Document by Mansi Patil.

1) What is the necessity of cross drainage work in hydraulic structures?

I. Cross drainage works are essential in hydraulic structures to allow the

passage of water across natural or artificial obstructions such as roads,
railways, canals, or embankments. The necessity of cross drainage works
arises due to the following reasons:
II. Maintaining Flow Continuity: Cross drainage structures ensure the
uninterrupted flow of water in a river, canal, or any other watercourse
by providing a passage for water to cross over or under an obstruction.
Without these structures, water flow would be impeded, causing
potential flooding or waterlogging in upstream areas.
III. Preventing Flooding: Cross drainage works help in managing and
controlling the water levels during periods of high flow or floods. By
providing a controlled passage for excess water to flow across obstacles,
such as roads or embankments, these structures help prevent flooding in
surrounding areas.
IV. Protecting Infrastructure: Cross drainage works protect infrastructure
like roads, railways, and canals from damage caused by the flow of
water. By providing a dedicated passage for water to cross these
structures, the risk of erosion, scouring, or structural failure is
significantly reduced.
V. Facilitating Transportation: Hydraulic structures with cross drainage
works allow for the smooth movement of vehicles, trains, or boats
across water bodies or natural depressions. By providing a safe and
convenient crossing, transportation routes can be efficiently maintained,
ensuring connectivity and facilitating economic activities.
VI. Supporting Irrigation Systems: Cross drainage works are often crucial in
irrigation projects, particularly in areas where canals or water channels
intersect with natural drainage patterns. These structures enable the
controlled transfer of water from canals to fields or vice versa, ensuring
adequate irrigation and drainage for agricultural purposes.
VII. Enhancing Water Resource Management: Cross drainage works play a
vital role in managing water resources effectively. They help in diverting
water from one drainage basin to another, aiding in water supply, flood
control, or hydropower generation. By regulating the flow and
distribution of water, these structures optimize water management
practices.
 Document by Mansi Patil.

2) What is Hydro power Plant, also what are the applications of

hydropower plant?
A hydro power plant, also known as a hydroelectric power plant, is a facility
that generates electricity by harnessing the energy of flowing or falling water.
It converts the kinetic energy of water into mechanical energy, which is then
transformed into electrical energy using turbines and generators. Hydro power
plants are a sustainable and renewable source of energy as they rely on the
continuous water cycle for their operation.
The applications of hydropower plants are as follows:
• Electricity Generation: The primary application of hydro power plants is to
generate electricity. By utilizing the energy of water, these plants produce
clean and renewable electrical power. They play a significant role in meeting
the energy demands of residential, commercial, and industrial sectors, as well
as for public infrastructure.
• Base Load Power: Hydro power plants are capable of providing a stable and
consistent supply of electricity, making them ideal for base load power
generation. Base load power refers to the minimum level of electricity demand
that must be continuously met. Hydropower plants can operate consistently,
ensuring a reliable supply of electricity to the grid.
• Peak Load Shaving: In addition to base load power, hydropower plants can be
used for peak load shaving. During periods of high electricity demand, these
plants can quickly ramp up their generation capacity to meet the increased
load. This helps in balancing the power grid and preventing shortages during
peak demand hours.
• Energy Storage: Some hydro power plants can function as energy storage
facilities. Excess electricity generated during periods of low demand can be
used to pump water from a lower reservoir to an upper reservoir. Later, during
periods of high demand, the stored water is released to generate electricity,
providing a form of energy storage that can be dispatched when needed.
• Grid Stability and Ancillary Services: Hydropower plants play a crucial role in
maintaining grid stability and providing ancillary services. They can provide
reactive power support, frequency regulation, and voltage control, which help
in maintaining a stable and reliable electrical grid.
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• Water Management: Apart from electricity generation, hydropower plants

contribute to water management. They can regulate the flow of water in rivers
and reservoirs, allowing for the efficient utilization of water resources for
irrigation, flood control, and water supply for domestic and industrial
purposes.
• Renewable Energy Source: Hydropower is a renewable energy source that
does not produce greenhouse gas emissions or air pollutants during its
operation. By utilizing hydropower plants, countries can reduce their
dependence on fossil fuels and contribute to mitigating climate change.

