentration cell, corroding the material.
Oxygen contained in the electrolyte is consumed by the reaction with the metal, while the
diffusion
of new oxygen into the depth of the crevice is hindered by the geometric situation (similar to
advanced pitting corrosion). The protective passivating process on passivating metals such as
pure
aluminum or titanium hence doesn't take place after the oxygen in the electrolyte has been used
up. Furthermore, the oxygen content in the area of the crevice in contact with the atmosphere is
higher, as consumed oxygen is replenished from the surrounding air. This process generates a
concentration cell (water with oxygen against water with little oxygen) with corrosive potential.
The area of low oxygen acts as an anode, while the area of the crevice in contact with air acts as
the
cathode. If the corrosive action has begun, the anodic area becomes more acidic due to the
influence of corrosion reaction products on the metal ions, while the cathodic area becomes
basic,
amplifying the corrosive effect. As the anodic, electron-emitting area is situated in the non-
accessible section of the crevice, the products of this type of corrosion only become visible when
the
corrosion has advanced rather far.
Potential areas of this type of corrosion often cannot be prevented due to constructional
requirements. Typical examples include spot welded, riveted or bolted joints (in aircraft: usually
stringers or bulkheads on the outer skin), areas around flat gaskets, valve seats, stacked or rolled
sheet metal and the area around the waterline on fluid-filled tanks.
The following factors promote crevice corrosion:
• Geometry
• Type of the crevice: Metal to metal, non-metal to metal
• Gap width
• Gap depth
• Environment
• In tanks: Oxygen content, pH value, chlorine content, temperature, movement
• Intermixing
• Biological factors (e.g. microbiological activity)
• Electrochemical reaction

• Type of metal decomposition

• Consumption of oxygen
• Production of elementary hydrogen
• Metallurgical
• Alloying elements
• Impurities
• Characteristics of the passivated layer
All of the factors listed above have to be considered when preventing crevice corrosion. The
most effective approach is to prevent critical gaps in the design phase. If this isn't possible, gaps
should be designed to be as flat and wide as possible to bring about a constant oxygen
distribution in the electrolyte along the gap.
Crevice corrosion
Filigrain/Filiform Corrosion
Filiform corrosion is a special type of crevice corrosion occurring on aluminum surfaces under

thin, organic coatings (ca. 0.1 mm). The damage occurs as fine, filiform rises on the surface
originating from one or multiple points, spreading across the surface on seemingly random path.
Filiform corrosion is triggered by a defect in the coating, such as a scratch. Microscopically
small pores in the paint layer can also generate filiform corrosion.
These impurities are the origin of small fluid deposits, which exhibit higher humidity than the
surrounding areas, and hence form an oxygen concentration cell.
The filiform structures are small tunnels along the rises and cracks in the coating filled with
corrosion products. The corrosion is easily recognizable to the naked eye. At a closer look, it
appears similar to tentacles or spider webs.
This type of corrosion appears the most intensively in warm coastal regions, under tropical
conditions and the influence of salt, or in areas of heavy industrial air pollution. High humidity is
the most important factor. In a natural atmosphere, filiform corrosion likely occurs at a humidity
between 85% and 95%. The ambient temperature and thickness of the coating have a smaller
influence on the development of the corrosion.
The corrosion has an active head, on which chloride ions concentrate and a filiform tail, where
the aluminum oxidizes. In order for the corrosive action to progress, oxygen has to be present,
being the most important reaction partner in the cathodic reaction. This type of corrosion is
fueled by a concentration cell, where the head of the tunnel is the anode and the surrounding area
and tail of the tunnel represent the cathode. The voltage potential between head and tail is around
0.1 to 0.2 volts.
Filiform corrosion on an aluminum surface, originating from a rivet head.

Stress Corrosion Cracking
Stress corrosion cracking is caused by mechanical tensile force and simultaneous influence of a
corrosive medium. Stress corrosion cracking often occurs without any visible corrosion products.
The crack usually forms around areas of the crack already weakened by corrosion. There is
hence a distinction between pure stress corrosion cracking and stress corrosion cracking
following prior local corrosion, for example in the form of pitting or crevice corrosion. Cases of
prior local corrosion can form a rather aggressive medium at the bottom of the pit or end of the
crevice due to a lack of oxygen. At the same time, these areas are often subject to peak tensile
force, rupturing the sensitive and usually brittle passivated layers locally. Stress cracking
corrosion usually spreads along the grain boundaries and is hence intergranular. The cracks form
in perpendicular to the direction of tension.
Tension values are below the yield limit. The tensile force may originate from external influence
or internal material tension, for example caused by heat treatment, mechanical processing or
welding.
Stress cracking corrosion is generally an interaction of three factors:
1. Material, usually exhibiting an especially susceptible microstructure

2. Aggressive media fueling corrosive action on the material
3. Mechanical stress, geometries that are directed unsuitable relative to the direction of
stress
Overlapping static mechanical stress causes stress corrosion cracking, which brings about an
elongation of the metallic material in addition to the corrosion reaction. If the mechanical stress
is cyclic, we talk of corrosion fatigue.
Examples:
• The high strength 7075-T6 aluminum alloy ruptures quickly when in contact with sea
water or salt in de-icing fluids, while the titanium alloy Ti6A14V is resistant to
mechanical stress in combination with sea water.
• The steel 1.4301 („V2A") is resistant to environmental influence, but becomes
susceptible to stress cracking corrosion when coming into contact with chlorine
compounds.
If the specific combination of metal and aggressive medium meet, nearly every metal is affected
by stress cracking corrosion. In aviation, aluminum and steel alloys are most affected by this
type of corrosion, while titanium alloys are rather less affected.
Knowledge about critical combinations of materials is hence important for preventing stress
corrosion cracking. When designing a component, it has to be ensured that the stressed cross
section accommodates for the design tension to prevent stress corrosion cracking. When
manufacturing structural components, heat treatment procedures have to be optimized and
controlled in order to minimize internal tension. Components should not be assembled under
tension.
Hydrogen-Induced Crack Corrosion
Hydrogen-induced crack corrosion occurs if elementary hydrogen generated on a metal surface is

diffused into the lattice, leading to tension in the material's lattice independent of any external
influence. Due to the small size of hydrogen atoms, they usually become interstitial atoms. The
small diameter, interstitial position and high mobility of the atoms require a high diffusion speed
of the hydrogen in the metal. Damage often originates from grain boundaries, cavities, non-
metallic inclusions or liquation microstructure irregularities. These lattice defects act as targets
of the diffusion or sources of the absorption of hydrogen.
Fretting
If the contact patches of force-closed joints are subject to small movement (up to 50 um), such as
slip or oscillation, the material's surface may also be activated. Additional corrosive action leads
to fretting corrosion, which is primarily based on metallic wear particles immediately reacting
with the surrounding medium while at the same time being changed chemically, densified or
sintered by the tribological stress. Lubricants then react with freshly produced wear particles in
this manner. As the small pits formed by this process are additionally subject to an oscillating
mechanical load, fretting may trigger a subsequent component failure, for example by corrosion
fatigue.
The likelihood of fretting corrosion is mainly determined by the combination of materials,

surface treatment, frequency and amplitude of the relative displacement of surfaces and the
pressure under which the oscillation takes place. Hard materials or surfaces are more susceptible
to fretting corrosion than softer surfaces. This type of corrosion mainly occurs where large metal
surfaces meet.

Cross-section of corrosion fatigue-induced rupture
The phenomenon of fretting corrosion doesn't only occur where unlubricated metal components
meet accidentally, but also on metal surfaces designed to be in contact. Where lubricants are
intended to minimize wear, initial wear can act as a catalyst for oxidizing the lubricant, which
causes the lubricant to change viscosity, accelerating the wear process. The by-products of the
reaction can also have a corrosive effect. Polymerisation may produce oil sludge or resin, which
can block the movement completely, causing force rupture.
Fretting corrosion on a bearing shell
One example of damage by fretting corrosion is often found in jet engines. The interface between

the compressor and turbine blades and the disks that hold them are subject to vibration on the "fir
tree" or "dovetail" blade mounts. The high mechanical, and in some cases also thermal stress, as
well as the very- low tolerances mean that any influence on the material can lead to failure.
Fretting corrosion can trigger corrosion fatigue.
Fretting corrosion on a titanium surface, magnified 500x
Microbiological Corrosion
Virtually every material - besides metals also polymers, glass and ceramic - can be attacked and
changed through microorganisms. This phenomenon is known as microbially induced corrosion
(MIC).
Different microorganisms can be the cause for MIC.

• Bacteria can be classified either as aerobe or anaerobe types by their metabolic reaction.
Aerobe bacteria require oxygen. They accelerate corrosion by reacting sulphur into
sulphur oxide. Bacteria living on metals may advance corrosion by removing the oxygen
required for forming passivated layers from the environment or by producing aggressive
metabolic products.
• Anaerobe bacteria on the other hand can only survive in an environment void of free
oxygen. Their metabolism oxidizes inorganic materials such as iron, sulphur, hydrogen or
carbon monoxide. The resulting reaction products cause corrosion.
• Fungus is created by the growth of microorganisms living off organic materials. Low
humidity doesn't kill these microbes, but slows their growth hence preventing damage by
corrosion. Most microorganisms grow the most quickly at temperatures between 20 and
400C and a relative humidity of between 85 and 100%.
Damage by microbiological corrosion may occur if one, or a combination of the three processes
below takes place:

1. Fungus tends to bind humidity, accelerating other types of corrosion.

2. As fungi are living organisms, they require nutrition to stay alive. This nutrition is the
material they live on.
3. These microorganisms excrete corrosive fluids that may damage many materials,
including those not used as nutrition by the organism.
Any infestation of microbiological organisms has to be removed completely to prevent

corrosion.
In aviation, damage by microbiological corrosion mainly befalls aluminum integral tanks. This
type of corrosion causes damage to aircraft ever since the introduction of kerosene as aviation
fuel 70 years ago. The fuel is contaminated with water, which gets into the fuel through the
condensation of humidity. Corrosive action takes place on the interface between the fuel and the
water. The fungus Cladosporium Resinae is the main organism involved. It survives by
consuming components of the fuel, excreting various organic acids as a metabolic product (pH
values of 3-4 or lower). Along with mucilaginous bacteria of the Pseudomonas species, this
fungus creates oxygen concentration cells below the organic residue formed by them.
The fungus Hormoconis Resinae also poses a constant threat to fuel tanks. Brown, sludgy mats
of this fungus can cover large areas of the tank, causing pitting corrosion, exfoliation or
intergranular corrosion through the emitted acids and differing oxygen concentration in the fuel.
Problems caused by microbiological corrosion have become less frequent in modern times,
mainly due to the advances in water separation technology (drain ports) and the use of biocides
as additives in the fuel.

Microbiological residue on the inside of a helicopter fuel tank
High Temperature Corrosion
At high temperatures, metal materials may react with hot gas, steam, dust or ash without any
additional fluid electrolyte. High temperature corrosion on metal alloys, as it appears in
combustion chambers or turbines, is usually caused by oxidation, carbonization, nitration and
sulphidation. Each of these processes is triggered by a specific corrosive medium and can be
reduced by adding the respective alloying elements. Most high-temperature resistant alloys
contain chromium (sometimes also aluminum and silicon) in order to create compounds of these
elements (Cr2O3, Al2, SiO2), which improve resistance to high temperatures.
Details on: Filiform- / Filigrain Corrosion
Filiform corrosion is a special type of crevice corrosion occurring on aluminum surfaces under
thin, organic coatings (ca. 0.1 mm). These coatings are usually layers of paint serving as
protection against the elements. Multi-layer coatings of primer and polyurethane-based top coat
have proven less susceptible to filigrain corrosion than single-layer paint. The damage occurs as
fine, filiform rises on the surface originating from one or multiple points, spreading across the
surface on seemingly random path. The filiform structures are small tunnels along the rises and
cracks in the coating filled with corrosion products. The corrosion is easily recognizable to the
naked eye. At a closer look, it appears similar to tentacles or spider webs. The corrosive action
mainly takes place on the material surface, the depth of damage being limited to a few
hundredths of millimeters. The damage done to the protective coating can trigger other, more
destructive types of corrosion. Filiform corrosion is triggered by a defect in the coating, such as a
scratch. Microscopically small pores in the paint layer can also generate filiform corrosion. In
many cases, painted-over rivet heads are the origin of filigrain corrosion. Water collects in these
damaged areas, creating an area of higher humidity, which is the base of a concentration element.
Working principle of filigrain corrosion
Concentration Cell Corrosion
Concentration cell corrosion is corrosion of metals in a metal-to-metal joint, corrosion at the

edge of a joint even though joined metals are identical, or corrosion of a spot on the metal
surface covered by a foreign material. Another term for this type of corrosion is crevice
corrosion. Metal ion concentration cells, oxygen concentration cells, and active-passive cells are
the three general types of concentration cell corrosion.
Cavitation Erosion
Cavitation occurs when a fluid's operational pressure drops below its vapor pressure causing gas
pockets and bubbles to form and collapse. This usually occurs with a rather explosive and
dramatic effect. This condition can form an airlock preventing any incoming fluid from having a
cooling effect and further exacerbating the problem. This form of corrosion will cause loss of
material usually at the volutes and impellers of centrifugal pumps.
Mercury Contamination
If mercury is spilled in an aircraft, it will combine with aluminum alloy to form an amalgam
which has no appreciable structural strength. The mercury rapidly 'soaks' in and attacks along the

grain boundaries of the aluminum alloy. This corrosion may be recognized on aluminum alloys
by the appearance of a grayish powder fuzzy deposit or a whiskery growth.
Corrosion Fatigue
Corrosion fatigue is fatigue in a corrosive environment. It is the combined effect of corrosion and
fatigue, which can cause failure of a structural component far quicker than either of those
components if they were working alone. It is the mechanical degradation of a material under the
joint action of corrosion and cyclic loading.
Nearly all engineering structures experience some form of alternating stress and are exposed to
harmful environments during their service life. The environment plays a significant role in the
fatigue of high strength structural materials like steels, aluminum alloys and titanium alloys.
Materials with high specific strength are being developed to meet the requirements of advancing
technology. However, their usefulness depends to a large extent on the extent to which they
resist corrosion fatigue.
Acid Spillage
An acid spillage, on aircraft components, can cause severe damage. Acids will corrode most
metals used in the construction of aircraft. They will also destroy wood and most other fabrics.
Correct Health and Safety procedures must be followed when working with such spillages.
Aircraft batteries, of the lead/acid type, give off acidic fumes and battery bays should be well
ventilated, while surfaces in the area should be treated with anti-acid paint. Vigilance is required
of every-one working in the vicinity of batteries, to detect (as early as possible) the signs of acid
spillage.
Alkali Spillage
This is most likely to occur from the alternative Nickel-cadmium (Ni- Cd) or Nickel-Iron (Ni-Fe)
type of batteries, containing an electrolyte of Potassium Hydroxide (or Potassium Hydrate). The
compartments of these batteries should also be painted with anti-corrosive paint and adequate
ventilation is as important as with the lead/ acid type of batteries. Proper Health and Safety
procedures are, again, imperative.
Removal of the alkali spillage, and subsequent protective treatment, follows the same basic steps
as outlined in acid spillage, with the exception that the alkali is neutralized with a solution of 596
(by weight) of chromic acid crystals in water.

Material Types, Susceptibility to Corrosion
Metal corrosion is the decay of metals as they combine with oxygen to form metallic oxides.
Corrosion is a chemical process that is the reverse of the process of smelting the metals from
their ores. Very- few metals are found in their pure state in nature. Most are found as metallic
oxides.
These oxides have other undesirable impurities in them. The refining process involves the
extraction of the base metal from the ore.
Ferrous Metals
One of the most familiar types of corrosion is ferrous oxide (orange to reddish colored rust),
generally resulting from atmospheric oxidation of steel surfaces. Some metal oxides protect the
underlying base metal, but rust is not a protective coating in any sense of the word. Its presence
actually promotes additional attack by attracting moisture from the air and acting as a catalyst for
additional corrosion. If complete control of the corrosive attack is to be realized, all rust must be
removed from steel surfaces.
Rust first appears on bolt heads, hold-down nuts, or other unprotected aircraft hardware. Its
presence in these areas is generally not dangerous and has no immediate effect on the structural
strength of any major components. The residue from the rust may also contaminate other ferrous
components promoting corrosion of those parts. The rust is an indicator of a need for
maintenance and quite possibly of more corrosion in more critical areas which cannot be seen
with only the aid of a flashlight and a mirror. It is also a factor in the general appearance of the
equipment. When paint failures occur or mechanical damage exposes highly stressed steel
surfaces to the atmosphere, even the smallest amount of rust is potentially dangerous in these
areas and must be removed and controlled.
Copper Alloys
Copper and its alloys are relatively resistant to corrosion. Tarnishing has no serious
consequences in most primary and secondary structural applications. Long-term exposure to
industrial or marine
environments encourage formation of the blue-green surface cover while brasses can suffer loss
of zinc (de-zincification). In aircraft construction, copper-based alloys are frequently cadmium-
plated, to prevent dissimilar metal corrosion. The corrosion on copper is green in color and often
called "verdigris"

Aluminum Alloys
The corrosion of aluminum and aluminum alloys takes a number of different forms. It may vary
from general etching of the surface, to the localized, intergranular-attack, characteristics of some
strong alloys in certain states of heat-treatment. The corrosion products are white to gray and are
powdery when dry. Superficial corrosion can be removed by scouring, light abrasive blasting, or
by chemical methods. In general, pure aluminum sheet and 'AL clad' surfaces have good
corrosion resistance, except in marine environments. In these environments, aluminum and its
alloys require high protection and high-strength aluminum alloys are always given a substantial
protective treatment.
Magnesium Alloys
Magnesium corrosion products are white and voluminous, compared to the base metal. When the
failure of protective coatings on magnesium alloys occurs, the corrosive attack tends to be severe
in the exposed areas, and may penetrate totally through a magnesium structure in a very short
time. Any corrosion, on magnesium alloys, therefore requires prompt attention. In contrast to
high- strength aluminum alloys, the strong magnesium alloys, used in aircraft, do not suffer
intergranular attack. Corrosion is readily visible on the surfaces of Magnesium Alloys.
Titanium
Titanium is highly resistant to corrosion but should be insulated from other metals to avoid
dissimilar metal corrosion of the adjacent material. Titanium alloys can suffer stress corrosion at
temperatures above 3000C when in the presence of salt and fatigue cracks can develop more
quickly in a saline atmosphere.
Cadmium can penetrate the surface of titanium alloys and embrittle them at all temperatures
above ambient (as can Lead, Tin and Zinc at temperatures higher than approximately 1200C).
Embrittlement can occur if the cadmium is plated onto the titanium or if cadmium- plated steel
parts (and cadmium-contaminated spanners) are used with titanium.
Influence of Mechanical Processing
Mechanical processing influences the grain shape of the metal's microstructure and the
distribution of the alloying element particles in the material. Both may influence the corrosion
potential of local cells. Most products consisting of wrought aluminum alloys (rolled, forged,
extruded or drawn) exhibit an anisotropic, directional microstructure. The microstructure

determines the material's resistance against stress corrosion and exfoliation. The flow of the
metal during drop forging and complex extrusion shapes facilitate a heterogeneous
microstructure within the component. Wide, flat grains increase the risk of exfoliation.
Exfoliation on a rolled aluminum alloy (magnified 200x)
Influence of Heat Treatment
Heat treatments such as solution annealing, quenching or aging can have an influence the
corrosion resistance of high strength aluminum alloys. Ideally, all alloying elements should be
solved completely in aluminum prior to quenching and the cool-down rate should be quick
enough to keep them in solved state. The former can be achieved by rather simple means, as long
as the alloying elements are below the solubility limit while the latter often isn't reached. This
may be due to the physical limits of heat transfer or to the targeted use of a slow cool-down rate
to reduce tension in the component. Both lead to an inhomogeneous structure that has a lower
resistance to corrosion, especially if irregularities in the microstructure occur locally.

