Tables for

Exam FAM-S
 The reading material for Exam FAM includes a variety of textbooks.
Each text has a set of probability distributions that are used in its readings.
For those distributions used in more than one text, the choices of
parameterization may not be the same in all of the books. This may be of
educational value while you study, but could add a layer of uncertainty in
the examination. For this latter reason, we have adopted one set of
parameterizations to be used in examinations. This set will be based
on Appendices A & B of Loss Models: From Data to Decisions by
Klugman, Panjer and Willmot. A slightly revised version of these
appendices is included in this note. A copy of this note will also be distributed
to each candidate at the examination.

Each text also has its own system of dedicated notation and
terminology. Sometimes these may conflict. If alternative meanings could
apply in an examination question, the symbols will be defined.

When using the normal approximation to a discrete distribution, use the

continuity correction.

1 − 12 x2
The density function for the standard normal distribution is φ ( x) = e .
2π
 STANDARD NORMAL DISTRIBUTION TABLE
Entries represent Pr(Z ≤ z). The value of z to the first decimal is given in the left column. The second
decimal is given in the top row.
z 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09
0.0 0.5000 0.5040 0.5080 0.5120 0.5160 0.5199 0.5239 0.5279 0.5319 0.5359
0.1 0.5398 0.5438 0.5478 0.5517 0.5557 0.5596 0.5636 0.5675 0.5714 0.5753
0.2 0.5793 0.5832 0.5871 0.5910 0.5948 0.5987 0.6026 0.6064 0.6103 0.6141
0.3 0.6179 0.6217 0.6255 0.6293 0.6331 0.6368 0.6406 0.6443 0.6480 0.6517
0.4 0.6554 0.6591 0.6628 0.6664 0.6700 0.6736 0.6772 0.6808 0.6844 0.6879
0.5 0.6915 0.6950 0.6985 0.7019 0.7054 0.7088 0.7123 0.7157 0.7190 0.7224
0.6 0.7257 0.7291 0.7324 0.7357 0.7389 0.7422 0.7454 0.7486 0.7517 0.7549
0.7 0.7580 0.7611 0.7642 0.7673 0.7704 0.7734 0.7764 0.7794 0.7823 0.7852
0.8 0.7881 0.7910 0.7939 0.7967 0.7995 0.8023 0.8051 0.8078 0.8106 0.8133
0.9 0.8159 0.8186 0.8212 0.8238 0.8264 0.8289 0.8315 0.8340 0.8365 0.8389
1.0 0.8413 0.8438 0.8461 0.8485 0.8508 0.8531 0.8554 0.8577 0.8599 0.8621
1.1 0.8643 0.8665 0.8686 0.8708 0.8729 0.8749 0.8770 0.8790 0.8810 0.8830
1.2 0.8849 0.8869 0.8888 0.8907 0.8925 0.8944 0.8962 0.8980 0.8997 0.9015
1.3 0.9032 0.9049 0.9066 0.9082 0.9099 0.9115 0.9131 0.9147 0.9162 0.9177
1.4 0.9192 0.9207 0.9222 0.9236 0.9251 0.9265 0.9279 0.9292 0.9306 0.9319
1.5 0.9332 0.9345 0.9357 0.9370 0.9382 0.9394 0.9406 0.9418 0.9429 0.9441
1.6 0.9452 0.9463 0.9474 0.9484 0.9495 0.9505 0.9515 0.9525 0.9535 0.9545
1.7 0.9554 0.9564 0.9573 0.9582 0.9591 0.9599 0.9608 0.9616 0.9625 0.9633
1.8 0.9641 0.9649 0.9656 0.9664 0.9671 0.9678 0.9686 0.9693 0.9699 0.9706
1.9 0.9713 0.9719 0.9726 0.9732 0.9738 0.9744 0.9750 0.9756 0.9761 0.9767
2.0 0.9772 0.9778 0.9783 0.9788 0.9793 0.9798 0.9803 0.9808 0.9812 0.9817
2.1 0.9821 0.9826 0.9830 0.9834 0.9838 0.9842 0.9846 0.9850 0.9854 0.9857
2.2 0.9861 0.9864 0.9868 0.9871 0.9875 0.9878 0.9881 0.9884 0.9887 0.9890
2.3 0.9893 0.9896 0.9898 0.9901 0.9904 0.9906 0.9909 0.9911 0.9913 0.9916
2.4 0.9918 0.9920 0.9922 0.9925 0.9927 0.9929 0.9931 0.9932 0.9934 0.9936
2.5 0.9938 0.9940 0.9941 0.9943 0.9945 0.9946 0.9948 0.9949 0.9951 0.9952
2.6 0.9953 0.9955 0.9956 0.9957 0.9959 0.9960 0.9961 0.9962 0.9963 0.9964
2.7 0.9965 0.9966 0.9967 0.9968 0.9969 0.9970 0.9971 0.9972 0.9973 0.9974
2.8 0.9974 0.9975 0.9976 0.9977 0.9977 0.9978 0.9979 0.9979 0.9980 0.9981
2.9 0.9981 0.9982 0.9982 0.9983 0.9984 0.9984 0.9985 0.9985 0.9986 0.9986
3.0 0.9987 0.9987 0.9987 0.9988 0.9988 0.9989 0.9989 0.9989 0.9990 0.9990
3.1 0.9990 0.9991 0.9991 0.9991 0.9992 0.9992 0.9992 0.9992 0.9993 0.9993
3.2 0.9993 0.9993 0.9994 0.9994 0.9994 0.9994 0.9994 0.9995 0.9995 0.9995
3.3 0.9995 0.9995 0.9995 0.9996 0.9996 0.9996 0.9996 0.9996 0.9996 0.9997
3.4 0.9997 0.9997 0.9997 0.9997 0.9997 0.9997 0.9997 0.9997 0.9997 0.9998
3.5 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998
3.6 0.9998 0.9998 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999
3.7 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999
3.8 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999
3.9 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000