3) How we calculate the discharge due to seepage which stored in

downstream side of earthen dam? Explain the steps of calculation?
The calculation of discharge due to seepage stored in the downstream side of
an earthen dam can be performed using Darcy’s Law and the principles of
groundwater flow. Here are the general steps involved in the calculation:
Step 1: Collect the necessary data:
• Hydraulic conductivity (permeability) of the downstream soil or embankment
(K)
• Length of the flow path (L)
• Difference in hydraulic head (H) between the upstream and downstream
sides of the dam
• Cross-sectional area of flow (A)
Step 2: Calculate the hydraulic gradient (i):
• The hydraulic gradient represents the change in hydraulic head per unit
distance. It can be determined by dividing the difference in hydraulic head (H)
by the length of the flow path (L).
•i=H/L
Step 3: Calculate the seepage velocity (v):
• The seepage velocity is the average velocity at which water flows through the
downstream side of the dam. It can be calculated using Darcy’s Law:
• v = Ki
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• Where K is the hydraulic conductivity and i is the hydraulic gradient.

Step 4: Calculate the discharge (Q):
• The discharge represents the volume of water passing through a given cross-
sectional area per unit of time. It can be calculated by multiplying the seepage
velocity (v) by the cross-sectional area of flow (A).
•Q=v*A

4) What is lined and unlined canal?

A lined canal and an unlined canal refer to two different types of channels used
for water conveyance in irrigation systems or water supply networks. Here’s an
explanation of each:
Lined Canal:
A lined canal is a channel that has an impermeable lining material applied to its
bed and sides to minimize seepage losses. The lining can be made of various
materials such as concrete, reinforced concrete, asphalt, geomembrane, or
other synthetic liners. The purpose of lining a canal is to reduce water loss
through seepage into the surrounding soil, improve water efficiency, and
maintain a more consistent flow rate along the canal.
Advantages of Lined Canals:
Reduced seepage losses: The impermeable lining prevents water from seeping
into the soil, thereby reducing water losses and ensuring more efficient water
conveyance.
Improved water management: Lined canals allow for better control of water
levels and flow rates, minimizing wastage and enabling effective water
distribution.
Reduced maintenance: Lined canals generally require less maintenance
compared to unlined canals, as the lining helps to prevent erosion and the
need for frequent repairs.
Unlined Canal:
An unlined canal, as the name suggests, does not have an impermeable lining
and relies on the natural soil as the channel’s bed and sides. Water seepage is
 Document by Mansi Patil.

expected in unlined canals, and the canal banks may experience some erosion
due to the movement of water through the soil. The choice of using an unlined
canal is typically influenced by factors such as cost, soil permeability,
availability of water, and the desired function of the canal.
Advantages of Unlined Canals:
Lower construction cost: Unlined canals are generally less expensive to
construct compared to lined canals, as they do not require additional materials
and labor for lining installation.
Natural water recharge: Unlined canals allow for water to seep into the
surrounding soil, which can contribute to groundwater recharge in some cases.
Flexibility in alignment: Unlined canals can be more flexible in terms of
alignment adjustments and modifications, as there is no fixed structure in
place.

5) Design of diversion headworks.

The design of diversion headworks is an important aspect of water resources
engineering, particularly in the construction of irrigation canals or water supply
systems. Diversion headworks are structures that regulate the flow of water
from a river or stream into a canal or pipeline for various purposes. Here are
some key considerations and components in the design of diversion
headworks:
I. Site Selection: Choose a suitable location for the diversion headworks
that minimizes construction costs, provides easy access, and ensures
efficient water intake.
II. Intake Structure: This component controls the flow of water from the
source into the canal or pipeline. Common intake structures include
weirs, barrages, or gated structures. The choice depends on factors such
as the flow rate, sediment load, and the required control over the flow.
III. Sediment Management: Sediment, such as sand or silt, can accumulate
at the intake and affect the efficiency of the diversion headworks.
Consider incorporating sedimentation basins, settling chambers, or
sediment flushing mechanisms to prevent sediment deposition.
IV. Trash Racks and Screens: Install trash racks or screens at the intake
structure to prevent debris, such as floating objects or vegetation, from
 Document by Mansi Patil.

entering the canal or pipeline. These racks/screens can be manually or

automatically cleaned.
V. Flow Measurement: Include flow measurement devices, such as flumes
or weirs, to monitor the flow rate of water entering the diversion
headworks. This information is crucial for water allocation, system
operation, and maintenance.
VI. Gates and Valves: Use gates and valves to regulate the flow and control
the water level at the diversion headworks. These mechanisms allow for
adjustments based on seasonal variations, demand, or maintenance
activities.
VII. Energy Dissipation: Consider including energy dissipation structures,
such as stilling basins or energy dissipators, downstream of the intake to
reduce the velocity and prevent erosion or scouring.
VIII. Fish Passage: If the water source supports fish or other aquatic species,
incorporate fish ladders, fish screens, or other fish passage structures to
enable their safe migration while maintaining water diversion.
IX. Structural Design: Ensure that the diversion headworks are designed to
withstand hydraulic forces, including flow pressure, sediment impact,
and occasional flood events. Structural stability is critical to prevent
failure and ensure long-term functionality.
X. Operation and Maintenance: Factor in ease of operation, inspection, and
maintenance when designing the headworks. Access platforms,
walkways, and equipment placement should be considered for safe and
efficient maintenance activities.