Fasteners
Any aircraft, no matter which advanced materials it is made from, is without doubt useless if its
components aren't held together properly. There are many different important joining techniques
in the aerospace industry, including riveting, screwing, bolting, welding, soldering and bonding.
The procedures used have to create a joint that is as stable as the materials it connects.
Screw Threads
A screw thread is a helical structure which allows to convert between rotational and linear
movement or force. A screw thread is an essential feature of the screw as a simple machine or as
a fastener.
helical structure converts rotatory motion in to linear motion/screw convert kinetic energy into potential energy
Screw Nomenclature
Helicoid = wrapping triangle around cylinder
The helicoid of a thread is the line created by wrapping a right triangle around a cylinder. Its
hypotenuse is the helicoid. The horizontal cathetus of the triangle is equal to the circumference
of the cylinder U= π*d. The vertical cathetus P is called lead, while angle between this
circumference and the thread line is called lead angle α. cathetus = line
lead angle = circumference line & thread line
Derivation of the helicoid

daak
Wedge Effect and Self-Locking
Looking at the helicoid, it becomes rather obvious that a nut will glide along the thread when
turned on a bolt - two angled planes glide along another. Without any external force, the upper
part
would glide downwards along the thread due to gravity. The friction between the two parts
inhibits
this process in real life.
If the helix angle a of the thread is rather low, the external thread won't glide down the angled
plane of the internal thread (helicoid). Similar to a box on an angled plane, there has to be a
sufficient angle to overcome friction before the object moves. At small helix angles, the friction
between the internal and external thread hence prevents the nut from coming loose or fastening
by
gravity alone. This principle is knownas "self-locking". This is why fastening threads have a
smaller helix angle than transmission threads, for which it is a design goal to provide movement
between internal and external thread under load.
khulasa
Nomenclature
Internationally, there are different definitions for the terms "Bolt" and "Screw" and their
distinction. Sometimes, the length of the thread in proportion to the bare shank is made the
distinctive characteristic:
• Screws are threaded fasteners with a nominal diameter below 5 mm. Furthermore,
completely threaded fasteners are called screws if they are above a certain length, even if
their nominal diameter is greater than 5 mm. All fasteners with a diameter above 5 mm
and some degree of blank shank are called bolts.
In English language literature and practice, the distinction is made by the area of application of
the fastener:
• Bolts assemble components using a nut, while screws are installed into the material itself.
The external thread for a screw is either cut into the material before installation or by the
screw itself. Bolts are generally used where high strength is required, while screws are
used in places where strength isn't the main consideration. Bolts and screws can be very
similar as both are used for assembling components and have a head and a thread. The
thread is always blunt on a bolt, while it may either be pointed or blunt on a screw.

Other literature calls every fastening element with a thread and a head for attaching to tools
screw, independent of its purpose, dimension or shank length. In these classifications, bolts are
threadless fasteners.
Nomenclature on a hex bolt
shank
transition point
Nomenclature on a hex bolt

Thread Forms
Threads are distinguished by different criteria. They all share the basic characteristic of a linear
groove cut into the material of a cylinder, while all other geometric dimensions can vary. A
thread is defined clearly by the following five dimensions: Pitch diameter, flank angle, pitch,
major diameter and minor diameter.
1 = pitch Dia
2 = flank
3 = pitch
4 = major Dia
5 = minor Dia
flank
flank angle
minor diameter
external = nominal dia
internal = minor dia
average = pitch dia
Characteristic measurements of a thread
Threads are classified by the following criteria:
• Situation
• External thread
Thread on the outer surface of a cylindrical body, usually used for screws.
• Internal thread
Also called nut thread. Thread on the inside walls of a borehole. Internal threads
may either be cut into the material of a component or be part of a separate
fastening element, a nut.
• Thread direction
• Right-hand thread
The right-hand thread direction for fastening a screw (clockwise, looking at the
screw head) has prevailed for historical reasons.

• Left-hand thread
Left-hand threads are used where the rotation of the respective component poses
the threat of a right-hand thread nut coming loose due to acceleration or friction.
Examples include fastening nuts for grinding wheels on angle grinders or central
locking wheel nuts (on one side) of high performance cars. Left-hand threads are
usually marked by notches in the sides of the bolt head. In technical
documentations, they are denominated with "LH or L/H".
• Application
• Fastening threads are used to produce clamping connections. The rotational
movement of the bolt braces (usually) two components together. Kinetic energy
(rotation of the screw) is converted into potential energy (elastic deformation of
the screw).
• Lead screws translate rotational into linear movement or produce large force, for
example in the spindles of a lathe, valves, spindle presses or vices. Aviation
applications include the extension and retraction mechanisms of landing flaps or
the front cargo door of the Boeing 747-8 F. The translation of rotational into
linear movement using a lead screw is, if a suitable geometry is chosen, possible,
but seldom used.
• Pitch
• Standard metric thread
There are standard pitch values for metric threads with diameters between 1 and
68 mm.
• Fine threads exhibit more convolutions on the same length of thread than standard
thread and hence have a lower pitch. At a constant flank angle (fine threads and
standard threads of the same standard, the flank angle is identical), the pitch has a
direct influence on the depth of thread. Fine thread bolts hence have a larger
minor diameter than standard thread bolts. Fine thread screws are stronger than
screws of the same nominal diameter but standard thread, meaning that their
tensile strength is greater. The smaller lead means that the lead angle is also
smaller, the area in the thread on which the internal and external thread glide
along another is thus flatter. This increases the friction in the thread under tensile
load, improving the screw or bolt's self-locking properties.

Fine thread: The reduced lead P reduces the thread height H and hence increases the bolt's minor diameter
• Number of starts
• Single start
Common fastening and lead threads are single-start threads, meaning that a single
helical thread runs along their length, forming the thread.
• Multiple-start
If one rotation of a thread is intended to bring about a large axial movement,
multiple- start threads may be used. On these bolts, multiple helical threads
intertwine along the bolt, being displaced by an even distance. The thread's lead is
equal to the pitch times the number of starts.
• Profile
a. V-thread: Standard thread (see above)
b. V-thread: Fine thread (see above) The MJ thread is a special type of V-thread used in
aviation. Compared to common metric and imperial V-threads, the thread crests are
more rounded, giving the bolt a larger minor diameter. This larger minor diameter
and the decreased wedge effect give the thread improved fatigue resistance.
c. pipe thread for non-thread-sealing joints. The flank angle is 550 compared to 600 for
standard and fine threads.
d. Trapezoid threads mainly used as lead threads for the purposes discussed above
e. Buttress thread. Compared to the trapezoid thread, the buttress thread is stronger due
to its larger major diameter and flank overlap. The bearing surface against the tensile
or compressive force acting in perpendicular to the bolt or spindle is hence larger. It is
usually used as a single or multiple-start lead thread under high one-dimensional load,
for example lifting or pressure spindles.
f. Knuckle thread. The absence of pointy crests and edges in the profile reduces the
wedge effect to nearly naught, while the flank overlap is minimal. Play on the head
and foot of the thread profile during installation allow a high degree of contamination.
Round threads are used as lead threads for heavy duty applications, for example in the
coupling mechanism of railroad carriages or cargo hooks.

Thread profiles
Dimensions and Tolerances for Standard Threads used in Aircraft

Metric
Metric threads (identified by the "M") have a flank angle of 600. Their pitch is measured from
turn to turn and specified in millimeters. If no pitch is specified, the thread is a standard thread,
whose pitch is defined by the standard.
Examples:
• M12
The pitch of a standard thread with a nominal diameter of 12 mm, according to DIN 13-1,
is 1.75 mm.
• M12* 1.5
Denominates a fine thread with 1.5 mm of pitch, fine thread pitches are also defined by
the standard.
The ISO system of standards gives tolerances in difference tolerance planes for thread
dimensions. The system is similar to the ISO tolerance system for flat and round fits. There are
combinations of tolerance planes denominated by letters (uppercase for internal threads,
lowercase for external threads) and degrees of tolerance signified by numbers. The degree of
tolerance usually refers to the thread's flank diameter. Deviating from this approach, the ISO
thread tolerance system, the number signifying the degree of precision is prefixed to the letter for
the tolerance plane in order to prevent misunderstandings. The thread tolerance systems ensure
the interchangeability of nuts and bolts, maintaining the fit, quality and strength of the bolted
joint and improving the economics of threaded component manufacturing.
The system doesn't give any explicit values for flank angle and pitch tolerances, as these are
implicitly determined by the flank diameter tolerance.

A fit between threaded components is qualified by the tolerance class of the nut thread, followed
by the tolerance class of the bolt thread, the two specifications being separated by a slash.
Examples:
• M6-7H/8g
• M20x2-6H/sg
British
British threads are standardized by the British Association, if they aren't in accordance with the
U.S. standard. The
• BSW - British Standard Whitworth (coarse), and

• BSF - British Standard Fine
threads are used in the aerospace industry. These threads have a flank angle of 550, their pitch is
specified in the number of turns per inch.
US Standards
In the US, threads are classified into "Series" according to a standard classification. The
American National Series includes the following groups:
• NC American National Coarse; Standard thread, coarse

• NF American National Fine; Standard thread, fine
• EF American National Extra Fine; very tight fine thread
as well as the groups of the American Standard Unified Series
• UNC Unified National Coarse
• UNF Unified National Fine
• UNEF Unified National Extra Fine
The thread diameter 1 inch exemplifies the difference between the American National Series
and the American Standard Unified Series: The NF thread has 14 turns per inch of thread (1-14
NF), while the LTNF thread has 12 turns per inch (1-12 UNF).
Increases in the nominal diameter of the standard threads between 1/4 to 2 inch are made in steps
of V4 inch. As opposed to the metric designation system, the American system doesn't directly
specify the thread's pitch, which can only be determined by the number of turns per inch.


Aerospace bolt tolerances are governed by specific regulations of the US standards. There are
numbered fit "classes" that do not give specific measurements but capture the play when fitting a
nut and bolt thread. Classes 1 and 2 are clearance fits, (Class 1: loose fit, Class 2: free fit), class 3
is a medium fit, class 4 a close fit. A class 4 nut can hence only be installed using tools while a
class 1 nut can easily be turned by hand.
Example of an American Standard Unified Series thread denomination
Measuring External Threads
The major diameter of an external thread can easily be measured using any common measuring
device with even measuring surfaces, for example a caliper gauge or micrometer gauge. The
minor diameter is similarly easy to determine using a measuring device with smaller-angle
measuring surfaces than the thread flank angle. Measuring edges on the caliper gauge or adapters
for micrometer screws are used in this case. The measuring edges of a caliper gauge can further
be used to determine the pitch of a thread.

Measuring threads using micrometer adapters
The size and type of standard threads can usually be determined by comparing these values to
standard thread charts.
Simply twisting a nut of a known type and size onto the thread isn't sufficient for determining the
bearing capacity of the thread, as threads with pitch and angle deviations may seem compatible.
Flank diameter, pitch and flank angle influence each other. The fit between nut and bolt depends
on these factors. Even nut and bolt combinations that only contact on one point and hence
deform under load may sometimes be easy to join.

Bearing capacity of threads: Although the threads are easy to join, they only bear load on the tips.
The flank diameter is the vertical distance between two opposite thread flanks, not, as the
common misconception goes, the average of major and minor diameter. As force transmission
between two threads only takes place on the flanks, the flank diameter is of the same importance
for threads as the diameter of bank shafts and boreholes.
Another possibility of measuring the flank diameter is using micrometer adapters shaped to be
fully in contact with the thread flanks, not touching the thread base.

Measuring the flank diameter using micrometer inserts
The three-wire method is another approach to measuring the flank diameter. It uses three round
cross-section wires of known diameter, which are positioned onto the thread to rest between the
thread flanks and the measuring device's calipers. The flank diameter is a function of the
measurement, factoring in the wire diameter and thread pitch.

Measuring the flank angle using the three wire method.
If uncommon thread forms and sizes are to be determined or wear or production precision are to
be checked, additional measuring methods are required. Doing so involves determining
quantities that are harder to measure, for example the angle between the flanks or the flanks and
the bolt's axis, as well as the major diameter of internal threads. Measuring these requires
specialized measuring equipment.
Thread gauges are commonly used to measure threads in everyday workshop operations. These
gauges give information about the type and state of the respective thread. By comparison with a
thread gauges, the profile and pitch of the thread can be roughly determined. Thread gauges are
pieces of metal, into which the thread shape is machined or punched. Putting those onto the
thread to be checked determines congruence.

Thread gauge
External threads are measured using thread caliper gauges or thread gauge rings. Internal threads
are checked using thread plug gauges or go/no-go gauges. No-go gauges are usually marked with
a red color ring. When checking the thread, the green side must screw into the internal thread, or
screw onto the external thread. The no-go side may only make transient contact.
If the go-side of a plug gauge can fit an internal thread, its shape and measurements have to be
above the minimum specification. The go-side hence has to be equal in size and shape to the
minimum thread dimensions. In order to prevent flank angle deviations from hindering a fit, its
flanks are shortened. No-go thread plug gauges check the flank diameter representatively for all
individual sizes. As the flank diameter, flank angle and pitch are geometrically dependent, these
factors can also be checked. As with all checks using gauges, the statements based on them are
inly qualitative, not quantitative (no exact tolerance values).
As all gauges, thread plug gauges do wear and hence need to be checked in regular intervals.

Thread plug gauge
Thread caliper gauge

Analyses under laboratory conditions allow measurements exact to a few gm. These results are
used for quality checks of high-precision components, thread plug gauges and wear analysis.
Highly magnified projection of thread cross-section make deviations from the standard visible.
Visual projection of a thread profile
Height profiles and measurement deviations can be recorded by means of mechanical scanning.
Bolts, Studs and Screws

Bolt Types: Specification, Identification and Marking of Aircraft Bolts, International
Standards
Most aviation components are identified by part numbers or trademarks. Part numbers given by
the manufacturer may not be replaced with similar but non-certified bolts or screws. Identical
measurements may never be the sole criterion for interchangeability, as they don't capture the
material used.
Measurements and characteristics of threaded fasteners (and rivets) are usually identified in the
following standards:
• National Aircraft Standard (NAS)

• Boeing Aircraft Corporation (BAC)
• Military Standard (MS)
• Air Force-Navy (AN)
• British Association (BA)
• Standard sheets of the „Normenstelle Luftfahrt"
The standard system's identifier is followed by a code for the respective fastener. The coded
names are either explained in a separate brochure or as part of the repair manuals issued by the
manufacturer.
Metric
In addition to the material identifier, certified metric fasteners such as bolts and screws have to
carry a short mark relating to the manufacturer. DIN 267 governs that the fastener also has to
carry a strength class indication. The bolt head hence features numbers such as 8.8 or 10.9,
which represent the tensile strength and yield limit in daN/mm2. The number to the left of the
point has to be multiplied with the right number to give the yield limit:8*8= 64 daN/mm2
US Standards
Most aviation applications use AN, NAS or MS bolts. There is a multitude of different head
shapes and tool drives for different applications. The figure below gives a selection of head
markings for different characteristics.

Head markings(selection)

Examples of aviation bolt head markings
Even with the knowledge of how to decode embossed head markings, it is nearly impossible to
check bolts from different standard systems for interchangeability by comparing the
characteristics the codes are based on. The following decoding examples give an impression of
the problems the variety of American fastener codes raises and shows that only using the exact
bolt specified by the manufacturer can provide for correct work results.

Example of a AN standard system bolt head marking
Example of a BAC standard system bolt head marking

Example of a NAS standard system bolt head marking
Nuts: Self Locking, Anchor, Standard Types
There is a wide variety of types, shapes and sizes of aviation nuts. They may consist of coated
mild steel, corrosion-resistant steel, aluminum alloys or titanium alloys. Like bolt threads, they
can be left- or right-threaded. American aviation standards don't govern any type of marking on
nuts, only allowing identification by material characteristics or size and shape. Exact
identification being impossible, the only way of ensuring the correct nut is used is to remove a
new one from a marked container.
Aviation nuts can be distinguished into two overall categories: Self-locking and non-self-locking
nuts. Nuts that do not self-lock have to be secured by other means, such as split pins, safety wires
or locking plates. Self-locking nuts integrate the locking mechanism.
Common types of non-self-locking nuts include hex nuts (high or low, with or without boreholes
for safety wire), flange nuts and wing nuts.

Non-self-locking nuts
Self-locking nuts are used where there is a risk of conventional threaded joints coming loose due
to external vibration and it isn't possible or suitable to use other types of locking mechanisms
(e.g. due to a lack of space). Self-locking nuts may incorporate a polymer ring insert with a
slightly smaller diameter than the external thread the nut is screwed onto, creating friction
between bolt and nut and hence preventing any movement of the bearing surfaces of the threads.
Applications in areas subject to high thermal stress or aggressive media may destroy the polymer
locking element. Another type of locknut hence has to be used. Self-locking nuts consisting
entirely of metal create the intended friction by a slightly oval shape of the nut or a part of the
nut.