Values of z for selected values of Pr(Z ≤ z)

z 0.842 1.036 1.282 1.645 1.960 2.326 2.576
Pr(Z ≤ z) 0.800 0.850 0.900 0.950 0.975 0.990 0.995
Excerpts from the Appendices to Loss Models: From Data
to Decisions, 5th edition

September 12, 2018

Appendix A

An Inventory of Continuous Distributions

A.1 Introduction
The incomplete gamma function is given by
Z x
1
Γ(α; x) = tα−1 e−t dt, α > 0, x > 0,
Γ(α) 0

with Z ∞
Γ(α) = tα−1 e−t dt, α > 0.
0
Also, define Z ∞
G(α; x) = tα−1 e−t dt, x > 0.
x
At times we will need this integral for nonpositive values of α. Integration by parts produces
the relationship
xα e−x 1
G(α; x) = − + G(α + 1; x).
α α
This process can be repeated until the first argument of G is α + k, a positive number.
Then it can be evaluated from

G(α + k; x) = Γ(α + k)[1 − Γ(α + k; x)].

The incomplete beta function is given by

Γ(a + b) x a−1
Z
β(a, b; x) = t (1 − t)b−1 dt, a > 0, b > 0, 0 < x < 1.
Γ(a)Γ(b) 0

2
A.2 Transformed Beta Family

A.2.2 Three-Parameter Distributions

A.2.2.1 Generalized Pareto—α, θ, τ

Γ(α + τ ) θα xτ −1 x
f (x) = , F (x) = β(τ, α; u), u = ,
Γ(α)Γ(τ ) (x + θ)α+τ x+θ
θk Γ(τ + k)Γ(α − k)
E[X k ] = , −τ < k < α,
Γ(α)Γ(τ )
θk τ (τ + 1) · · · (τ + k − 1)
E[X k ] = if k is a positive integer,
(α − 1) · · · (α − k)
θk Γ(τ + k)Γ(α − k)
E[(X ∧ x)k ] = β(τ + k, α − k; u) + xk [1 − F (x)], k > −τ,
Γ(α)Γ(τ )
τ −1
Mode = θ , τ > 1, else 0.
α+1

A.2.2.2 Burr—α, θ, γ

(Burr Type XII, Singh–Maddala)

αγ(x/θ)γ 1
f (x) = , F (x) = 1 − uα , u= ,
x[1 + (x/θ)γ ]α+1 1 + (x/θ)γ
VaRp (X) = θ[(1 − p)−1/α − 1]1/γ ,
θk Γ(1 + k/γ)Γ(α − k/γ)
E[X k ] = , −γ < k < αγ,
Γ(α)
θk Γ(1 + k/γ)Γ(α − k/γ)
E[(X ∧ x)k ] = β(1 + k/γ, α − k/γ; 1 − u) + xk uα , k > −γ,
Γ(α)
γ − 1 1/γ
 