6) Analyse the modes of failure and prevention in earthen dams with

sketch?
Earthen dams are structures made of compacted soil, rock, and/or clay that are
used to hold back water and create a reservoir. Failure of an earthen dam can
lead to catastrophic consequences such as loss of life and property damage.
Therefore, it is essential to understand the modes of failure and prevention
measures for earthen dams.
Modes of Failure:
1. Overtopping: When water flows over the crest of the dam, it can cause
erosion of the dam’s downstream face, leading to a breach. This type of
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failure is typically caused by high inflow rates or inadequate spillway

capacity.
2. Piping: This occurs when water flows through the soil in the dam and
carries fine particles with it, creating channels or pipes that can lead to
the failure of the dam. This type of failure is commonly caused by
seepage or internalerosion.
3. Slope instability: When the slope of the dam becomes unstable and
slides, it can lead to a failure of the dam. This type of failure is usually
caused by poor design, construction, or maintenance.

Prevention Measures:
1. Adequate spillway capacity: A properly designed and maintained
spillway can prevent overtopping by safely conveying excess water away
from the dam.
2. Seepage control: The use of an impermeable membrane, such as a
geomembrane, can prevent water from seeping through the dam and
causing piping.
3. Proper compaction: Ensuring that the soil in the dam is properly
compacted during construction can prevent slope instability and settling.
4. Regular inspections and maintenance: Regular inspections and
maintenance can identify and address any issues with the dam before
they become significant problems.
 Document by Mansi Patil.

7) Design principle of ogee spillway?

The design of an ogee spillway follows specific principles to ensure its
effectiveness in safely and efficiently managing the flow of water over a dam
or weir. Here are some key design principles for an ogee spillway:

I. Ogee Shape: The spillway is designed with an ogee curve, which is a

smooth, S-shaped profile. This shape helps to control the flow of water
and minimize the formation of turbulence and vortices.
II. Crest Length and Width: The length and width of the spillway crest are
determined based on the anticipated flow rates and the hydraulic
conditions. The crest should be wide enough to accommodate the
expected discharge and prevent excessive water velocities.
III. Energy Dissipation: To dissipate the energy of the falling water, various
energy dissipation measures are incorporated downstream of the
spillway. These may include stilling basins, deflector blocks, baffle
blocks, or other devices that help to reduce the velocity and prevent
erosion.
IV. Side Channels: Ogee spillways often include side channels or wing walls
that guide the water away from the dam or weir, preventing erosion and
maintaining stability. The geometry and dimensions of these channels
are designed to efficiently divert the flow.
V. Structural Stability: The spillway structure must be designed to
withstand the hydraulic forces exerted by the flow of water. Structural
stability is achieved through appropriate reinforcement, foundation
design, and consideration of factors such as uplift pressure and potential
scouring.
VI. Freeboard: Adequate freeboard, which is the vertical distance between
the water level and the top of the spillway crest, is provided to
accommodate potential flood events and prevent overtopping of the
dam or weir.
VII. Design Flood Considerations: The design of the ogee spillway should
consider the expected maximum flood flows based on historical data,
hydrological analysis, or regulatory requirements. The spillway capacity
must be able to safely pass the design flood without causing excessive
damage or compromising the integrity of the dam or weir.
 Document by Mansi Patil.

VIII. Sediment Management: Sediment transport and deposition can affect

the efficiency of the ogee spillway over time. Sediment flushing
mechanisms, sediment basins, or other sediment management
strategies may be incorporated into the design to prevent sediment
buildup and maintain the spillway’s functionality.
IX. Maintenance and Accessibility: Consideration should be given to the
ease of maintenance and inspection of the spillway structure. Access
platforms, walkways, and equipment placement should be designed to
facilitate safe and efficient maintenance activities.

8) Understand the term -Earthen Dam Design?

1. Earthen dams are structures made of soil or earth materials, used to

impound or store water for various purposes.
2. The design process involves several considerations, including site
selection, dam height and length, slope stability, seepage control,
erosion protection, and spillway design.
3. The design must ensure that the dam is structurally stable, able to safely
store and release water, and environmentally sustainable.
4. Factors such as the type of soil or earth material available, the
hydrological and geological characteristics of the area, and the expected
water storage capacity are taken into account during the design process.
5. Proper earthen dam design is crucial to ensure the stability and
performance of the dam throughout its lifespan, and to prevent
potential failures that could result in catastrophic consequences such as
dam breaches or floods downstream.
6. The design process typically involves engineering analyses and
calculations, including geotechnical investigations, hydraulic and
hydrological studies, slope stability analyses, seepage analyses, and
structural design.
7. The design needs to comply with relevant design standards, codes, and
regulations to ensure safety and reliability.