Self-locking nut MS21083 with a nylon insert
Self-locking nut, upper thread section ovalised for jamming effect
There are no general rules about re-using self-locking nuts after de-installation, but the
manufacturer's specifications always have to be adhered to. In some cases, replacing the nut is
imperative while other nuts may be re-used if they exhibit a certain drag torque.

Studs: Types and uses, Installation and Removal
Studs are threaded pins installed in a manner that exposes some of the thread, making it possible
to attach other components using nuts. Studs remain installed permanently. In many cases, studs
are used for attaching housing components or covers. One of the advantages of using studs for
these applications are that the threads in the soft casing material don't wear by repeated
installation and removal of bolts, are damaged by misplaced or mis-angled bolts or seize by
corrosion and ensure a proper fit between components during installation. Studs also hold surface
seals between components in place.
Some studs feature an external hexagonal drive section on the transition section between the part
of the thread anchored in the component and the exposed part, making installation and removal
easier. An integrated Allen socket in the head serves the same purpose.
Studs with hexagonal cross-section part (left, center), Allen key head

Studs are secured against loosening using separate glue, micro-encapsulated glue (see above,
Allen head stud), caulking or a nut thread with a drive fit.
Aviation studs are often secured using the Rosan® system. Instead of a hexagonal drive surface,
these studs feature a toothed ring. The borehole in the component has to grow in diameter above
the internal thread in order to produce a gap between the toothed ring and the borehole wall. A
locking ring is then pressed or hammered into this gap. This ring makes a form fit with the
toothed ring on the stud. It further carries its own external toothing, holding it in the material of
the component and securing both the ring and stud.
Stud secured using the Rosan® system On the left: De-installed, safety ring on the stud. Centre: Installed, safety ring in place.
Right: Cross-section in an installed state.
In order to remove a stud secured in this manner, the safety ring has to be removed by milling it
out of the component. This requires a special cylindrical cutting tool that is put over the stud.
The stud guides the cutting tool while it removes the ring. The external diameter of the cutting
tool has to be chosen so that it only cuts into the ring, not the surrounding material or the toothed
ring on the stud.

Rosan safety ring removal tool
Self-Tapping Screws, Dowels
Thread-Forming Screws
Thread-forming screws are used for saving work steps during assembly. The external thread is
formed by the screw itself.
There are three basic types of thread-forming screws:
• Thread-grooving screws form their thread without removing material by displacing

material in the core borehole to fit the screw thread. As this process doesn't form any
chips, the potentially elaborate work step of removing chips isn't required. The thread-
forming process also compacts and strengthens the material around the screw.
Example of a self-grooving screw accord ng to DIN 7500
• Thread-cutting screws are screws that feature flutes that cut an external thread while the
screw is installed in a pre-existing borehole.

Example of a self-cutting screw
• Self-drilling screws further reduce work steps by drilling their own borehole with an
integrated drill tip. The inlet thread following the drill tip forms the external thread in the
component.
Example of a self-drilling screw
These screws are especially suitable for installation in slightly plastic materials, including, for
example,
• Aluminum
• Copper
• Steel with a tensile strength below 600 N/mm2

Self-tapping screws are rarely used in aviation, as the relatively short maintenance intervals of
aircraft require screws to be removed and installed for inspection purposes at a comparatively
high frequency. The high friction during removal and re-installation causes the internal thread to
wear quickly, impairing its self-locking characteristics.
Dowel Pins
Dowel joints are made by installing a dowel pin in dowel holes connecting all respective
components. If the components have a transition fit, the connection is form-closed. If the pin is a
tight fit, the connection is force-closed.
Pins are used:
• To secure the position of components (centering, fixing), especially force-closing bolted

joints are made after fixing the components laterally using pins.
• For shear-proof connections of machine parts (e.g. for holding springs in place or
movable bearing).
• For securing nuts and bolts (safety pins).
• For limiting the travel of machine components (stop pins).
Fixing a casing using pins

Conical pins can counterbalance wear effects or the widening of pin holes after repeated
installation and de-installation, restoring the exact fit of the parts. As the locating bore has to be
shaped conically and the pin has to be adjusted to the applications, this approach is rather costly.
If the setscrew can't be knocked out of the locating bore, for example in blind holes, the conical
pins used feature a spigot pipe thread or an internal thread for attaching a nut or bolt to loosen
the pins.
Conical pins a) for continuous holes, b) with spigot pipe thread for blind holes, c) with internal thread for blind holes

Locking Devices
Tab and Spring Washers, Locking Plates
Bolted joints subject to dynamic longitudinal loads, that are torqued to a suitable value and free
of external loosening moments, do not usually loosen by themselves. The wedging effect caused
by the tension and friction on the nut and bolt thread flanks locks bolted joints. Still, nuts do
loosen by themselves, causing the joint to fail. Studies have shown that large cyclic load
amplitudes, especially if they reduce the preload force significantly, can cause bolted joints to
loosen.
This process is caused by a radial gliding movement between the thread flanks and the head and
nut contact surfaces due to a deformation of the joint. This deformation drastically reduces
friction and causes the nut and bolt to glide along another, similar to a weight on a vibrating
inclined plane. As a consequence, the joint's self-locking properties are lost.
Locking Plates
Locking plates are usually standard parts that are put under the nut or bolt head during
installation. Locking washers also act as washers. Which variant of locking plate is to be used is
defined in the maintenance documents.
Locking plates provide a form-closed lock, which has the task of preventing any rotational
movement of the nut or bolt head. The plate features claws or wings that anchor the plate and
thus secure the joint against loosening.
Locking plates: Left: National Aerospace Standard(NAS); right: British SP standard

Example for the use of lock ng plates from left to right: On a straight edge, borehole, rib, on a counter nut of a control rod
Spring Washers
Spring washers, crinkle washers, serrated washers and lock washers are positioned between the
nut and the components to be joined. These washers are part of the group of "ineffective locking
elements". The respective DIN standards have been revoked after tests have shown that these
locking elements are ineffective in securing bolted joints against oscillating loads (e.g.
vibration). The basic approach of these elements was to increase the friction in the thread
through the spring load, improving the joint's self-locking characteristics, while at the same time
creating a form- closed connection through the edge in the spring washer. As spring washers lie
flat between washer and surface above about 10% of nominal torque, these edges can't grip the
material.
Ineffective securing elements: Spring washer (left), toothed ring (center), serrated washer (right)

Locking Plates
Locking plates are thin metal plates that provide from-closure after the nut to be secured has
been tightened. The locking plate itself is secured against rotational movement by a separate
fastening screw. The hole in the plate is usually a double hexagon to make it easier to find a
position for the plate. Locking plates may also attach to two nuts to secure them against one
another. The fastening screw also has to be locked.
Locking plates: left Double hexagon, right: Fork
Split Pins
Split pins are used as form-closed locking mechanisms for nuts, bushings, discs etc. The
combination of castellated nut and split pin is the most common use of split pins. Bolts used for
this application have to feature a borehole through which the pin is routed. Split pins used in
aviation usually consist of stainless steel. They may not be driven into the borehole using brute
force. After installation, split pins shouldn't have any longitudinal play. The ends of the split pin
are bent around the nut or bolt in order to prevent injury resulting from the sharp edges. The ends
of the split pin may not touch the components they lock. The details of how the ends are bent
back vary between manufacturers. Exact procedures can be found in the Standard Practices
Manual.
W1ere split pins are used on rotating components, the head has to be positioned in the direction
of rotation. On stationary components, the head should point upwards.
If there is no fit between the grooves of the castellated nut and the borehole in the bolt within the
specified torque range of the nut to be locked, the nut or bolt have to be replaced, as the torque
has to be adhered to.

Variant of split pin and castellated nut installation
Palnuts
Palnuts are punched and bent plates, which are installed on top of a conventional nut for added
locking. Palnuts may not be used in place of a normal nut.
The barbs of the palnut protrude into the thread of the nut. The internal diameter of the palnut is
smaller than the minor diameter of the bolt thread, causing the palnut to tension when screwed
onto the thread. This tensions generates a spring force that increases the friction between palnut
and screw. The locking mechanism provides a force fit.
Palnuts

Wire Locking
Wire locking can protect nut and bolt joints from coming loose and getting lost. The use of safety
wire is generally limited to bolt heads with boreholes and nuts whose spanner flat can carry a
borehole. The wires used usually consist of ductile, formable materials, such as stainless steel.
Small diameter copper wire is used to secure components that have to be removed quickly and
without tools in case of an emergency (e.g. door jettison mechanism cover). The wire types and
diameters defined in the maintenance manual have to be adhered to.
Bolts and nuts can be locked using the single or double wire method, the latter being the more
common form. The thread of the nut or bolt always have to be considered: The safety wire may
not put the screw under tension in its loosening direction.
The single wire method uses a single, non-twisted wire, which is routed through the safety bores
before the ends are twisted or attached to anchor points. This method is used in areas that are
hard to reach or on components of electrical systems.
Single wire lock on a helicopter gearbox
The twin-wire method uses two twisted wires to lock the respective components. Work steps

include:
1. Boreholes for safety wire should be placed within the area shown below. The primary
focus should always be on putting the correct torque on the fastener. Nuts and bolts
should never be tightened with too much or too little torque.
2. One wire is pushed through the bore in the bolt head's center and around the bolt head. It
is important to consider the thread direction of the bolt (see above). The end of the wire
leading around the bolt head has to pass below the borehole wire.
3. Both ends of wire are then twisted clockwise, either by hand or using safety wire pliers
until the next bolt is reached. The number of turns is specified by the manufacturer, with
7-12 turns per inch of wire being the norm. Too many turns are more damaging than too
little twisting, as excessive cold deformation can make the wire become brittle or put
high tensile stress on the wire.
4. On the next bolt head, the upper wire is led through the borehole. The fivisted %'ire has
to sit tight between the bolt heads, but not tight enough to rupture the wire in case of
vibrations. If the bolt head is the last component to be secured, the wire going around the
head again has to be passed through below the other wire before the safety wire ends in a
counter clockwise
5. The twisted end of the safety wire has to be at least three turns long. The excess wire is
cut and bent backwards, with the end of the wire pointing towards the last bolt head. This
minimizes the risk of injury and prevents other objects, for example wires, form getting
tangled.

Work steps for locking bolt heads using safety wire
If more than two bolts are to be secured together, the wire can be routed around or above the bolt
head.

Different types of wire routing for multi-bolt wire locking
Quick Release Fasteners
Quick release fasteners are used for attaching larger panels and access holes that are opened and
closed frequently for maintenance.
Camloc
The camloc quick release fastener is mainly based on a locking pin with a slotted, countersunk
(or Phillips) head. This pin is locked in a sleeve riveted to the fixed structure, which is similar to
a high rivet nut. The pin is locked by turning it one quarter of a turn. The required locking force
is provided by a pressure spring in the sleeve, which is contained in a threaded sleeve limiting its
outward travel.
Camloc-type quick release fasteners combine the advantages of constructively simpler quick
release fasteners and bolted joints.

Components of a camloc fastener

Locked camloc
Dzus Quick Release Fastener
The Dzus quick release fastener comprises a pin, a sleeve, and, as the pin's counterpart, a spring.
The pin carries a thread-shaped slot with a locking recess. This slot locks in a sprung wire that
crosses the borehole into which the pin is pushed. Dzus quick release fasteners are locked by
turning the pin one quarter of a turn clockwise.
Components of a Dzus quick release fastener

Airloc Quick Release Fastener
Airloc quick release fasteners consist of a holding fixture, a pin and a locking pin. The fixture is
a sheet metal part that allows the locking pin to lock after one quarter of a turn (clockwise). The
fixture is riveted to the structure.
Airloc quick release fastener
Keys
Grooved Pins
In contrast to smooth conical and cylindrical pins, cotter pins feature three pairs of grooves and
ridges. The ridges are elastically deformed into the grooves when the pin is hammered into the
borehole, which can only be drilled using a twist drill. The resulting radial tensioning of the pin
against the borehole wall keeps the pin in place even under vibration.

Grooved pin
Spring Pins
Spring pins are made out of rolled spring steel. The longitudinally slotted sleeves have a
diameter that is, depending on the size, 0.2 to 0.5 mm larger than the borehole diameter (nominal
diameter), giving a vibration-proof fit after installation. Spring pins are easy to install. Re-
usability is determined in the maintenance documents. When installing pin, the direction of the
slit has to be adjusted considering the direction of the attacking force.
Spring pin, ideal direction of force

Circlips
Circlips are flexible locking elements, usually consisting of steel, which serve to prevent axial
movement of pins in boreholes or components such as roller bearings on shafts or axles.
There are internal retaining rings for mounting within a borehole and external retaining rings for
installation on an axle or shaft. Both types require some grooving in the component to secure the
ring's position.
Internal retaining ring (left) and external retaining
The rings are widened or compressed elastically using a special pair of pliers to install them in
their position.
Circlip pliers

A special form of circlip is positioned in the groove as a spiral and can be removed by levering it
out using a screwdriver or similar tool.
Spiral locking ring
Circlips can also be used to secure nuts. In this case, nut and bolt have to feature an aligned
borehole, into which the ring can lock.
Circlip for securing nuts

Aircraft Rivets
Types of Solid and Blind Rivets: Specification and Identification, Heat Treatment
When joining components using bolted joints, the connection is force-closed (except for dowel
pins). This means that the components are pressed together by the bolt and nut to create enough
friction to prevent any movement between the components. The insides of the boreholes may not
be in contact with the bolt in order to prevent shearing forces. This type of joint is also called
friction fit.
In contrast to the friction fit of a bolted joint, a rivet completely fills the borehole, creating form
closure. Rivets hence mainly experience shear stress.
Rivet joints are permanent joints, which means that the components can only be separated by
destroying the fastening element. Advantages over other types of fasteners include:
• There are no disadvantageous effects on materials such as beam hardening or

microstructure changes during welding
• High strength under constant vibration
• Dissimilar materials can be joined
• Rivet joints are simple and safe to inspect (closing head measurements)
• Rivet joints are easy and cheap to produce
• Rivet joints don't fail abruptly but can absorb a lot of energy through deformation
Drawbacks include:
• Weakening of the components by rivet holes

• Butt joints are impossible, requiring material-intensive and heavy overlaps.
• Overlaps and latches cause a disadvantageous force flow
Aeroplanes featuring a rather high composite material content, such as the Boeing 787, contain
about 2.4 million fastening elements. 22% of these are threaded fasteners, the remainder are
rivets.
Specifications and Standards
The strength of aircraft structures has to fulfill certain specifications defined by aviation
authorities (certification specifications). These specifications contain regulations regarding
performance, strength and durability of load-bearing structures. In order to fulfill these
requirements, every airplane has to be designed around the same standards. Reaching this degree
of standardization also requires the components to be standardized in terms of quality. Most

specifications and standards carry the name of the organization that published them. Some of
these organizations are:
• AMS: Aeronautical Material Specifications

• AN: Air Force — Navy
• AND: Air Force — Navy Design
• AS: Aeronautical Standard
• ASA: American Standards Association
• ASTM: American Society for Testing Materials
• MS: Military Standard
• NAS: National Aerospace Standard
• SAE: Society of Automotive Engineers
If a MS20426-AD4-6 rivet is to be used, its characteristics are defined in the respective MS

specification. This information is accessible for aircraft manufacturers, rivet producers and
technicians. The standard defines the rivet's material, head shape, diameter, length etc. Using
standardized components make it possible to produce aeroplanes of the exact same
characteristics, reducing manufacturing cost.
Types of Rivets
There are three basic types of rivet:
1. Solid rivets
2. Blind rivets
3. Specialized rivets
Solid Rivets
Solid rivets are metal pins with a rounded head. They are made out of different materials and in
different head shapes. Oval headed solid rivets are called universal rivets or universal head
rivets, while countersunk rivets are used where an aerodynamically clean surface is required.

Specifications on a solid rivet
When aircraft manufacturers began producing metal aeroplanes in the 1930 s, there were various
manufacturer-specific head shapes. Standardization efforts have produced four main head types.
• MS20470 universal head rivet or

• MS20426 countersunk rivet with a 1000 head angle for structural applications in which
the rivet head is in contact with the aircraft's environment. Fast-flying aircraft nearly
exclusively feature countersunk rivets, while aerodynamically less advanced aircraft such
as helicopters are produced using more universal head rivets. Using universal head rivets
is more cost- effective, as the work step of sinking the rivet is circumvented.
Aircraft interiors mainly feature the following standard rivets:

• MS20430 round head rivet or
• MS20442 flat head rivet.
Solid rivets usually carry head markings identifying the strength, material and manufacturing
process. Length and diameter can't be identified from these markings. Like for materials, there
are different standards for rivet markings. In addition to the head marking, it has to be considered
according to which standard the rivet was produced in order to facilitate unambiguous
identification.

Solid rivet head markings
Depending on the standard, the full designations of the rivets in production and maintenance
documentation vary. In American rivet designations, the last two numbers often signify the
nominal diameter in 1/32 of an inch and the rivet length in 1/16 of an inch.