Mode = θ , γ > 1, else 0.
αγ + 1

3
A.2.2.3 Inverse Burr—τ, θ , γ

τ γ(x/θ)γτ (x/θ)γ
f (x) = , F (x) = uτ , u= ,
x[1 + (x/θ)γ ]τ +1 1 + (x/θ)γ
VaRp (X) = θ(p−1/τ − 1)−1/γ ,
θk Γ(τ + k/γ)Γ(1 − k/γ)
E[X k ] = , −τ γ < k < γ,
Γ(τ )
θk Γ(τ + k/γ)Γ(1 − k/γ)
E[(X ∧ x)k ] = β(τ + k/γ, 1 − k/γ; u) + xk [1 − uτ ], k > −τ γ,
Γ(τ )
τ γ − 1 1/γ
 
Mode = θ , τ γ > 1, else 0.
γ+1

A.2.3 Two-Parameter Distributions

A.2.3.1 Pareto—α, θ
(Pareto Type II, Lomax)
α
αθα

θ
f (x) = , F (x) = 1 − ,
(x + θ)α+1 x+θ
VaRp (X) = θ[(1 − p)−1/α − 1],
θk Γ(k + 1)Γ(α − k)
E[X k ] = , −1 < k < α,
Γ(α)
θk k!
E[X k ] = , if k is a positive integer,
(α − 1) · · · (α − k)
"  α−1 #
θ θ
E[X ∧ x] = 1− , α 6= 1,
α−1 x+θ
 
θ
E[X ∧ x] = −θ ln , α = 1,
x+θ
θ(1 − p)−1/α
TVaRp (X) = VaRp (X) + , α > 1,
α−1
θk Γ(k + 1)Γ(α − k)
E[(X ∧ x)k ] = β[k + 1, α − k; x/(x + θ)]
Γ(α)
 α
θ
+ xk , k > −1, k 6= α,
x+θ
α " ∞
#
[x/(x + θ)]n+1

α α x X
E[(X ∧ x) ] = θ 1+α ,
x+θ α+n+1
n=0
Mode = 0.

4
A.2.3.2 Inverse Pareto—τ, θ
τ
τ θxτ −1

x
f (x) = , F (x) = ,
(x + θ)τ +1 x+θ
VaRp (X) = θ[p−1/τ − 1]−1 ,
θk Γ(τ + k)Γ(1 − k)
E[X k ] = , −τ < k < 1,
Γ(τ )
θk (−k)!
E[X k ] = if k is a negative integer,
(τ − 1) · · · (τ + k)
Z x/(x+θ)   τ 
k k τ +k−1 −k k x
E[(X ∧ x) ] = θ τ y (1 − y) dy + x 1 − , k > −τ,
0 x+θ
τ −1
Mode = θ , τ > 1, else 0.
2

A.2.3.3 Loglogistic—γ, θ
(Fisk)

γ(x/θ)γ (x/θ)γ
f (x) = , F (x) = u, u= ,
x[1 + (x/θ)γ ]2 1 + (x/θ)γ
VaRp (X) = θ(p−1 − 1)−1/γ ,
E[X k ] = θk Γ(1 + k/γ)Γ(1 − k/γ), −γ < k < γ,
E[(X ∧ x) ] = θ Γ(1 + k/γ)Γ(1 − k/γ)β(1 + k/γ, 1 − k/γ; u) + xk (1 − u),
k k
k > −γ,
γ − 1 1/γ
 
Mode = θ , γ > 1, else 0.
γ+1

A.2.3.4 Paralogistic—α, θ
This is a Burr distribution with γ = α.

α2 (x/θ)α 1
f (x) = , F (x) = 1 − uα , u= ,
x[1 + (x/θ)α ]α+1 1 + (x/θ)α
VaRp (X) = θ[(1 − p)−1/α − 1]1/α ,
θk Γ(1 + k/α)Γ(α − k/α)
E[X k ] = , −α < k < α2 ,
Γ(α)
θk Γ(1 + k/α)Γ(α − k/α)
E[(X ∧ x)k ] = β(1 + k/α, α − k/α; 1 − u) + xk uα , k > −α,
Γ(α)
α − 1 1/α
 
Mode = θ , α > 1, else 0.
α2 + 1

5
A.2.3.5 Inverse Paralogistic—τ, θ

This is an inverse Burr distribution with γ = τ .