9) Integrate the application of projectile motion in Design of ogee

Spillway?
 Document by Mansi Patil.

The application of projectile motion in the design of ogee spillways:

1) When water flows over an ogee spillway, it follows a curved
trajectory similar to that of a projectile launched at an angle.
2) The design of an ogee spillway must take into account the velocity
of the water, the angle of the spillway face, and the curvature of
the spillway profile to ensure that the water flows smoothly and
safely downstream.
3) Projectile motion principles can be used to calculate the velocity
and trajectory of the water as it flows over the spillway.
4) These principles can also be used to determine the necessary
dimensions and slope of the spillway to achieve the desired flow
rate and discharge capacity.
5) The principles of projectile motion can also be used in the analysis
and monitoring of existing spillways to assess their performance
and detect potential issues such as erosion or flow blockages.

10) Demonstrate the design criteria of Maurice-Levy’s for the

elementary profile of gravity dam?
Maurice-Levy’s design criteria for the elementary profile of a gravity dam
includes the following:
1) Safety against sliding: The dam should be designed to resist the sliding
forces acting on it, both horizontally and vertically. The factor of safety
against sliding should be maintained at a minimum of 1.5.
2) Safety against overturning: The dam should be designed to resist the
overturning forces due to the water pressure acting on it. The factor of
safety against overturning should be maintained at a minimum of 1.5.
3) Safety against crushing: The dam should be designed to resist the
crushing forces due to the Weight of the dam itself and the water
pressure acting on it. The factor of safety against crushing should be
maintained at a minimum of 1.5.
4) Permeability: The dam should be designed to prevent or minimize
seepage of water through the dam. This can be achieved by providing an
impermeable core or cutoff wall, drainage galleries, and grouting.
5) Durability: The dam should be designed to withstand the effects of
weathering, erosion, and Other environmental factors for its expected
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service life. The materials used in the construction of the dam should be
durable and resistant to degradation.
6) Constructability: The dam should be designed to be constructible using
the available construction techniques and equipment. The design should
take into account the limitations of the construction site and the access
roads.
7) Economy: The dam should be designed to be cost-effective in terms of
construction, maintenance, and operation. The design should optimize
the use of available materials and construction techniques while
meeting the required safety and performance standards.

11) Define Spillway? Describe the types of Spillway?

A spillway is a structure built on or adjacent to a dam or other water control
system to allow excess water to safely flow out and prevent the water from
overtopping or damaging the dam.There are different types of spillways, each
with its own design and function, including:

1) Ogee spillway: This type of spillway is a concrete structure that is shaped

like an inverted “S”. Water flows over the curved surface of the spillway,
creating a smooth, controlled flow that helps prevent erosion.
2) Chute spillway: This type of spillway is a steep, lined channel that allows
water to flow rapidly downstream. It is often used for dams with high
flow rates and large discharges.
3) Siphon spillway: This type of spillway is a pipe or conduit that is used to
draw water out of the reservoir or dam. It works by using the pressure of
the water to create a vacuum that draws the water through the pipe.
4) Side-channel spillway: This type of spillway is a channel that is
constructed on the side of the dam or embankment. It allows water to
flow around the dam or embankment, preventing it from overtopping.
5) Labyrinth spillway: This type of spillway uses a series of steps or baffle
plates to slow down and control the flow of water. It is often used for
dams with low to moderate flow rates.
6) Fuse plug spillway: This type of spillway is a section of the dam that is
designed to erode and fail under extreme flood conditions. When the
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water reaches a certain level, the fuse plug is intentionally breached,

allowing the water to safely flow downstream.

12) Describe the term “Selection of a site for a dam”?

1) Selection of a site for a dam involves finding a location that is suitable
for constructing a dam Structure.
2) Hydrology is an important factor to consider, including river flow rates,
precipitation patterns, And water quality.
3) Geology is also crucial, as the type of rock and soil in the area can affect
the stability and Durability of the dam structure.
4) Topography is important to assess, as the site must be able to
accommodate the size and shape of the dam and provide sufficient
space for water storage.
5) Environmental impact is another critical consideration, including
potential changes to water flow, erosion, and habitat destruction.
6) The selection of a site for a dam requires a thorough assessment of all
these factors to determine the feasibility of the project and to identify
mitigation measures to minimize any potential negative impacts.