Example of American rivet designation
Example of German rivet designation
Blind Rivets
There are many areas of aircraft that are only accessible from one side, making it impossible to
install rivets by hitting the rivet head with an air hammer or rivet gun while countering the other
side with a bucket bar to form a closing head.
Furthermore, joining secondary and tertiary structure components such as cabin paneling or
flooring doesn't require as much strength as for primary structures.
In these applications, special rivets for single side access installation are used. These rivets are
produced by various manufacturers and have individual properties requiring special tools for
installation and removal.
The basic design of blind rivets is always similar. They consist of at least two components: A
hollow rivet body with the rivet head, whose shape varies similarly to solid rivets, for example
shaped as a standard rivet head or countersunk head. The rivet body is hollow and its diameter
determines the rivet's nominal diameter. The second part is a mandrel that sits in the rivet body,
pointing out of the rivet head on one end and being slightly wider on the other end. As the
mandrel isn't deformed during installation, it is made from harder material than the rest of the
rivet. When installing the rivet, the mandrel s wider end is pulled through the rivet body, forming
the rivet body's closing head. At a defined tension, the mandrel ruptures at a predetermined
breaking point. A part of the mandrel, called "stem" remains in the rivets, the rest of the mandrel
is removed.
Typical setting process of a blind rivet: Here: AVDEL® rivet, universal head
Although the functioning principle of all blind rivets is similar, there is a wide variety of types of
blind rivets on offer. There are numerous choices of material for mandrel and rivet body: Various
aluminum and steel alloys, titanium or other alloys, which are chosen to suit the particular

application. Details in the shape of the mandrel head create different closing heads, varying the
bearing pressure on the borehole. Depending on where the predetermined breaking point is
located, a different length of mandrel remains in the rivet, substantially affecting the rivet's shear
strength. There are different patented locking systems to secure the stem against falling out of the
rivet.
Names such as pop rivet, Huck rivet or Cherrymax rivet originate from the name of the
manufacturer but don't convey any information in the exact specification, as these manufacturers
offer a large number of different rivets.
Setting a Cherrymax rivet 1000 countersunk

Blind rivet "Maxi Bolt": Friction created by the deformed rivet keeps the stem in place
Specialized Rivets
1. Hi-Lok Rivet
Hi-Lok fasteners are used for transferring large static and dynamic loads. They may
consist of materials that are resistant to plastic deformation, such as titanium or high
strength steel, which would be difficult to process as solid rivets. These fasteners are also
used where the long grip of the rivet or the deformation of the component make it
impossible to set a solid rivet.
Hi-Lok fasteners combine the properties of bolts and rivets. The end of the rivet carries a

threaded part with an Allen socket. An Allen key is placed in the socket while the Hi-Lok
collar is screwed onto the threaded part to prevent the rivet from turning. The hex nut of
the self- locking collar breaks at a defined breaking point after the set torque value is
reached.
The torque is defined by the dimensions of the breaking point and the material strength of
the collar. There are Hi-Lok fasteners for applications predominantly involving shearing
stress (small head and low pre-tension, Al or Steel collar) as well as for tensile and shear
stress (larger head and torque, mainly steel collars).
Hi-Lok fasteners can be set as a tight fit or a loose fit. A tight fit increases the
components' fatigue strength.
Denominations can be found in the shape of a code on the rivet head.
Rivet head markings
The "HL 10" in the above example is the manufacturer's designation for the rivet, specifying
its head shape and other dimensions in relation to its nominal diameter. "hs" stand for the
manufacturer (Hi-Shear Corporation), the letter 'V" signifies that the rivet consists of
titanium (like in solid rivet designations). Similarity to solid rivet head markings, the number

8 means that the rivet has a nominal diameter of 8/32".
The complete designation of this rivet for purchasing or definitions in maintenance or

production documentation could be „HL10 V AP 8-7" for this example, with "AP" being a suffix
for a certain surface coating and the number seven. giving the length of the grip of the rivet in
1/16 s of an inch.
Setting a Hi-Lok Fastener
2. Lockbolt
Lock bolt fasteners are used where high static or dynamic forces apply. Lockbolt
fasteners consist of two components: A pin and a fastener, which can be installed both
with a loose and tight fit. Lockbolts are available in different shapes and materials.
The pin is grooved (not threaded) to allow the collar to lock onto the pin and the setting
tool to grip the pintail safely.

Lockbolt fastener
Lockbolt installation:
1. Setting the lockbolt into the borehole. In case of a tight fit, the lockbolt may have to
be knocked, pulled or pressed into the borehole.
2. Sliding the collar onto the lockbolt from the other side of the joining material
3. Attaching the setting tool (mind using the correct adapter for the specific type of
lockbolt)
4. Form-closed pressing of the collar onto the grooves of the pin
5. Ripping off the pintail on the defined breaking point when reaching a defined
breaking force
Setting a lockbolt

Heat Treatment of Rivets
There are rivets that can be set in factory condition. Other rivets have to undergo a heat treatment
before being used. Without this heat treatment, the rivets are too rigid to form a closing head
during setting without rupturing the material due to strain hardening effects. Heat treated rivets
reach higher shear strength values than rivets without heat treatment.
Just like the heat treatment of any other aluminum component, Al rivets undergo the following
steps:
1. Solution annealing to solve the alloying elements homogenously

2. Quenching to lock the alloying elements in their current position in the lattice
3. Ageing: the foreign atoms move within the lattice, collecting in impurity phases that
impede the movement of dislocations, which are the main factor for plasticity. The
material's strength Increases.
In the moments right after quenching, the material has a low rigidity and is easy to set. In order
to prevent or decelerate the process of aging that begins straight after quenching, the rivets have
to be stored at low temperatures. In practice, insulated containers filled with dry ice contain the
rivets, cooling them.
As the aging process can't be inhibited completely but is only slowed down, the storage time is
limited even if the rivets are cooled. The repeatability of the heat treatment is also limited. Exact
values and limits are published by the manufacturer.
The following values are an example of how Airbus heat treats aluminum rivets:
1. Maximum time between removing the rivets from the furnace and quenching: 15 seconds
2. Holding time begins after a heating phase of around ten minutes
• Rivets may only be annealed twice, or once if the rivet is to be set automatically
• Rivets have to be set straight after removing them from the cooler
• Storage time in the cooler may not exceed seven days

Pipes and Unions

Rigid and Flexible Pipes and their Unions
Pipes are used for transporting different media in aircraft and hence have to meet different
requirements.
• Fuel
In some cases, double-walled pipes are used, which have to be checked for electrical
resistance for reasons of lightning protection.
• Water and waste water systems
Aggressive media posing the threat of freezing as well as tight turn radiuses caused by
the complex fitting solutions create difficulties.
• Bleed Air
Specified dimensions and exact angles of welded titanium pipes of large diameter have to
be adhered to with great precision in order to facilitate tension-free installation of the
thermally stressed pipes.
• Hydraulics
Hydraulic systems have to be pressure-checked to a maximum of 360 bars. Feed lines
consist of steel or titanium, while return lines may be aluminum.
• Oxygen
In order to fulfill the highest purity level requirements, pressure checks are carried out
using nitrogen before a final cleaning step with alcohol. The pipes are then dried, sealed
and individually packed in plastic film.
• Oil
Engine oil supply lines are subject to the highest degree of stress by heat and vibration.

Pipe and tube lines on a jet engine
A tube assembly consist of one tube and two fittings, one per end. Tubes are classified by their
purpose, either as low pressure (suction and return lines), medium pressure lines (up to 1500 psi,
105 bar) and high pressure lines (above 1500 psi/ 105 bar).
Pipes are produced by drawing and consist of various non-corrosive steels as well as aluminum
and titanium alloys.
Many tubes are made from the corrosion-resistant UNS S30400 and UNS S32100 steel, as these
steels are very resistant to corrosion and well suited for drawing processes. The very low carbon
content (around 0.03 to 0.08% C) decreases the probability of precipitations forming in the
lattice even under high temperatures, for example during welding.
Due to the higher tensile strength compared to aluminum, steel tubes can be designed with lower
wall thicknesses, compensating for a large share of the higher specific weight of steel. Steel
tubing is used where damage by foreign object is possible, for example on landing gears.
The different manufacturing processes summarized by the term "drawing" produce seamless
tubes of excellent dimensional precision and surface quality both on the inside and outside.

Drawing methods
Hollow drawing is the simplest form of drawing. The tube is drawn through a hardened matrix
consisting of polished tool steel, or, for smaller diameters, of industrial diamond. If the matrix is
suitably lubricated when in contact with the metal, the surface is smoothed. The inside of the
tube is not retained, which means that the wall thickness increases every time the tube is drawn.
This method is suitable for reducing large diameters.
Plug drawing produces the highest quality parts. The tube's internal and external diameter are
processed at the same time. A high quality steel plug is placed at the exact center of the matrix
for the external diameter. The tube is then loaded around the plug, which is held in place by a
rigid rod. As the tube is pulled through the matrix, its inside is burnished, giving it a highly
tolerant surface quality.
The higher the material quality of the tube, the lighter it can be, as the wall thickness can be
reduced at a constant rated pressure. The flow drag can also be reduced by increasing the clear
diameter.
Steel has the advantage of being cheaper and easier to process than titanium, but the drawback of
greater density. In an Airbus A380, the total of 1000 m of hydraulic lines (operating pressure of
5000 psi rather than the usual 3000 psi) consist of titanium, giving a weight saving of about 40%
compared to conventional steel tubes.
Hose lines are used to transport fluids between moving components or in areas where high
vibration would exceed the flexibility of rigid tubes. Hose lines can also be used to connect tube
lines.
Hoses are made from different synthetic rubber materials:
• Nitrile rubber
Often used under the trademark Buna-N. Very resistant to mineral oil-based fuels, but
may not be used where in contact with ester-based hydraulic fluids (such as Skydrol).
• Neoprene
Isn't as resistant to fuels as nitrile rubber but more so against wear. Similarly, unsuitable
for use with Skydrol.
• Butyl rubber
Butyl is a synthetic rubber and very resistant to hydraulic fluids. It may not be used in
applications involving mineral oil distillates.
Another type of plastic commonly used as internal hose is PTFE (Teflon). It is resistant to a wide
variety of chemicals, making it a suitable material for different hoses.
In order to withstand the required pressures while maintaining flexibility, hose lines are
reinforced using textiles, aramid or metal mesh. Depending on the application, multiple layers of
reinforcement material may be included in the hose material or coat the hose's external surface.
Multilayer design of a pressure hose

Wire mesh-coated hydraulic lines of a helicopter's flight control system
Identification
Tube Lines — Identification LN 9105 (ISO 12)

LN 9105 governs that tube lines are to be marked with marking tape identifying their application.
Tube lines whose external surface comes into contact with fluids (e.g. lines in tanks or hydraulic
reservoirs) are exempt from this standard.
Every part of a tube assembly has to be marked in the following places:

Symbols for the identification of aircraft lines

Symbols for the identification of aircraft lines
Furthermore, tubes and hoses may be marked with functional identifiers such as "drain", "vent",
pressure" or "return". Fuel lines may also be marked with "FAM", lines carrying toxic fluids
with "TOXIC".
Designation of Tubes (Bulk Stock)

The identifier is stamped or electrochemically printed on the tubes. There are specifications for
material, dimensions, manufacturer specification and lot number.
External diameter wall thickness

• Metric e.g.: 12 *0.75
• Imperial e.g.: 1/4" *0.028
External diameter in 1/16" e.g.: -5 = 5/16"≈ 7.9mm

Identification markings on a tube
Designation of Tubes (Ready-made)

Customized, ready-made tube lines produced by licensed manufacturing organizations are
marked with a part number instead of the marking tape used for bulk product. This part number
can be
found in the parts catalog for the airplane. The part number doesn't give any information about
the
material or dimensions of the part. This information isn't required, as the tube manufacturer
guarantees the suitability of the product for the specific defined purpose.
Identification of Hoses (Bulk Stock)

Hoses have to be marked for easy, unambiguous identification. Every hose has to carry the
following pieces of information:
• Name or manufacturer code

• Part number and nominal dimensions
• Date of manufacture or lot number
Identification of Hose Lines (Ready-made)

Hose lines, just like tube lines, are marked with colored marking tape, which defines the medium
flowing through the hose.
In order to provide reliable information about storage and installation time, every hose line has to
be marked with a metal identification tab, without which the line may not be installed. The tab
contains the following pieces of information:
• Date of manufacture
• Pressure test
• Manufacturing standard
• Hose type
• Hose assembly manufacturing date (assembly of the hose/fittings)
• Manufacturer of the hose assembly

The tab is engraved mechanically, stamped, printed electrochemically or laser engraved.
Example of a hose line tab
Designations on a hose line

Standard Unions
Tube fittings and tube connections form the transfer points between the line and the fitting of the
devices supplied with media, other lines, or junctions.
They hence firstly need to fit the different types and diameters of lines and secondly mate up to
the different flanges, manifolds and connecting pieces (flare fittings, flange fittings). Tube
fittings for the different pressure ranges are produced in aluminum, titanium, Cd steel and non-
corroding steel.
Flared Tube Fittings
Flared tube fittings are based on the principle of widening the tube end's cross-section, which
was fitted with a sleeve before flaring. This sleeve, an optional trapezoidal sealing ring and the
fitting itself form the flange fitting. This type of fitting is rather complex to produce but has
proven reliable in vibration-prone applications, such as engines, as it is very resistant to
oscillation.
Flaring the end of the tube to the correct dimensions requires a special tool. The different tube
diameters are fixed in a vice using different clamps for cutting, chamfering and de-burring. The
desired flare is produced by turning a cone into the end of the tube. The rare variant of the
"double flare" additionally folds the edge of the flare onto the inside of the tube.
Components of a flare fitting
Flareless Tube Fittings
Nearly all fittings used in the hydraulic systems of modern-day aircraft are flareless.
Flareless fittings don't require the tube to be deformed, but instead use a sleeve or a sealing ring

consisting of plastically deformable steel. This sleeve is pre-tensioned to deform, creating a

form- closed fit between a cutting edge of the sleeve and the tube s external wall.
Flareless fittings
The connection is made by a threaded sleeve, which is placed on the tube's end with the threaded
section pointing outwards. The pipe protrudes slightly from the sleeve, with the sealing

deformation of the sleeve being caused by screwing the fitting onto the sleeve. The fitting
features a conical, bell-mouthed borehole, which grips onto the sleeve, pushing it onto the tube's
outer surface. The internal cutting edge of the sleeve is pressed onto the tube and is compressed
spherically.
Swage Fitting / Harrison Type
This type of fitting requires special tooling. Swage fittings also use a nut and a sleeve that are
pushed onto the tube, but the sleeve consists of high strength, non-deformable steel. When nut
and fitting are connected using a mandrel-shaped tool that expands mechanically in the tube, the
tube's material is pushed into grooves in the sleeve, sealing the tube and sleeve.
Swage fitting
Hose Connectors
Hose connectors are crimped onto the hose by a nut that presses the hose onto a conical
connector.

Hose fitting
Pneumatics
Pneumatic lines usually have bigger diameters than fluid lines. Threaded connectors are
unsuitable for air conditioning or engine bleed air tubes. The lower pressures pose less of a
requirement to seals, although leakages of hot bleed air in the engine area (up to 5000C) can
damage surrounding components.

Pneumatic connectors
Leak-Proof Fittings
Especially in the engine areas, there is a danger of fluids potentially escaping from fittings, for
example oil or fuel, catching fire on hot components. In order to counteract this danger, the
fittings are surrounded by an additional casing. The enclosed area may also feature a drain line,

which serves to lead away excess fluids and also to make leakages visible during inspections by
attaching a drain pot to the line.
Secured fuel line connector on a CFM56 jet engine
Sensitive components, such as fuel line in the hot areas of engines, may be designed entirely
double-walled.
Quick Release Connectors
Quick release connectors allow for quick connection and disconnection of hoses and tubes
without fluids escaping or air entering the system. Quick release connectors are mainly used
where lines have to be disconnected and connected frequently for maintenance or replenishment,
for example re-fueling connectors and external hydraulic pressure supply ports. Assemblies that
are designed to be replaced in quick timespans are also often equipped with quick release
connectors. In fuel and hydraulic systems, any inclusions of air in the supply lines can impair the
entire system's functionality, requiring additional steps for bleeding the lines. It is hence
important to prevent air from entering the system. This is done by connectors that seal the
plugging sections of the connector before opening a valve to let the medium flow.

Quick release connectors for fuel or hydraulic systems
PCA Lines (PCA Pre Conditioned Air)
The air conditioning systems of commercial aeroplanes require bleed air provided by the engines
or the auxiliary power unit (APU) to operate. The air conditioning systems of smaller aeroplanes
may be operated electrically. In order to provide the cabin with cold or hot air while the airplane
is on the ground with the engines and APU stopped, the aircraft is supplied with conditioned air
from a ground supply. This air is supplied at low pressure, which means that thin plastic hoses
are sufficiently stable. A wire helix around the hose stabilizes its outer wall and prevents it from
kinking and potentially blocking.

PCA hoses, different connectors

Springs
Types of Springs, Materials, Characteristics and Applications
Springs use the characteristics of many materials to react to force application with a reversible
change of shape. The absorption and transmission of forces in springs hence involves rather
substantial shape changes. This property is reached by the shape and choice of material in
springs. Springs can be used for different applications, but especially for:
• Absorbing, storing and emitting mechanical energy (elastic input of torque or force,
reversible translation of kinetic into potential energy) and
• Translating energy into heat through friction
The spring material is of great importance for the properties of any spring. In the face of the high
expected degree of deformation, high-strength materials with a large elasticity range are ideal.
Both metals and non-metallic materials are used for springs.
Classification of springs

Differently shaped and sized springs are found in many components of any aircraft. Small
springs are used for storing energy and generating returning force in mechanical clocks and
instruments, while hydro-mechanical governors use springs with exactly defined forces and
characteristic curves are damping, actuating or amplifying regulating elements. Overpressure
protection valves in hydraulic and pneumatic systems open if a certain spring force is exceeded.
The highest requirements to springs in terms of absorbing mechanical energy are posed to
airplane landing gear dampers.
When a force F is applied to a spring, it is deformed by the spring travel s. Graphically plotting
this relationship gives the force-displacement curve. The curve of the force-displacement
relationship is called spring characteristic. In basic terms, there are linear, progressive and
degressive spring characteristics. A linear spring deforms in proportion to the force, with a
doubling of the force resulting in double the spring deflection. The steeper the characteristic, the
lower the deformation caused by the same force — the spring is stiffer (harder). Linear and close
to linear characteristics are found in leaf springs, torsion bars and helical compression springs.
Progressive springs become stiffer at higher load, preventing, for example, a suspension spring
on a car from bottoming out under high load.
Spring characteristics

Materials
Materials for springs and spring elements have to withstand high tensile force in the elastic
range. Furthermore, they have to have a high endurance limit and, in some cases, heat and
corrosion resistance.
Silicon is the most important alloying element for spring steels, along with manganese, chrome
and vanadium.
Metal Springs
• Coil springs (also: helical compression springs)

Coil springs are the most common type of spring. They are coiled out of round or
rectangular cross-section spring wire, which is cold-worked around a cylinder.
Depending on whether it is used as a tension soring or compression spring, the pitch of
the helix is varied. If the spring is used as a tension spring, the distance between the turns
can be zero, making one turn rest on another in unloaded state. The springs may be
equipped with different latches on their ends for attaching tensile loads.
Coil spring in an overpressure valve
• Flat spiral springs

Flat spiral springs are used as return springs for small rotation angles. The stored energy
is used as a returning moment; the spring's characteristic is practically linear.
Spiral spring

Spiral spring in an accelerometer
• Cup springs
Cups springs (disc springs) are conical discs consisting of spring band steel. They are
axially loaded and bent. Cup springs are either used individually or as a stack of cup
springs. Their high spring rate makes cup springs suitable for high forces and small
spring travel, for example in couplings, as tensile elements in appliances or tools, as well
as for vibration damping.