2
τ 2 (x/θ)τ (x/θ)τ
f (x) = , F (x) = uτ , u= ,
x[1 + (x/θ)τ ]τ +1 1 + (x/θ)τ
VaRp (X) = θ(p−1/τ − 1)−1/τ ,
θk Γ(τ + k/τ )Γ(1 − k/τ )
E[X k ] = , −τ 2 < k < τ,
Γ(τ )
θk Γ(τ + k/τ )Γ(1 − k/τ )
E[(X ∧ x)k ] = β(τ + k/τ, 1 − k/τ ; u) + xk [1 − uτ ], k > −τ 2 ,
Γ(τ )
Mode = θ (τ − 1)1/τ , τ > 1, else 0.

A.3 Transformed Gamma Family

A.3.2 Two-Parameter Distributions

A.3.2.1 Gamma—α, θ

(When α = n/2 and θ = 2, it is a chi-square distribution with n degrees of freedom.)

(x/θ)α e−x/θ
f (x) = , F (x) = Γ(α; x/θ),
xΓ(α)
θk Γ(α + k)
E[X k ] = , k > −α,
Γ(α)
E[X k ] = θk (α + k − 1) · · · α if k is a positive integer,
θk Γ(α + k)
E[(X ∧ x)k ] = Γ(α + k; x/θ) + xk [1 − Γ(α; x/θ)], k > −α,
Γ(α)
E[(X ∧ x)k ] = α(α + 1) · · · (α + k − 1)θk Γ(α + k; x/θ)
+ xk [1 − Γ(α; x/θ)] if k is a positive integer,
−α
M (t) = (1 − θt) , t < 1/θ,
Mode = θ(α − 1), α > 1, else 0.

6
A.3.2.2 Inverse Gamma—α, θ
(Vinci)

(θ/x)α e−θ/x
f (x) = , F (x) = 1 − Γ(α; θ/x),
xΓ(α)
θk Γ(α − k)
E[X k ] = , k < α,
Γ(α)
θk
E[X k ] = if k is a positive integer,
(α − 1) · · · (α − k)
θk Γ(α − k)
E[(X ∧ x)k ] = [1 − Γ(α − k; θ/x)] + xk Γ(α; θ/x)
Γ(α)
θk G(α − k; θ/x)
= + xk Γ(α; θ/x), all k,
Γ(α)
Mode = θ/(α + 1).

A.3.2.3 Weibull—θ, τ

τ
τ (x/θ)τ e−(x/θ) τ
f (x) = , F (x) = 1 − e−(x/θ) ,
x
VaRp (X) = θ[− ln(1 − p)]1/τ ,
E[X k ] = θk Γ(1 + k/τ ), k > −τ,
τ
E[(X ∧ x) ] = θ Γ(1 + k/τ )Γ[1 + k/τ ; (x/θ)τ ] + xk e−(x/θ) ,
k k
k > −τ,
τ − 1 1/τ
 
Mode = θ , τ > 1, else 0.
τ

A.3.2.4 Inverse Weibull—θ, τ

(log-Gompertz)
τ
τ (θ/x)τ e−(θ/x) τ
f (x) = , F (x) = e−(θ/x) ,
x
VaRp (X) = θ(− ln p)−1/τ ,
E[X k ] = θk Γ(1 − k/τ ), k < τ,
h τ
i
E[(X ∧ x)k ] = θk Γ(1 − k/τ ){1 − Γ[1 − k/τ ; (θ/x)τ ]} + xk 1 − e−(θ/x) ,
h τ
i
= θk G[1 − k/τ ; (θ/x)τ ] + xk 1 − e−(θ/x) , all k,
 1/τ
τ
Mode = θ .
τ +1

7
A.3.3 One-Parameter Distributions
A.3.3.1 Exponential—θ

e−x/θ
f (x) = , F (x) = 1 − e−x/θ ,
θ
VaRp (X) = −θ ln(1 − p),
E[X k ] = θk Γ(k + 1), k > −1,
k k
E[X ] = θ k! if k is a positive integer,
E[X ∧ x] = θ(1 − e−x/θ ),
TVaRp (X) = −θ ln(1 − p) + θ,
E[(X ∧ x)k ] = θk Γ(k + 1)Γ(k + 1; x/θ) + xk e−x/θ , k > −1,
k k k −x/θ
E[(X ∧ x) ] = θ k!Γ(k + 1; x/θ) + x e if k > −1 is an integer,
−1
M (z) = (1 − θz) , z < 1/θ,
Mode = 0.