Single cup spring, cross section
Combination of Individual Cup Springs
Stacking in parallel: The individual springs face the same direction. Disregarding friction, the
total force is equal to the sum of individual forces. The total spring travel is equal to that of the
individual disc spring.
Spring pack of disc springs
Stacking in series: Disc springs or series spring packs are arranged facing in opposite directions.
Disregarding friction, the total force is equal to the sum of individual forces. The total spring
travel is equal to the sum of the spring travels of the individual springs or spring packs. By
stacking discs of varying thickness in different combinations, nearly every desired characteristic
is possible. Excessively long columns of disc springs should be avoided due to growing friction.

Disc spring pack
Leaf Springs
A simple leaf spring can be seen as a cantilever with a defined bend at the load F. The bending
tension increases in proportion to the distance from the force application point, with the
maximum being reached at the attachments. The spring's material and strength are hence only
fully utilized at the attachment points.

Simple leaf spring as a landing gear strut
Elastomeric Springs
Elastomeric springs are predominantly used as compression and thrust springs for suspending
machines and machine parts, damping vibrations and impacts and reducing noise.
Working principle of a cylindrical elastomeric spring

The unwanted kinetic energy in the shape of vibration or shocks is absorbed by the deformation
of the elastomer. On an atomic level, the movement is absorbed by friction. This causes the
elastomer to heat up under continuous heavy use, which can have an effect on its technological
properties.
Gas Struts
Gas struts (also gas pressure springs) are hydro-pneumatic adjustment elements consisting of a
pressure cylinder, piston rod, piston and suitable fasteners. The simplest and most common shape
uses a cylinder entirely filled with gas, usually nitrogen, which acts on differently sized piston
areas. The piston features a small hole, through which the gas can flow and whose diameter
determines the degree of damping. The component further contains a small amount of oil for
damping and lubrication. The difference in the size of the piston areas results in a force in the
direction of extension. Within physical limits, this extension force can be varied by choosing a
suitable gas pressure. Advantages over coil springs include that the force is independent of the
degree of deflection, small space requirement and the possibility of including a damping
mechanism in the spring. Gas struts make it easier to lift, drop and open doors, flaps, covers etc.
by supporting the movement with the energy stored in the gas. If the spring force is large
enough, gas struts can also be used to secure doors etc. in their extended position.
Gas strut on an aircraft door
The principle of shock absorption by compressing gas is used for damping landing shock in
aircraft landing gear struts. Especially in large aircraft (such as all common passenger
aeroplanes), metal springs would have to be of rather large diameters, exceeding economically
sensible dimensions. Most spring elements also contain a damping mechanism that utilizes oil,
which is pressed through appropriately dimensioned holes to absorb the shock's energy.
Working principle of a pneumatic/hydraulic strut
Details on Materials
Materials for springs and spring elements have to withstand high tension within the elastic range.
This material property is expressed by the tension value of the yield limit (also elastic limit) in a
stress-strain curve. For spring steels, this value should ideally be rather high. Furthermore, spring
steels have to exhibit a high fatigue strength, in some cases also heat and corrosion resistance.
The surface properties of the raw material are also important. Surface defects such as non-
metallic inclusions, rust or scale, shavings and chips increase the risk of rupture. The highest
fatigue strength values are thus found in springs that are sanded and polished after heat treatment
or surface treated by shot blasting.
Hardenability is another key property of base spring steels. Unalloyed steels are hence only used
for small diameters. Alloy spring steel include Si steels (e.g. 50 Si 7), Mn-Si steels (e.g. 60 SiMn
5), Cr-V steels (e.g. 50 CrV 4) and Mn-Cr-B steels (e.g. 52 MnCrB 3).
Stainless spring wire (according to EN 10270-3) is used in aggressive environmental conditions

or at varying, and usually high, spring operating temperatures.

Examples:
• Operating temperature up to around 2500C: X 12 CrNi 17 7/ 1.4310
• Operating temperature up to around 3500C: X 7 CrNiAl 177/ 1.4401
Nickel alloys are highly resistant to heat and corrosion, their electric resistance is high and they
are non-magnetic. Their strength values are below those of steels, but surpass them at high
temperatures.
Examples:
• Inconel X750 (NiCr15Fe7Ti2Al/ 2.4669), Operating temperature up to 4500C
• Nimonic 90 (NiCr20C018TiAl/ 2.4632), Operating temperature up to 3500C
• Hastelloy C4 (NiM016Cr16Ti/ 2.4610), Operating temperature up to 4000C

Bearings
Purpose of Bearings, Loads, Materials, Construction
Aircraft are complex technical assemblies of a multitude of different systems, which have to
function in order to allow the total system "aircraft" to operate. Every mechanical system
contains moving parts that transform forces and energies, for example:
• Engine: Chemical energy in the fuel is converted into kinetic energy (accelerated airflow)
• Generator: Mechanical energy is converted into electrical energy
• Hydraulic pumps: Mechanical energy is translated into pressure
Wherever objects move, there is friction, as friction can't be avoided without applying large
amounts of energy to the technology that avoids it (e.g. in a Maglev). Friction translates some
part of the energy applied to the process into another form of energy that doesn't contribute to the
assembles design purpose, reducing the system's efficiency. In most cases, friction generates
heat, which isn't efficiently usable for the process and has to be diffused into the machine's
surroundings through additional machine elements. A gearbox is a good example of this
principle: The friction between the gear wheels that transmit force heats up the gearbox oil,
which then has to be cooled in an oil cooler to prevent it from decomposing or damaging
components.
In order to minimize efficiency-reducing friction, assemblies include bearings. Bearings support

components that move relative to another, absorbing external forces (radial and axial) and
transmitting them into the casing, foundation or other supporting components.
Bearings for rotational movement are either roller bearings or plain bearings. There is a
distinction between rolling or gliding elements transmitting the force between the moving
components.
We speak of kinetic friction if the two bodies move relative to another without any further
components that reduce friction separating them.

Basic principle of kinetic friction
Static friction occurs where the contact patches of two objects are at rest. A theoretical example
for this definition is a tire that only touches the road on a small, single patch. The tire does move
along the road as a whole, but at this small contact patch, the surfaces are in static contact as
there is no slip between them. Static friction causes the smallest energy losses.

Basic principle of static friction
A radial roller bearing can never be free of kinetic friction, as the inner and outer ring have
different radiuses and therefore circumferential velocities. Furthermore, especially the roller
elements of grooved ball bearings don't touch the two rings on one, but on multiple patches on
different positions on the radius. Static and kinetic overlap result in rolling friction.

Principle of rolling friction
Roller Bearings
Roller bearings generally consist of two bearing rings (races) with integrated raceways. Rolling
elements are placed between the two races, rolling between the two raceways. Rolling elements
can be cylindrical rollers, needle rollers, conical rollers and drum rollers. A cage usually guides
the rolling elements, keeping them at even distances and preventing them from touching. In
needle bearings and ribless ball joint bearings, the cage additionally maintains the rolling
elements' axial orientation. If the bearing can be disassembled, the cage holds the rolling
elements together, making installation easier. Cages typically consist of steel; some applications
use brass cages. Solid cages are made from brass, steel, hard fabric or other materials.
Thermosetting plastic, especially glass fiber reinforced polyamide cages are also rather common.
Races and rolling elements are usually made from hardened chrome steel or case-hardening steel.
Special bearings for extreme operational conditions — load, speed, corrosion - consist of heat
resistant and non-corroding steels, plastics, ceramics or other materials. There are open, half and
completely sealed roller bearings. The most common types of seals are gap rings and lip seals.

Typical layout of a roller bearing
Arrangement of Bearings
Shafts and axles should ideally be supported by at least two bearings. Even if only one bearing is
used, the required freedom of movement of the shaft or axis in the floating bearing has to be
considered. This movement is required for counteracting tolerances, varying heat expansion and
load states. The longer the shaft length, thermal and mechanical stress are, the more important it
is to consider these factors.
The main shafts in a jet engine extend by millimeters due to heat expansion when in operation. If
the bearings wouldn't allow for this movement, the shaft would be subject to substantial tension
in the shafts and casings.

Simple bearing arrangement in a ZTL engine
The axial movement is realized by bearings that allow for movement between the inner and outer
race (e.g. roller bearings) or a floating installation of the bearing on the shaft/ axle or in the
housing.
Roller Bearings in Aviation
W1ile the basic requirement to many roller bearings of different shapes and sizes installed in
aircraft haven't changed much over the last decades, the environment in which they have to fulfill
those requirements have. The environmental parameters for bearings in jet engines have become
more demanding, and will continue to do so in the future. General requirements include, for
example, an improved density to strength ratio, increased lifetimes and reliability.
• Typical bearing steel LESCALLOY M50:

0.85% C, 0.2% Si, 0.3% Mn, 4.1% Cr, 4.25% Mo, V
Combining advantageous heat and wear resistance properties, this material is well suited
for components such as bearings and gear wheels at temperatures up to 430 cc. The steel
is refined in the secondary melting processes VIM and VAR for these purposes.

Future jet engines will require bearings to stand up to higher loads, temperatures and
circumferential velocities. Lubricants will hence also encounter more difficult conditions. A
series of new nitriding steels have been developed for use in the environment of corrosive
exhaust gasses and high cyclical mechanical loads vibration.
MSO steel and other hardened steels are the limit in terms of material for bearings with high circumferential tension caused by
high speeds and tight race fits
Among the steels capable of fulfilling these increasing requirements, the nitriding steel Cronidur
30 (1.4108 / X30CrMoN 15-1) is very successful. It exhibits excellent corrosion resistance, good
heat resistance and a very long lifetime. Cronidur 30 can replace all common bearing steels such
as BG42, 440 C and others.
The steel Pyrowear 675 is a newly developed, corrosion-resistant case hardening steel, which can
also be used as bearing material. Carburizing high alloy, corrosion-resistant steels generates
impurity phases of carbides containing chrome. Subsequent annealing at around 5000C produces
good hardness values, but causes rather limited corrosion resistance.

Lubrication
Roller bearings are usually lubricated using grease or oil in order to prevent direct contact
between rolling elements, bearing races and cage, protecting the surfaces from wear and
corrosion. The type of lubrication and lubricant is adjusted to the magnitude of the load on the
bearing as well as the operating speed and temperature. Bearings can be filled with lubricant and
sealed by the manufacturer. Re-lubrication isn't usually required, as the lubrication fill has a
longer lifetime than the bearing itself.
Rotary shaft seals are the most common type of seal in grease or oil-lubricated roller bearings.
They seal the casing statically against a plastic-coated metal ring and a rotating shaft equipped
with a lip seal that is lightly pressed onto the shaft by a garter spring (a spiral spring looping
around the
sealing ring).
Cross-section of a rotary shaft seal
Especially jet and turboshaft engines reach extremely high speeds and temperatures, making
rotary shaft seals unsuitable (as well as O-rings). Bearings in these engines require high flow
rate, intensive lubrication and cooling, which is why labyrinth seals are often used on shaft
bearings. Labyrinth seals consist of many grooves that surround the shaft. The counterpart on the
casing consists of a material that allows the grooves to push into it, minimizing the gap between
the rotating and the stationary part. The "labyrinths" mainly seal due to the compressed air
(sealing air) pressurizing the outside of the bearing chamber and acting against the oil pressure in
the sump. Labyrinth seals have the advantage of avoiding contact between the rotor and the
stator during normal operation, minimizing wear. Drawbacks include the necessity of pressurized

sealing air, which is extracted from the compressor stage and hence isn't available for the
combustion process in the engine and thrust creation. Moreover, uneven heat expansion,
vibration or abrupt loads on the grooves can cause them to contact the stator side and damage.
Another way of sealing bearings where rotary seal rings are unsuitable due to mechanical and
thermal stress is using axial face seals. Axial face seals have the advantage of lower leak seals
than labyrinth seals even at high pressure differences as well as their stationary sealing
characteristics. The sealing element is usually formed by an axial, round gliding surface. The
ring typically consists of graphite, carbon mixtures, which are pressed and mixed with binding
agent. The manufacturing process determines the seals susceptibility to oil. The material should
not react with hot, synthetic oil as used in engines. The pressure force of the ring on the sealing
surface may either be created by springs or magnets.
Axial face seal on the propeller shaft of a turbofan engine
Brush seals continue to gain importance as an alternative to labyrinth seals. The control of the
airflow in a jet engine for cooling, balancing the axial force generated on the rotor by
aerodynamic forces and sealing bearings is of major importance for the performance and lifetime
of the engine. Every percentage point of air lost in the compressor for bleed air has a negative

influence on the stability of the airflow. Brush seals reduce these negative effects, as they require
up to 90% less air for the same sealing properties as a labyrinth seal.
The seals consist of thin wire brushes arranged at an angle of 200-450 to the rotor's direction of
rotation. Their elasticity compensates for rotor movement, returning to their initial position. In
addition to cobalt, nickel or tungsten wire, fibers, such as aramid can be used. Fiber thicknesses
are between 0.15 to 0.07 mm (metal wire) or 0.012 mm for aramid.
Brush seals
Plain Bearings
Similar to roller bearings, plain bearings are used to support and guide moving components. In
doing so, they have to absorb and transmit the forces that occur. While rolling elements separate
the races in a roller bearing, the rotating component, usually a shaft, pin or guide rail, glides on
the surface of a fixed bearing shell or bushing. The movement hence takes place between the
gliding layer of the bearing liner and the mounted part. The components are lubricated by added
lubricants or a fixed layer on a supporting body. As friction is an important consideration for
roller bearings, the surfaces are supposed to be separated by the lubricant during normal
operation. Direct contact between the bearing surfaces isn't provisioned in plainest bearings.
Most bearings nevertheless have some degree of emergency running characteristics in order to
allow movement between the component and the bushing in compromised lubrication situations.

Layout of an oil-lubricated plain bearing
If there is radial movement, the play between the shaft and the bearing housing ensures free
movement.
Sintered bronze plain bearings are made out of sintered material, whose pores include oil for the
entire lifetime of the bearing. During operation, an oil film forms between the shaft and the
bearing. The longer the bearing is operated, the higher its temperature becomes. As the heat
expansion of the oil is larger than that of the bearing metal, additional oil is pushed into the
bearing gap. At high circumferential velocities, the lubrication becomes hydrodynamic. Sintered
bronze plain bearings are highly corrosion resistant, antimagnetic and conductive to heat.

Cross-section of a sintered plain bearing with pores for lubricant
Types of Bearings and their Application

Characteristics and Application
Every type of bearing has characteristics that make it suitable for certain use cases. Roller
bearings designed for mainly radial loads are called radial bearings. Most radial bearings absorb
combined stress, e.g. grooved ball bearings, angular ball bearings, tapered roller bearings or ball
joint bearings. Cylindrical roller bearings, most needle bearings, needle bushings, needle cages
and needle rings are only stable radially.
Roller bearings designed for predominantly axial loads are called axial bearings. Axial ball joint
bearings and single side axial tapered ball bearings absorb combined axial and radial force. Other
types of axial bearings are only suitable for axial loads. If there is very little space in the radial
dimension, bearings with a low profile are used, e.g. needle cages, needle bearing with or
without inner race, grooved ball bearings or certain types of ball joint bearings.
If axial space is the limiting factor and the force direction is a combination of radial and axial,
rows of single row cylindrical roller bearings, grooved or tapered ball bearings are used.
Another determining factor for choosing bearings is the way that they guide a shaft. There are
bearings that allow axial displacement, bearings that guide a shaft in one or both axial directions
and bearings with angular flexibility that allow for a tilt in the installation direction. Magnitude
and type of stress —dynamic or static- on the bearing are the main determinant of bearing size,

along with the bearing capacity and requirements to lifetime and reliability. Generally,
cylindrical roller bearings of the same dimension can withstand more force than ball bearings.
This is why ball bearings are often used for low and medium stress, while cylindrical roller
bearings are used at high loads and larger shaft diameters.
• Grooved ball bearings

Grooved ball bearings are versatile assemblies consisting of solid outer race, inner race
and a ball-cage assembly. These simple, rugged and easy to maintain bearings are
produced as single and double row, sealed and unsealed. As they produce a very small
frictional moment, ball bearings are well suited for high speeds.
Grooved ball bearings: Single row (left), double row

• Angular contact ball bearings

Single row angular contact ball bearings also feature solid inner and outer races, as well
as a ball cage consisting of metal, brass or polyamide. The raceways of the inner and
outer race are axially displaced. They can be adjusted to different angles within a very
small window. There are open and sealed types of angular contact ball bearing.
Angular contact ball bearing

• Four-point contact ball bearings

Four-point contact ball bearings are single row angular contact ball bearings whose
raceways are designed to support axial loads in both directions. Radial loads can only be
absorbed up to a certain share of the axial load. Four-point ball bearings require
substantially less axial space than double row bearings, which means that many balls can
be incorporated into the cage, giving the bearing a high bearing capacity. Furthermore,
the outer ring with the ball cage assembly can be installed separately from the two inner
race halves. Application example: Bearing N01 in the General Electric CF6-80 turbofan
engine: The low pressure rotor's axial force (about 75% of the engine's total thrust) are
transmitted through this bearing into the nacelle and airframe.
Four-point bearing, application in a CFE-BC engine
• Tapered roller bearings

Tapered roller bearings can withstand the same load axially and radially and can be used
within a wide speed range. Due to the high effective bearing distance, they absorb force
rather well, providing a precise and rigid guidance for the shaft. Tapered roller bearings
are adjustable, separable and easy to install.

Tapered roller bearing, application on a landing gear wheel
• Spherical roller bearings

Spherical roller bearings have two rows of rollers contained in a common, spherical outer
raceway. The two inner raceways are inclined at an angle to the bearing axis. The center
point of the spherical outer ring raceway is at the center of the bearing axis. The bearings
are hence self-aligning and insensitive to misalignment, caused, for example by the shaft
deflecting. They are very strong in the radial direction while absorbing additional axial
force in both directions.
Spherical roller bearings

• Needle roller bearings

Needle roller bearings consist of thin outer races and needle cages. The majority of
bearings are single row and they are available both as open and sealed bearings. The thin-
walled outer race and the lack of inner race mean that needle bearings require very little
radial space, while absorbing substantial loads at high speeds and being easy to install. If
there is no requirement for circlips or collars for axial fixing, the bore in the casing can be
manufactured very easily and at low cost.
Needle bearings
• Axial deep groove ball bearings

Axial deep groove ball bearings consist of a ball cage, casing discs and shaft discs. The
discs and the ball cage can be installed separately. There are also variants with spherical
discs for balancing static angle variations. These bearings are usually installed with
shims. Axial deep groove ball bearings can be single or two-sided. Both variants
withstand high axial loads but may not be loaded radially.

Axial deep groove ball bearing
Plain Bearings
Just like roller bearings, plain bearings are used to guide and support moving components. In
doing so, they have to absorb and transmit the forces that occur. While rolling elements separate

the races in a roller bearing, the rotating component, usually a shaft, pin or guide rail, glides on
the surface of a fixed bearing shell or bushing. The movement hence takes place between the
gliding layer of the bearing liner and the mounted part. The components are lubricated by added
lubricants or a fixed layer on a supporting body. As friction is an important consideration for
roller bearings, the surfaces are supposed to be separated by the lubricant during normal
operation. Direct contact between the bearing surfaces isn't provisioned in most of the plain
bearings. Most bearings nevertheless have some degree of emergency running characteristics in
order to allow movement between the component and the bushing in compromised lubrication
situations.
PTFE coated ball bearing, used in ball and angle joint
Angle joint on the end of a control rod

Bearing
Every type of bearing has certain characteristics that make it suitable for different applications.
General rules for choosing bearings can only be made within certain boundaries, as multiple
factors have to be considered and weighed up. In addition to the load that is applied to the
bearing, decision factors, amongst others, include temperature, speed, lubrication, vibration,
installation and maintenance. In many cases, at least one of the main dimensions of the bearing,
usually the bore diameter, is predetermined by the surrounding components' design.
Details on Plain Bearings
Plain bearings (journal bearings) are usually distinguished by the type of lubrication:
• Oil lubrication
May be used for bearings experiencing low speeds, but is mainly applied in high speed
and load bearings. The type of lubricant chosen depends on the specific application.
Molybdenum sulphide or graphite additives are used to increase the lubricant's adhesion
and to smoothen the bearing surfaces.
• Grease lubrication
Is mainly used for low speeds, pendulum movements and impact loads or in cases where
float friction is impractical.
• Dry lubrication
Dry lubricants such as molybdenum sulphites (MoS2) or graphite are used at high
temperatures or for lifetime or emergency lubrication.
• Dry bearings without lubrication
These bearings usually feature a bronze alloy or PTFE coating. Solid bronze bearing
bushings with solid lubricant inserts in the bearing surface can also be used without
requiring any maintenance. Solid plastic journal bearings are increasingly used for dry
bearing applications. Their operational limits are determined by their specific heat
conductivity and heat expansion.

Transmissions
Gear Types and their Application
Transmissions are devices that transform, translate or convert movements or directions of

movements, including the conversion of the underlying forces. Most transmissions are
mechanical devices.
Other gearboxes use hydraulics to transmit force. Hydraulic transmissions are used to drive
generators in many passenger aircraft. The operating power is provided by the auxiliary drive
(helical gearbox). As the speed of the engines varies, the generator would produce an equally
inconsistent alternating current if driven through a conventional mechanical gearbox. As that
would be impractical for powering the connected electrical loads, the generator has to be
operated at a constant speed.
The hydraulic gearboxes used produce a constant output speed at varying input speed and are
hence called constant speed drive (CSD).
The input shaft drives an adjustable axial piston pump, which is controlled by a regulator unit to
adjust the volume flow to suit the shaft speed. The hydraulic motor, which is in turn adjustable,
hence maintains a constant output speed.
Constant speed drive

Basic layout of a Constant Speed Drive (CSO)
The transmission mechanism of mechanical transmission can be based either on
• Form closure (geometric shapes intermeshing) or

• Force closure (static friction between components)
Gear Transmissions
The most common type of form closed transmission is the gear transmission. Gear transmissions
consist of one or multiple pairs of gearwheels that are completely or partly encased. They are of
a rather compact size and deliver high efficiencies. Disadvantages include the rigid gear ratios
due to the force closure and the oscillations potentially caused by high shaft speeds. Various
shapes and sizes of gear transmission are found in aircraft, ranging from very small assemblies in
mechanical instruments over distributer gearboxes for driving fuel, oil and hydraulic pumps and
generators up to reduction gearboxes for rotors or propellers driven by turboshaft engines.

Gear Wheel Design
The different approaches to the arrangement and orientation of teeth on a gear wheel each have
their unique advantages and drawbacks.
• Straight cut gears (spur gears)

Straight cut gears are directed in parallel with the rotational axis. Advantages include the
simple and hence economical production. As the teeth of straight cut gear wheel interlock
abruptly, they are noisier during operation. The oscillations generated don't just occur as
sound, but also as vibration that may cause mechanical problems.
Spur gears

• Helical gears
On helical gears, multiple teeth are in contact at all times. This effects produces
improved, more even running characteristics, including less noise and vibration. At the
same time, the increased overlap between the teeth allows for more load. The biggest
disadvantage of helical gears is the axial force that occurs where the teeth meet and that
has to be absorbed by bearings, causing increased production effort and friction losses.
Forces on a helical gear wheel
• Double helical gears

Combining two opposed helical tooth cuts balances the axial forces. This type of gear
wheel is complex in manufacturing and hence more expensive than both straight and
helical cut gear wheels.

Double helical cut gear wheel
• Spiral toothing
Spiral toothed gear wheels feature an arc rather than a straight tooth leading edge. Spiral
toothing is mainly used for bevel gears subject to large forces at high rotational
velocities. Spiral toothing is less susceptible to displacement (deviations from the ideal,
centered arrangement of the gear wheels), at least within the tolerances provisioned
during installation.

Spiral toothing
Example: Spiral toothing in an Airbus Helicopters H13E main gearbox
Basic Requirements to Gear Tooth Systems

Requirements for even gear wheel running characteristics include a continuous gear ratio. If the
driving tooth meets another gear wheel's tooth, its foot first contacts the head of the driven gear
on the contact patch. Over the course of the rotation, the contact patch moves along the tooth

profile, always remaining on the line of action. The line of action is a virtual line, which is
perpendicular to the tooth surface while crossing the contact patch.
The fundamental law of gearing fundamentally evaluates the possibility of combining gear
wheels and goes as follows:
"A gearing is suitable for transmitting a rotational movement at a constant gear ratio if the line of
action crosses the contact point in every pitch point of two tooth flanks"
The pitch point is situated at the intersection of the two pitch circles of two gear wheels. The
diameter of the pitch circle is determined by the gear ratio, the matching number of teeth and the
module of the gear.
Illustration of the law of gearing between a driving and a driven gear (right)
Gear Ratios
The gear ratio ί is the ratio of the number of teeth and torque of the driven relative to the driving
gear.
If the input speed is higher than the output speed, the gear ratio is colloquially known as a
reduction ratio. The technically correct term of a "negative gear ratio" is seldom used. If the gear
ratio is positive, the speed of the output shaft is higher than that of the input shaft.

Calculation from the number of teeth z:
The geometrical requirements to gears and the necessity of combining the two gears determines
the other dimensions of the gear, such as the diameter or pitch.
Another approach to determining the gear ratio involves comparing the angular velocities and
rotation speed n of pulleys:
In pulley transmissions, the effective diameter d of pulleys can be compared:
The transmitted torque M acts inversely to the speed. The higher the output speed, the lower the
transmitted torque. The following equation results from this situation:
The total gear ratio results from multiplying the component gear ratios.
The relationship between the torque M and the speed of the rotation n is illustrated by the
formula for the power P of rotational movements: P= 2 * π * M * ɳ
If, at a constant propulsion power on the input shaft, the output shaft's speed is varied using a
(theoretically frictionless) gear transmission, the transmitted torque has to change inversely in
order to adhere to the formula.

Relationship between parameters in a simple transmission
Common shapes of gear transmissions include:
• Spur gear transmission

Spur gear (also helical gear) transmissions are characterized by the parallel arrangement
of the shafts. In most cases, the teeth of the spur gears are external gears, in few cases
internal gears on the inner circumference of a ring. Advantages include the simple
production of the gear wheels and their robustness.
Spur gear transmission: (from left), spur gear, helical gear, internal gears

In aviation, spur gear transmissions are found in different sizes and power ratings. Small
spur gears are used to transmit rotational movement in mechanical instruments while large
spur gear transmissions, for example in the auxiliary gearboxes of helicopters, transmit
multiple hundreds of kilowatts.
Spur gear in altimeter
Airbus Helicopters H135 main gearbox

Driving auxiliary devices required for operating the aircraft as well as the engine itself
requires energy, which is usually provided by an auxiliary gearbox. Common auxiliary
devices include oil, fuel and hydraulic pumps, generator and starters. Depending on the
aircraft, there may be additional devices. The auxiliary gearbox is driven by the engine
through an input shaft. In order to provide the suitable speed for the different auxiliary
devices, the gearbox has to feature different gear combinations with the respective gear
ratios.

Cross-section auxiliary gearbox (left), installation example on a CFMS6-7 engine
• Planetary gears
Planetary gears are used in all areas of propulsion technology due to their advantageous
characteristics and diverse applications. This type of gear prevails mainly in in
automotive and naval manufacturing, as well as for stationary turbines and various other
engineering sectors requiring the transmission of high speed and torque rotational
movement. Planetary gears take their name from the arrangement of the gears, with
planet gears circling around a sun gear. The planet gears are placed on a common carrier
and are surrounded by a ring gear. The number of planet gears can vary. In theory, a
single planet gear would suffice for a working planetary transmission, but the number
varies between 2 and 5 in practice. A larger number of planet gears is possible if the
space between sun gear and ring gear is sufficient.

Planetary gear train
By arranging multiple planetary gear stages in series, the possible gear ratios are increased
or decreased significantly. In most multi-stage arrangements, the carrier of the first stage
drives the sun gear of the next stage.

Twin-stage planetary gear train: SA330 Puma man gearbox
Planetary gearboxes deliver the following advantages:
• Coaxial situation of input and output shaft

• Extremely high or low gear ratios in a single or few stages (forwards or backwards, faster
or slower)
• Distribution of input torque and power among multiple planet gears, power split between
the individual planet gear trains
• Lower resulting gear velocities
• Smaller tooth forces
• Small, compact design
Planetary gears are commonly used as main gearbox stages in jet engine helicopters, where
the high speeds of the engines have to be reduced to the much lower rotation speed of the
rotor. The same type of gearbox is found in turboprop aeroplanes, driving propellers instead
of a rotor.
In order to further increase the efficiency of turbofan engines and to reduce their noise
emissions, the speed of the propulsive primary fan stage has to be reduced. As the turbine,

which drives the fan, has to operate at higher speeds, planetary gears are increasingly used
to reduce this speed.
• Bevel drive
According to the common definition, a bevel drive consists of two bevel gears whose
rotational axes intersect. The intersecting angle isn't defined. This means that bevel gears
are used wherever the direction of a power flux has to be redirected using mechanical
shafts.
Bevel gears: Spur tooth (left) and helical tooth

Rolls Royce Trent 900 Turbofan engine: Bevel gears used for transmitting power from the high pressure rotor to the auxiliary
devices
• Worm drive
A worm drive consists of a pair of cross helical gears usually intersecting at an angle of
900. Worm drives are used for high reduction ratios (up to i≈120), replacing multi-stage
spur drives. The cross helical gears feature multiple teeth winding around their axis like a
screw thread. The cross helical cut on the shaft usually mates up to a helical gear. In this
combination, the cross helical gear is always the propelling gear. As the worm drive
doesn't separate the worm gear and the helical gear as a spur gear would, the friction
increases with the gear ratio due to the pressure between the tooth flanks. Worm drives
hence exhibit a lower efficiency than spur drives. Worm drives may be self-locking,
meaning that the friction between the teeth and the pitch of the worm gear inhibits any
movement. Due to this effect, worm drives are suitable for lifting applications, as the
self-locking characteristics keep the load in place if drive is lost.

Worm drive
Force-Closed Traction Drives
V-belts and flat belts are used for force-closed traction drives. The circumferential force is
transmitted from the driving pulley into the transmission belt through friction, and from the belt
into the idler pulley using the same mechanism. The maximum transferrable torque is determined
by the friction coefficient and contact pressure between the pulleys and the belt. The limit of the
belt is reached when it starts to slip.
• Flat belt gear

In flat belt gears, the circumferential force is transmitted through the friction force
between belt and pulley surface. This requires comparably high belt tension, causing
additional stress on bearings and shafts.

Working principle of flat belt transmissions
Apart from simple two-pulley transmissions, flat belt drives can be used to realize multiple
pulley systems or dimensional drives. The latter might require additional, non-torque-
transmitting components such as diverter pulleys or guide pulleys.
Spatial arrangement of flat belt drives
Although rooted in historical drive systems, modern flat belt drives have secured their
position amongst belts in modern belt drive systems.
• V-belt drive
The transmission of force takes place exclusively through friction force on the flanks of
the fit between pulley and v-belt. The wedge effect increases the contact pressure, which
decreases the required contact pressure at a constant pulley diameter and transmitted
force. The v-belt may not make contact with the bottom of the "V' of the pulley, as that
would reduce the transmittable circumferential force and lead to slippage and subsequent
damage by overheating.

Basic principle of a v-belt
V-belt drives provide a safe guidance of the belt in all dimensions and are rather space-
efficient, as they permit large gear ratios at small shaft distances.
The large belt diameter makes v-belts rather inflexible, necessitating modifications in the
belt's construction or larger minimum pulley diameters than for a flat belt drive.
The different types of v-belt are characterized by their cross-sections' geometric dimensions,
while they also differ in terms of internal construction. V-belts consist of the following
elements that are rigidly connected by vulcanizing.
• Insert of high strength cord fibers (textile, polyester) that transmit the force in the belt
• Highly elastic belt body (rubber, plastics) that transmit and distribute the circumferential
force between belt flank and cord fibers
• Impregnated, wear-proof textile coating in conventional v-belts, which absorb the friction
force between belt flank and pulley.

Types of common v-belts
The running precision of a v-belt can be increased by grinding the flanks to match the pulley.
The cord fibers, due to their higher elasticity modulus, form the effective diameter of the belt
in the pulley for transmitting the circumferential velocity.
Example of a v-belt drive: Transmission of the engine power through a belt drive in a Robinson R22 Helicopter

Details on Planetary Gearboxes
There are four possible states a single stage planetary gearbox can be put into by blocking
individual components.
Planetary gear configurations
Configurations:
1. Carrier fixed
Sun and ring gear are driven
2. Ring gear fixed
Carrier and sun gear are driven
3. Sun gear fixed
Ring gear and carrier are driven
4. Planet gears fixed
Ring gear, carrier and sun gear rotate at the same frequency (gear ratio i=l)
Details on Bevel Gears
Bevel gears can be either spur, helical or arc-toothed. Bevel gears can be further distinguished by
the degree of axial offset. Bevel gears with no axial offset exhibit intersecting axes while the
axes of bevel gear with offset, so-called hypoid gears, do not intersect.

Hypoid gears
Details on Toothed Belt Drives and Toothed Belts
Toothed belt drives are the only type of form-closed traction belt drives. As opposed to chain
drives, belt drives can transmit circumferential force between parallel, slightly set shafts. Modern
high performance toothed belts have been developed in order to facilitate high performance
applications by eliminating some of the drawbacks of conventional toothed belts. In addition to
the low bearing capacity of the teeth, these weak points include the noise produced at high
speeds and loads.
The oldest development in high performance toothed belts are tooth profiles with a circular arc
shape. These new tooth shapes are supported by the following developments:
• Reinforced core materials (steel, glass fibre, aramid fibre)

• Larger teeth with wider teeth bases
• Grooved teeth heads for improved traction and reduced noise
• Very accurate pitch (distances between the teeth) and regularity

Profile of a modem high performance toothed belt
Modern high performance flat belts consist of composites, usually in three layers. Each layer
fulfills a distinct task, with the traction layer absorbing the forces resulting from the strain of
tensioning the belt. The traction layer further absorbs the centrifugal forces that occur during
operation. As the materials used for the traction layer don't fulfill the required friction
characteristics, there is a separate friction layer. The choice of material and surface
characteristics are adjusted to the respective belt's application purpose. The friction layer
transmits the force from the pulley surface to the traction layer and vice versa. The traction layer
either uses high tensile polyamide or polyester cord fibers. The friction layer, which is rigidly
connected to the traction layer, consists of adhesive elastomers or chrome leather

Design of modem high performance belts
Reduction and multiplication gear systems
• Driven and driving gears

• Idler gears
• Mesh patterns
• Belts and pulleys
Belts and Pulleys, Chains and Sprockets
Chain drives and belt drives are another form of force transmission by form closure.
These two types of transmission are part of the category of traction drives. All traction drives
share the property of having input and output shafts that do not meet directly, for example on
gears, but are connected by a transmission chain or belt.

Form-closed traction drives allow angular precision and slip-free torque transmission.
• Chain drive
Depending on the type and layout of the respective chain drive, chains and sprockets are
supported by components that don't transmit torque, such as chain tensioners, guides or
shoes that are placed on the slack side to provide a certain chain tension or minimum
wrap angle. Further characteristics of chain drives include:
• Simple installation by positioning the chain without pre-tension and closing the ends
with a locking link
• Low susceptibility to humidity, heat, dirt
• A certain elasticity of the chains, which can be increased by designing the links
accordingly
• Damping capabilities through oil cushions in bearings and rollers
Drawbacks of chain drives:
• Some degree of play in the links

• High requirements to manufacturing precision (alignment of sprocket wheels)
• Possibility of chain oscillations
• Limited lifetime due to wear in bearings and sprockets

Chain drive
• Toothed belt drive

Toothed belt drives are the only type of form-closed traction belt drives. As oppose to
chain drives, belt drives can transmit circumferential force between parallel, slightly set
shafts.

Set angle shafts
Multiple drives with or without reverse gears are made possible by using belts with grooves
on both sides.
Two-side toothed belt (example) multi drive
The development of toothed belt drives aimed to combine the positive advantages of chain
drives and belt drives. The advantages of toothed belt drives are as follows:
• Constant belt speed

• Low tension on the belt, minimal load on shafts and bearings
• Operations at high belt speeds up to 80 m/s
• Small space requirements, as very small diameters and wrap angles can still provide a
safe transmission of force
• No requirement for lubrication or maintenance
• Toothed belts do not elongate significantly, the shaft distance hence need to be adjustable
• Low noise
• Low cost

Trapezoid tooth belts are currently the most common type of toothed belt. This shape has
evolved empirically since the beginnings of the evolution of belt drives. Toothed belts are
often made out of chloroprene rubber incorporating strands of glass fiber and are coated
with polyamide on the tooth side. Other types of toothed belt are cast out of polyurethane
around a steel cord base structure.
Toothed belt design

Control Cables
Types of Cables
Modern commercial and military aircraft increasingly make use of fly by wire or fly by light
systems to transmit control inputs made by the pilot to the respective control surface actuators
electronically. Still, many of the aircraft in operation today employ control cables to actuate
control surfaces. In small sports aircraft, such as the well-known Piper PA-28 or Cessna 152/172,
the control surfaces are actuated directly by the yoke and pedals, with the force being transmitted
by control cables. Aircraft equipped with hydraulically actuated control surfaces may still feature
control cables to control these hydraulic elements. Control cables aren't part of the hydraulic
section of the control system itself. In small aircraft, control cables are often part of the
secondary flight controls, for example in trim or brake control systems.
Control cables in a Boeing 767

Control cables in the ailerons of a MDD F-15 fighter jet
Using control cables to actuate control surfaces only stresses the cable material by tension,
allowing efficient use of its properties. This efficient use of the strength of steel leads to low
system mass, saving weight. At the same time, steel cables are highly resistant to force rupture
and fatigue problems only occur on rerouting points. Furthermore, well-designed control cable
systems can be free of play. In order to reduce elongation while the cables are in operation, they
are pre-stretched (subjected to a defined tensile load).
One of the main drawbacks of control cables is that the cable tension varies as the ambient
temperature changes. Furthermore, control cable can only transmit tensile force, which
necessitates a second cable for the opposite direction.
The control cables used in modern aircraft consist of galvanized steel according to DIN ISO
2020 (formerly LN9374) or stainless steel (Type 1B, formerly LN9389). MIL-W-83420, MIL-C-
18375, and MIL-W-87161 are the respective standards in the American or international sector.
These standards govern how the cables are designed. Every cable consists of seven strands,
which in turn are composed of between 7 and 19 wires.

Cross-section of a control cable (example)
In aircraft, the main types of steel wire are 2.4 mm (seven wires per strand) and 3.2 mm (19
wires per strand) external diameter. The US standard system uses control cables between 1/16"
(around 1.6 mm) and 3/8" (9-5 mm). Cables are identified by the number of strands and number
of wires per strand (e.g. 7*7) •
Design of common control cables for aviation including a flexibility rating
The individual wires of a strand are laid (twisted) around a core while the wires in an individual
strand is wound in the opposite direction. This type of arrangement is called ordinary lay. The
surfaces of the individual strands on the outside of the wire are hence practically parallel with the
wire's axis. The cable becomes more smooth and has a lower tendency to kink or form loops.
The lay keeps the cable together and prevents it from decomposing into strands and wires.
Lubricant can be incorporated into the cable between the strands and wires in order to reduce
internal friction and prevent humidity from contaminating the wire rope. This is why steel cable

may not be cleaned using solvents. Individual warnings and indications are found in the
respective aircraft's maintenance documents.
Corrosion-resistant steel cables may also be coated with nylon in order to increase their lifetime.
Sealing the cable reduces wear by friction and damps vibrations that othenvise may cause strain
hardening.
Measuring Cables Diameters
Measuring the diameter of a wire rope: right (left) wrong (right)
We distinguish between the nominal and the effective diameter of ropes. The rope diameter, also
called nominal rope diameter, is a theoretical value for the smallest diameter surrounding the
outer strands. The effective diameter is the actual measured value of the smallest diameter of the
outside strands.
Lay Direction
Depending on the direction in which the strands and rope are laid, the cable is classified as
Lang's lay or ordinary lay. If the direction in which the wires in a strand are twisted is opposite to
the direction of the strands in the wire, we speak of an ordinary lay, otherwise of a Lang's lay.
There is a further distinction into right or left hand lays.

Lay direction
Ordinary lay wire ropes are more suitable than Lang's lay ropes for most applications. Ordinary
lay wires are less resistant to wire rupture, which is a positive in terms of safety: Only if the
nascent failure of the rope can be recognized by the ruptures of external wires, the rope can be
replaced in time. Especially if the rope has multiple layers of strands, Lanes lay wires are
superior to ordinary lay wires, as the external wires of neighboring strands don't wedge and
damage another.
End Fittings
In order to transmit force through a rope, it has to be attached to other components in a suitable
manner. In most cases, the wire ropes are pre-assembled with crimped terminals or loops. A
crimp connection uses a ferrule that is pressed onto the wire rope with a force that causes the
ferrule's material to fill the gaps and ridges in the wire's surface, creating force and form closure.
Depending on the application, the ropes are terminated in ball ends (where there is little space) or
threaded connectors which attach to other fastening elements on control mechanisms (e.g.
turnbuckles).
In some cases, it is impractical or impossible to pre-assemble the rope, for example if the control
cable's length has to be adjusted in the airplane or if installation with end fittings is impossible.
In these cases, the end fitting is installed using hand-actuated special tools.

Common types of end fittings
Another way of ending a rope in a loop involves splicing. The free rope end is plaited into the
rope itself. This procedure is ideal in terms of strength, but rather time intensive and hence
unsuitable for aircraft production or repairs.
Turnbuckles and Compensation Devices

Due to manufacturing tolerances, and as a steel cable can elongate over its lifetime, it is
important to incorporate a possibility of adjusting rope tension. The simplest way of doing so
uses turnbuckles, more complex systems use tensioner pulleys. The required cable tension can be
found in the maintenance manual of the respective aircraft.
Turnbuckles are adjustable mechanical connectors placed between two ropes. They consist of the
threaded end terminals and a small metal frame with the respective internal threads. Turnbuckles

are incorporated into control systems to compensate for small rope length deviations and to
adjust rope tension. When installing the turnbuckle, a certain minimum thread length in the
middle piece has to be adhered to. In order for a turnbuckle to function, it requires one right hand
and one left hand thread. The left hand thread is marked with a groove around the nut.
It is also important that both terminals are screwed into the cage with the same number of
rotations.
Turnbuckle (exemplary terminals)
After a turnbuckle is installed and adjusted, it has to be secured. Older types of turnbuckle are
secured using safety wire. There are different methods of wrapping the wire around the
components. The respective aircraft's maintenance manual describes the exact procedure. In
modern control systems, the turnbuckles are secured using clips or safety pins. The threads have
to feature longitudinal grooves for this type of safety mechanism. The grooves are aligned before
the safety pin can be installed and locked. This procedure has the advantage of ensuring that
there is no movement at all. The clips have to be discarded after de-installation.

Securing a turnbuckle using safety clips

Securing a turnbuckle using safety wire (two wire method)
Excessive cable tension leads to increased wear on pulleys, cable guides and terminals. Special
devices called tensiometer are used for measuring cable tension.
The tension on a rope is equal to the tensile force acting on it. Measuring rope tension using a
tensiometer is carried out as follows: The cable is placed on two support points that are separated
by a given distance. A force is applied to the rope at the center of that distance, deflecting the
cable by a given distance. The force required to cause this deflection is measured and converted
into a tension value using the device's calibration chart. As the measuring process, depending on
the cable stiffness and length, increases the tension, cable tension measurements always carry a
certain degree of incorrectness.

Tensiometer
Pulleys and Cable System Components

Bell Cranks
Cables can only transmit tensile force. In order to transmit force into both directions, control
cables are duplicated and attached to a bell crank on both ends. The bell crank transmits the force
into the respective control surface. A bell crank is mounted on a shaft that in turn connects to the
airframe. The bell crank features a lever that absorbs the force from the control cable or rod on
the one end and leads it into the control surface or the valve of a hydraulic actuator on the other
end.

Typical bell crank
One of the two bell cranks is designed as a tensioner that balances out cable elongation.
Along the distance from the flight controls to the control surfaces, the cable has to be deflected
multiple times due to the geometry of the fuselage. Cable guides and supports change the cable's
direction. Bell cranks can also be used to re-route cables or as connectors.

Bell crank with tensioner (top left), installation example (schematic, bottom)
Deflection Pulleys
Deflection pulleys are grooved wheels that are used to change the direction of a cable with as
little friction as possible. Pulleys usually consist of fibre-reinforced phenol resin, which is
tempered under high pressure and temperature. The grease-lubricated roller bearings of the
pulleys can be de-greased, cleaned and re-greased in some types of pulleys.

Fibre-reinforced phenol resin deflection pulley, use in a control cable assembly (CAD model)
Sliding Guides / Fairleads
Cable guides are used to prevent damage to cables and the surrounding components.
Over long cable distances, there is a danger of cables oscillating up to a degree where they come
into contact with the aircraft's structure or other components, even if the cable tension is
sufficient. In order to guide the cable or for slight deflections, fairleads consisting of single or
multiple polyamide components are incorporated into the cable system. The maximum deflection
angle to be realized using fairleads is 30. Larger angles, especially in combination with higher
cable tension, would cause excessive wear. Fairleads generally wear quickly and have to be
checked and, if necessary, replaced regularly.

Bulkhead feed-through points are either permeable to gas or pressure-tight. In pressurized cabin
aircraft, the control cables have to exit the pressurized cabin section at some point. In order to
prevent excessive air leaks at the exit points, sealing elements that allow the required axial cable
movement are used.
Sliding guides: As protection against excessive cable oscillation (A), as a guideway: assembly (B), single part (C), pressure-tight
(D)
Crosshead Tensioners
This type of cable tensioner often used in large aircraft consists of a crosshead guide, two
springs, two transmission rods and two movable bell cranks on a common axis. If there is no
control force, the crosshead can be moved on its guide. The pressure force generated by the
helical springs is applied to the two bell cranks through the transmission rods, maintaining cable
tension at a constant value. The basic tension setting can be read on a scale on the guide.

In cold environments, the airframe contracts by a higher degree than the control cables that run
through it. Without automatic cable tensioners, the cable would gain excessive slack. As the
springs push against the crosshead and hence pull the two bell cranks to the left through the
transmission rods, length differences are compensated for. This mechanism continuously keeps
the cable tension within the given tolerances.
W1ile warming up, the airframe expands more than the control cable, potentially causing
disproportionate tension on it. The tensioner allows the cable to lengthen by compressing the
springs. As long as the load on both cables is identical, the spring-loaded crosshead always
provides the correct tension, the system becomes elastic. The control surface has to be actuated
through a rigid connection.
As soon as a control input is made, it is transmitted into the guide through a lever (the entire
tensioner rotates), producing a tensile load on one of the cables. The loads on the two cables
become different, the crosshead wedges on the guide and the system transitions to an inelastic
state.
Crosshead cable tensioner: 1) in a cold aircraft 2) while the aircraft heats up 3) during a control input

Control cables and cable system components in the longitudinal control of the Boeing 737 Classic Series (-300, -400, -500)
Bowden Cables
Bowden cables are used to transmit tensile forces. They aren't used in the primary flight control
systems. Bowden cables consist of an inner cable running in a flexible but longitudinally
incompressible, hollow outer cable housing. The housing guides the cable mechanically and
selves as a counter bearing for the transmitted tensile forces, allowing the Bowden cable to
transfer force around bends. During the transmission of a tensile force, the housing is subject to
the respective compressive force. The housing hence has to be resistant to length changes
(compression).
Some types of Bowden cable incorporate a gliding layer (usually consisting of PE or PTFE)
between the outer housing and the inner cable. The housing is usually coated with PVC,
protecting the Bowden cable from external damage and contamination with dust or humidity.
The coating ensures that the cable's function isn't impeded by mechanical friction or corrosion
products. As Bowden cables can only transmit tensile force, the returning force has to be
provided by a spring or a second, opposite action cable.

Aircraft Flexible Control Systems
Bowden cables deliver the advantage of flexible installation over control rods and a minimized
number of system components for tensioning and guiding over conventional control cables. The
main disadvantage of Bowden cables is their inability to transmit compressive force.
Flexball
Flexball (ball bearing control cables) cables convey both tensile and compressive force. As
oppose to the dynamic friction between outer housing and cable in a Bowden cable, flexball
cables are a linear ball bearing, whose roller elements reduce the friction generated by tensile and
compressive movement. The efficiency of flexball cables is close to 100%. The force-
transmitting inner cable is a solid square section wire, requiring larger installation radiuses than
Bowden cables. The asymmetric cross-section of the wire also causes the %ire's flexibility to
vary for different dimensions.
Design of a flexball cable

Flexball cables in H145 main rotor flight controls
Push-Pull-Cable
Push-pull cables also transmit compressive force, eliminating the need for a second Bowden
cable. The compressive force a push-pull cable is able to transmit is lower than the tensile force.
As opposed to the flexball cable, a wire rope (e.g. 1*19) is used to give the cable its pushing
ability, causing a significantly more pronounced tendency to buckle under load than rigid core
wires. For this reason, the wire rope has to be guided in the outer housing with very little play
and considerably lower tolerances than for a conventional Bowden cable. The outer housing may
consist of a PTFE layer reducing friction surrounded by a helically wound steel band absorbing
external mechanical influence as well as the internal buckling tendencies.
This type of force transmission element is being marketed under the Teleflex brand since 1943,
which is why push-pull cable are often called "Teleflex cables".

Design of a push-pull cable (example)
Electrical Cables and Connectors

Cable Types, Construction and Characteristics
WIRE--- SINGLE STRAND conductor ----- multiple strands
A wire is a single isolated strand of metal. The term wire also describes a combination of
multiple such strands (twisted and silver-, nickel- or tin-plated) forming a conductor.
The term "cable" is defined as:

wires + insulator = cable
• The combination of two or more wires in one insulator or
• Two or more twisted wires (twisted pair) or
• One or more individually insulated wires surrounded by a conductive shielding or
• A single central insulated conductor surrounded by another conductor in the shape of a
conductive mesh (coaxial cable).
Most common conductor = Al & Cu
The two most common conductor materials are copper and aluminum. Both materials have
advantageous properties making them suitable for certain applications while also carrying some
drawbacks. Copper has a higher conductivity, is more ductile (better plastic deformability),
Cu = high density & high weight----but efficient in conductivity
-- high tensile strength --easy to solder-- expensive
exhibits rather high tensile strength and is easy to solder. It does have a higher density than
aluminum and is more expensive. Al=low density & weight---bot 60% conductor than Cu
-- for heavy '' I '' leads at long distance
--
Although aluminum only delivers 60% of the conductivity of copper, it is used as a conductor for
aviation applications. Its low weight makes it ideal for cables transmitting high currents over
long distances. Using aluminum bus bars can also have advantages, as they provide a larger
radiation surface for the heat created by the current at the same conductivity as a copper bus bar.
Multi-strand copper wires are used for the majority of purposes due to their flexibility. The
conductors are surrounded by an insulator consisting of PVC, PA, PTFE, nylon or other
polymers.
imp
The majority of wires installed in aircraft are copper, thanks to its excellent electric conductivity.
Aluminum is mainly found in the cables of the generator system and the power supply of large
loads (e.g. kitchens). The Airbus A380 is an exception in this regard, being equipped with
aluminum cables for different applications in order to save weight.
Pure, uncoated copper forms a passivated layer on its surface when in contact with oxygen. This
natural protection layer does prevent the base material from corroding but is a bad conductor,
decreasing the overall conductivity of the wire or cable. This is why all aviation wires are tin-,
nickel- or silver-plated, as these metals oxidize more slowly, improving conductivity.
Cable Jackets
Cable jackets are insulators that have the purpose of preventing the electric potential difference
from equalizing prematurely through contact with electrically conductive materials or
substances.
The two basic properties of electrical cable and wire insulators are the insulation resistance and
dielectric strength. Basic properties of E-cable (resistance---dielectric resistance)

imp
Insulation resistance is the resistance an electric current faces for traveling through an insulator.
It is also determined whether the insulation is weakened by leakage points that allow electric
currents to leak from the wire.
The insulation resistance of a wire is determined using an insulation detector or megohmmeter.

The dielectric strength is the magnitude of the potential difference the insulation can resist before
failure. The type of insulation material has to be adjusted to the environment the cable is
rugar
installed in. Requirements that determine the choice of material include resistance to abrasion,
fire, corrosion, cuts and fluids. Tefzel® (ethylene-tetrafluoroethylene), Teflon®
(polytetrafluoroethylene) and Kapton® (aromatic polyimides) are commonly used in aviation
wires. Especially for Kapton- insulated wires, the processing and installation guidelines have to
be adhered to with great care, as mechanical damage (especially under contact with water) can
lead to large-scale cable fires.
As cables and wires are often installed in areas inaccessible to maintenance measures for
prolonged periods, it may be necessary to consider their resistance against heat-triggered aging
effects. If an application involves high ambient temperatures, large electric currents or both, the
most demanding combination has to be assumed when specifying wires and cables. During repair
and replacement activities, the manufacturer's detailed specifications on wire and cable types
have to be adhered to.
Aviation wires and cables are designed for different temperature ranges:
• Up to 1050C (norm. temp type) 105---250---400

• Up to 2500C (high temp type)
• Up to 4000C (fire resistant type)
Wires and cables have to be fire-retardant according to the FAR (Federal Aviation Regulations)
23/25.1351 and 23/25.1365 and may not emit toxic gasses.
All aviation cables and wires are subject to special standards such as the U.S. Military
Specification (MIL-W, also used in civil aviation), the German aviation standards (LN) or the
French NSA standard. Large aircraft manufacturers such as Boeing or Airbus have introduced
proprietary standards and denomination systems.
Examples of Wires: MIL-W-22759 (7139) / AIR 4524 / NFL 52-125 A

Characteristics
• For applications in high temperature areas (up to 3000C peak temperature, regularly -90
0
C to +2600C), thermal overload up to 10400C for 15 seconds

• Non-flammable
• Operating voltage 600 V
• Abrasion -resistant
• Resistant to most solvents
Composition
Structure of a wire
1. Fine stranded conductor consisting of nickel-plated copper

2. Thin PTFE layer
3. Polyamide insulation
4. Thermal insulation: PTFE/glass fiber
5. Coating with a thin layer of PTFE
Example of Wire: ABS0949

Characteristics
• Aluminum wire according for general aviation applications
• Operating voltage 600 V
Composition
Structure of a wire
1. AWG 24 and 22: 1 nickel-plated copper conductor and 6 aluminum conductors with a
NiCu coating AWG 20 to AWG 8: Concentrically arranged aluminum conductors with a
NiCu coating, AWG 6 and 4: twisted pair aluminum conductors with a NiCu coating.
2. Polyamide insulation
3. PTFE coating, suitable for LTV laser printing

Examples of Cables: MIL-7078 / AIR 4524 / MIL-W-22759

Characteristics
• Temperature resistance as for the conductor defined above, classified as a cable due to
the additional shielding, also available with multiple wires
Composition
Structure of a Cable
1. Braided shielding consisting of nickel-plated copper

2. Polyamide insulation for the shielding
3. PTFE-wound and welded
Example of Cable: DIN EN 2266-008

Characteristics
• For general purpose applications
• Operating temperature between -55 cc and 200 cc
• Type (example): DRT (three-wire)
• Multi-wire, coated cable suitable for I_TV printing
Type DRT (three-wire)
The term "cable" also captures at least two separately insulated but twisted conductors (twisted
pair)

Twisted pair cable
Diameter
In North America and the United Kingdom, wire diameters are specified using the AWG System,
while the rest of Europe denominates wires by their cross-section in mm2. AWG stands for
„American Wire Gauge". This system is derived from the wire drawing process, in which the
wire is drawn through multiple dies with openings of the desired diameter to make it thinner. The
thinner the desired diameter, the more dies the wire has to pass through. A thinner wire hence
has a higher number in the AWG system.
The AWG system is less prone to mistakes than a specification in inch2. A common AWG22
wire has a diameter of 0.00051 inch2. The many zeroes raise the risk of confusion and conversion
mistakes.
Above AWG2, only even number sizes are used in aviation.
Identification
All cables installed by aircraft manufacturers have to fulfill the requirements of DIN 29575, ISO
2574 and NSA 935000, which govern the following pieces of information to be defined:
• Specification
• Manufacturer
• Country of origin
• Year of production
• Wire diameter (AWG)
Decoding the letter and number combination requires a conversion table. All maintenance
organizations have to mark wires or lines prior to installation.
These identification markings are made on the cable jacket using special printing devices that use
different principles:
• Mechanical printing using heat and a color film

• Inkjet printing
• C02 laser or UV laser printing
Markings have to be black and at no more than 3" (DIN 29571: ca. 10 cm) of distance from the
ends of the cable and 15" (35-40 cm) in between markings. When printing on coaxial cables and
bus system cables, special care has to be taken not to put any excessive pressure on the cable, as
that could influence its electric conductivity.
Examples for the distances between markings
The cable has to be rotated slightly between printing steps in order to ensure a distribution of
markings around its entire circumference.
Short bridges of up to 4" (ca. 10 cm) don't require any markings if their path is well visible.
Single wire shielded cable may also be printed on, while shielded cables with two or more wires
aren't printed on directly but marked with identification boots on their ends. Thermal element
wires are also only marked on their ends.
The limitations described above do not apply to laser printing processes, as these don't cause any
mechanical stress on the cable and are hence suitable for practically all types of wire and cable.
The wire of multi-wire twisted cables are sometimes marked individually by the manufacturer.
When installed in an aircraft, these cables should be treated like multi-wire shielded cables and
marked with boots or laser-printed.
If it isn't possible to mark all wires in a wiring loom, the loom has to be equipped with identifiers

every 6 ft (around 2 m).
The letters and numbers for cable identification may be arranged horizontally next to another or
vertically below another. Small diameter cables are only marked with one letter below the other.
Examples of manufacturer markings
Identification of Cable Bundles
Cables and wires in wiring looms are marked with individual identifiers in order to facilitate the
use of wiring diagrams. Coded identifiers are used for this purpose, requiring decoding tables.
The coding scheme is manufacturer-specific and only standardized within these organizations.
As an example, the following section introduces the systems used by Boeing and Airbus:
• Boeing
Cable identification example (Boeing)

• Wiring loom number

Identification according to the manufacturer's wiring diagram, associates the wire
with a wiring loom. Every loom has a unique identifier. In some aircraft types, the
wiring loom contains a yellow wire featuring the wiring loom number. In these cases,
the individual wires aren't marked with this number.
• Electric circuit
Identifier (DIN 29571) This letter defines; which system the wiring loom is part of
(e.g..: E = Engine instruments, G = landing gear)
• Cable number
Three or four-digit number combinations are used to identify the respective cable.
Every cable in a wiring loom hence has its own number. If there is no need for three or
four digits, the blanks are filled with zeroes (e.g. 099, 001).
• Cable diameter
Diameter in AWG sizes
• Color code
This letter code is used for multi-wire cables (e.g.: R=Red; A=Black)
Cable identification in a Boeing B 767

Cable identification example (Airbus)
• ATA Chapter
Also: Circuit number, two-digit, identical with the ATA chapter number
• ATA Subchapter
Also: Sub-circuit number, two-digit, identical with the ATA subchapter. ATA chapter
and subchapter together form the system identifier
• Cable number
Serial number for cables in the respective subsystem, always four-digit
• Color code
This letter code is used on multi-%'ire cables (e.g.: B=Blue, D=white)
Special Airbus regulations

• Ground cables
If a ground connection is part of a single system, it keeps the system's identifier, e.g.:
3153-0282. If multiple systems are grounded through a common ground, the cable is
identified with the number of the specific ATA chapter „2491", e.g.: 2491-0531
• Spare Wires
All spare wires incorporated in a wiring loom are listed in ATA Chapter 2499, e.g.:
2499-091
• ARINC Bus
Wires for ARINC 429 data busses are identified by the numbers 7000 to 7999 and the
respective system identifier, e.g.: 2429-7003
• Sensitive Wires
If there is a pink marking in the vicinity of a connector (signified by an "S" in the
wiring diagram), no changes may be made to that area without prior approval from
Airbus. If a change is made by order of Airbus, the system has to undergo a complete
check.

High Tension and Coaxial Cables

Shielded Cables
Shielded cables are used for transmitting energy at the grid's frequency. The shielding has the
purpose of containing interference in the cable or protecting the cable from external interference
(electromagnetic interference: EMI; inductive coupling). Shielding consists of a mesh of thin,
conductive metal wires.
shielding contains interference and protect internal conductor from interference
Shielded cable is produced in single and multiple wire variants, with the shielding surrounding
all conductors. The shielding should be connected to the signal source's reference potential. If the
shielded cable consists of multiple sections, the shielding of the neighboring sections have to be
connected.
Shielded cable
Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable are high frequency signal cables (e.g. for transmitters and receivers) which exhibit
a concentric design. The center of the cable is a copper conductor, which is surrounded by a
layer of insulation and a copper mesh external conductor. In contrast to a shielded cable, the
external mesh is an active conductor while still having some shielding effect. The copper inner
conductor is usually a solid wire. The space between inner and outer conductor is usually an
insulating dielectric solid medium. Some special purpose coaxial cables use fluid or gas
insulators.

Coaxial cable
High Voltage Cables
The highest voltages in an aircraft are found in the ignition system. In order to generate a
sufficiently strong spark for the piston or jet engine to operate, high voltage ignition systems use
transformers (ignition coils) to transform the voltage to higher levels. High energy systems use
capacitors that discharge in order to provide high voltage for a short period of time.
Special ignition wires are used to transmit the current from the voltage source to the spark plugs.
The high voltage generates considerable electric fields, which would cause interference that
could be problematic for on-board systems such as radio and navigation equipment. These
systems could also cause interference that could potentially impede the ignition system's
reliability.
For this reason, the ignition wires are shielded with a metal mesh that is connected to ground in
order to absorb any interference.

Ignition wires on a four cylinder Lycoming piston engine with a magnetic mesh for protection against EMI and mechanical
influence

Details on Shielded Cables
If both ends of the shielding would be connected to ground, the potential difference would cause
a current to run through the shielding, creating a magnetic coupling with the signal wire. The
shielding hence shouldn't be used as a return conductor. For the shielding to be fully effective,
only one side is connected to ground.
Exception on ARINC 429 data busses, both sides of the shielding are connected to ground.
Crimping
Crimping is the process of producing an electrical connection between a conductor and a
connector that is adjusted to fit a system of crimp connectors. While crimping, the connector is
deformed over the conductor and fastened with high force by plastically deforming the
connector's metal over the conductor's structure, creating from closure. Crimping produces an
electrical connection as well as an inseparable mechanical connection. Different shapes of blade
connectors, ring terminals and spade terminals are connected to conductors by crimping. The
contacts of plugs and power outlets are also crimped.
Selection of crimp connectors (left) and crimped connectors with the suitable crimping plier (right)

Advantages of crimp connections include:
• Easily reproducible connection quality

In contrast to soldered connections, crimp connectors are less complex to produce and
less prone to errors. When using suitable and intact tools, installation mistakes are
practically impossible, producing a constant quality of connection.
• Constant electrical and mechanical connection values
• Easy quality checks (compared to soldering)
The imprint of the crimping tool and the position of the conductor after crimping can be
checked visually.
• No soldering fumes
Crimp connections have to be made using the crimping tools specified by the
manufacturer. All crimping tools are subject to periodical checks.
In order to prevent faulty crimps, the insulation boot is colour-coded for different wire
diameters.

Layout of a crimp connector Pre-Insulated DIAMOND GRIP® Terminal
Crimp Pins
Wires and cables ending in pin connectors first have to be fixed in the plug or terminal. The male
or female connectors are crimped onto the wire or cable before they are screwed into the plug or
socket body.
Pin connectors are coded in different systems using color rings on the connector. The coding
helps determine the correct conductor diameter for the pin size, as well as the pin size itself.
The most common color coding system for aviation application is the "Basic Identification
Number" (BIN). This code, which consists of three color rings, doesn't give any information
about the pin's actual size, but only its part number.
BIN-Code on a pin
The respective connector's properties can be found in a table. The BIN code can hence only help
to find the right connector within a defined group of connectors. There is a multitude of
differences between the various specifications, which makes thoughtful choice all the more
important.

Different types of pins
Crimped Joining Elements
These connectors use the same tools as crimp pins or terminals. The adjustment process is also
identical. The ends of the wires are set in the crimp as in the picture below. After the insulation is
removed, the end of the wire is inserted into the jointer. The crimp is checked just like for other
crimp connectors. For the second crimp, the jointer is pushed onto the second wire to the stop.

Crimp jointer
Crimps are usually insulated and protected against humidity using heat shrink tube. Insulation
with the right size for a connector can be color marked for easier identification.
Crimped connector with a transparent heat shrink tube insulation, color ring still visible

Details on Crimp Connector Design
As mentioned earlier, crimp contacts always have to be installed using the tools specified by the
manufacturer:
Examples of crimp contacts with different types of imprint (cross-section)
Aluminum contacts should only be used for aluminum conductors. When bolting aluminum
terminals onto ground bars, washers should be included, while there mustn't be any washers
between multiple aluminum terminals on one bolt. When using aluminum cables and terminals,
special care has to be given to ensuring that the mechanical conditions of the connection are
flawless, especially that the correct torque has been applied and that the contact surfaces are
clean, conductive and sufficiently large.
Types of Plugs
Plug connections, consisting of a plug and a receptacle (socket), are required for easy and safe
connection and disconnection during maintenance measures.
The plug housings used in aviation usually consist of light metals for reasons of improved
mechanical durability, with some exceptions using plastic plug housings.

The internal inserts that hold the pins in place are usually made of plastic with good insulation
properties. Depending on the type and application, these plastics may be stiff, non-deformable
thermosetting plastics or elastomers that provide protection from particles and humidity.
Plug connections can have different shapes. Round plugs are the most common.
Types of plugs (left to right): Round plug, rectangular plug, block plug
Plug connectors contain pins or sockets, which can be included either in the plug or in the
receptacle. A (non-binding) general rule for the choice between pin and socket is that the socket
should sit on the side that carries the current, in order to prevent short-circuits that could be
caused by pins touching the airframe.

Schematic of a plug
General rules:
• Every plug connection has to be marked with an identifier on the outside of the inner
housing or on the front union nut, in order to make the plug connection easy to identify.
• There are three types of locking mechanism:
• Bayonet catch: =like bulb holder

This type of coupling is locked and secured against inadvertent unlocking by
sliding a union nut over the joint and turning it by a quarter of a turn.
• Threaded coupling:
Similar to the bayonet lock, but with a fine thread instead of the bayonet groove in
the union nut. The thread has to be tightened by hand until it reaches its stop. The

receptacle usually features a color ring that becomes invisible once the threaded
union nut has been tightened sufficiently. In areas prone to vibration, the union
nut has to be secured using safety wire.
• Self-locking threaded coupling:
Like a threaded coupling, but with a union nut that incorporates a ratchet-like safety
mechanism that increases the torque required for loosening the coupling.
Angular position:
In order to ensure the correct angular alignment of pins and sockets in multi-pin plugs, there
is a groove in the plug and a lug in the socket, which only allow for one orientation of the two
components. If there is a series of plugs with different angular positions of pins and
housings, they are identified by different part numbers.
Mechanically coded multi-pin socket

• Some older plugs are equipped with soldered wire connectors, whereas more modern
versions are fitted with crimped contacts.
Denomination
Plug connectors have to be chosen according to the MIL specification or a manufacturer part
number.
Contacts
Round contacts (pins or sockets) fitted in plugs or receptacles are crimped onto the wire. The
contacts feature circumferential grooves or lugs that hold them in the respective position in the
plug or socket after they are set using a clip-in tool. Plugs and sockets are always assembled
from the back side.
Setting tool for crimped pins
In order to remove a pin from a plug, its locking latch has to be released, which, depending on
the type of plug, has to be done either from the front or back side.

Removing crimped round contacts
MIL Standard

Part of the MIL standard for crimped connectors

Current and Voltage Rating

Voltage Rating
For a current to flow through a conductor, there needs to be a potential difference (voltage
difference) between its ends. As electric charges have the tendency to equalize, a current starts to
flow.
In order to prevent the charges from equalizing anywhere but in the intended locations, it has to
be ensured that the conductor doesn't make contact with any other object that it could equalize
charges with. This is the purpose of insulation.
The voltage rating is the voltage the cables and wires were designed for and is used for defining
electrical checks, while the operating voltage is defined as the voltage between the conductor or
conductors and the ground wire of a three-phase system in undisturbed operation.
Aircraft manufacturers and certified maintenance organizations choose suitable cables and
connectors. The electric circuit's components are chosen to suit the voltage. The respective part
numbers and descriptions are documented in the aircraft's technical documentation (e.g. in the
wiring diagram). Only these defined and certified components may be used.
Catalogue excerpt: Rated voltage of cables, depend ng on the type and thickness of the insulation material
Rated Current
The rated current of an electrical device is defined as the current it consumes when supplied with
its rated current and operated at its rated power.
It is the decisive factor for choosing conductor materials and diameters. Wherever electric
charges

are transmitted, heat is generated in the conductor. This effect may be used to achieve the
device's
purpose, for example in electric heaters, where a thin wire is subjected to a current, which
produces friction between the conductor material and the electric charges and hence heat. In
applications that transmit electric power, this effect is unintended, as this heat is generated by
energy that is no longer available for its design purpose (e.g. driving a motor).
The following factors have to be considered when choosing a conductor diameter:
• Current flowing through the wire. Large currents require large diameters
• Avoiding excessive voltage drops through insufficient wire diameter over long wire
distances
• Continuous or temporary currents influence the thermal behavior of the conductor
• Installation as part of a loom or an individual wire — determines how heat can be
radiated away and hence how much the conductor heats up.
Examples for the capabilities of copper wires at given environmental conditions:

Note 1) Rating is for 70 cc ambient, 33 or more wires in the bundle for sizes 24 through 10, and
9 wires for size 8 and larger, with no more than 20 percent of harness current carrying capacity
being used, at an operating altitude of 60,000 feet.
Note 2) For resistance of silver or nickel-plated conductors see wire specifications.
The following diagram illustrates the steps that have to be taken for choosing a suitable wire
diameter, but is not to be used for repair or maintenance activities. The manufacturer's
documentation always has priority.
Steps:
1. Determining the conductor's operating voltage (not the rated voltage)
2. Determining conductor length
3. Determining the rated current
4. Drop a perpendicular from the intersection point of the lines 2 and 3 to the horizontal
scale. The result is AWG9, but as only even number sizes are used in aviation, the next
larger size is used. Result: AWG8

Steps for choosing wire size
Details on nominal voltage
The tendency of charges to equalize rises with the electric potential difference (the voltage
applied). This means that the insulation has to be stronger in order to prevent uncontrolled leaks
1 2
of charge in unsuitable areas. Both the material of the insulation and its thickness influence its
ability to prevent charge carries from escaping the cable.
As nearly all insulation materials are polymers, the environmental conditions of the installation
area is to be considered. Many polymers are susceptible to heat, decomposing at high
temperatures. PTFE, with a continuous heat resistance of 2600c is among the highly temperature
resistant insulation materials. As low temperatures may also accelerate the aging process of
plastics, the fatigue strength of wires and cables strongly depends on the temperatures they are
used in.
__________


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Fatigue Strength .................................................................................................................................. 62

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External Conservation ................................................................................................................. 131

Concentration Cell Corrosion ..................................................................................................... 165

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Studs: Types and uses, Installation and Removal ....................................................................... 194

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Designation of Tubes (Ready-made) ................................................................................................. 233

Transmissions ............................................................................................................................. 274

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Diameter ...................................................................................................................................... 325

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Ferrous Aircraft Materials

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• Other application characteristics:

• Hardness (impact resistance)

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Internal Structure of Metals

Zinc structure on a galvanized street lighting pole

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C45 steel structure prior to hardening

C45 steel structure after hardening

The following categories are distinguished by their geometric shape:

• Cubic face-centered (cfc)

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Steel landing gear strut blank after forging

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Schematic of a blast furnace

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Designation by Alloy Content

Here: non-alloy steel with a carbon content of 0.45%.

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Material Numbers according to DIN EN 10 027 II

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Further major materials classifications:

• United States Material Standards

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Further SAE major classifications:

* = Types of grain structures

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Steels Commonly Used in Aeroplanes

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• High fracture toughness steels

UNS denomination: K92580

• Medium carbon low alloy steels

SAE Other 1.7218, 25CrM04

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*=inaccuracies regarding the alloying element contents between different standard

SAE 4340 Other denominations 1.6565, 40NiCrM06

• Precipitation hardening* stainless steels (PH steel)

Example of a steel from this group

17/4 PH Other denominations 1.4542, X5CrNiCuN) 16-4, AISI 630

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Maraging steels exhibit very good hardenability characteristics as well as an