A.3.3.2 Inverse Exponential—θ

θe−θ/x
f (x) = , F (x) = e−θ/x ,
x2
VaRp (X) = θ(− ln p)−1 ,
E[X k ] = θk Γ(1 − k), k < 1,
E[(X ∧ x) ] = θ G(1 − k; θ/x) + xk (1 − e−θ/x ),
k k
all k,
Mode = θ/2.

A.5 Other Distributions

A.5.1.1 Lognormal—µ,σ
(µ can be negative)

1 ln x − µ
f (x) = √ exp(−z 2 /2) = φ(z)/(σx), z= ,
xσ 2π σ
F (x) = Φ(z),
E[X k ] = exp kµ + 21 k 2 σ 2 ,

ln x − µ − kσ 2
 
k 1 2 2
+ xk [1 − F (x)],


E[(X ∧ x) ] = exp kµ + 2 k σ Φ
σ
Mode = exp(µ − σ 2 ).

8
A.5.1.2 Inverse Gaussian—µ, θ

1/2
θz 2
  
θ x−µ
f (x) = 3
exp − , z= ,
2πx 2x µ
"   #   "  1/2 #
θ 1/2 2θ θ x+µ
F (x) = Φ z + exp Φ −y , y= ,
x µ x µ
E[X] = µ, Var[X] = µ3 /θ,
k−1
X (k + n − 1)! µn+k
E[X k ] = , k = 1, 2, . . . ,
(k − n − 1)!n! (2θ)n
n=0
"   # "   #
θ 1/2 θ 1/2
E[X ∧ x] = x − µzΦ z − µy exp(2θ/µ)Φ −y ,
x x
" r !#
θ 2µ2 θ
M (z) = exp 1− 1− z , z < 2.
µ θ 2µ

A.5.1.3 Log-t—r, µ, σ

(µ can be negative) Let Y have a t distribution with r degrees of freedom. Then X =

exp(σY + µ) has the log-t distribution. Positive moments do not exist for this distribution.
Just as the t distribution has a heavier tail than the normal distribution, this distribution
has a heavier tail than the lognormal distribution.
 
r+1
Γ
2
f (x) = "  #(r+1)/2 ,
√ 1 ln x − µ 2
r 
xσ πrΓ 1+
2 r σ
 
ln x − µ
F (x) = Fr with Fr (t) the cdf of a t distribution with r df,
σ
  



 1 r 1 r 
0 < x ≤ eµ ,

β , ; ,

  

2 2 2
   2

 ln x − µ 
r+


σ

F (x) =  




 1  r 1 r 
1 − β , ; 2  , x ≥ eµ .

 
2 2 2
  

  ln x − µ 
r+



σ

9
A.5.1.4 Single-Parameter Pareto—α, θ

 α
αθα θ
f (x) = , x > θ, F (x) = 1 − , x > θ,
xα+1 x
VaRp (X) = θ(1 − p)−1/α ,
αθk
E[X k ] = , k < α,
α−k
αθk kθα
E[(X ∧ x)k ] = − , x ≥ θ, k 6= α,
α − k (α − k)xα−k
E[(X ∧ x)α ] = θα [1 + α ln(x/θ)],
αθ(1 − p)−1/α
TVaRp (X) = , α > 1,
α−1
Mode = θ.

Note: Although there appear to be two parameters, only α is a true parameter. The
value of θ must be set in advance.

A.6 Distributions with Finite Support

For these two distributions, the scale parameter θ is assumed known.

A.6.1.1 Generalized Beta—a, b, θ, τ

Γ(a + b) a τ
f (x) = u (1 − u)b−1 , 0 < x < θ, u = (x/θ)τ ,
Γ(a)Γ(b) x
F (x) = β(a, b; u),
θk Γ(a + b)Γ(a + k/τ )
E[X k ] = , k > −aτ,
Γ(a)Γ(a + b + k/τ )
θk Γ(a + b)Γ(a + k/τ )
E[(X ∧ x)k ] = β(a + k/τ, b; u) + xk [1 − β(a, b; u)].
Γ(a)Γ(a + b + k/τ )

10
A.6.1.2 Beta—a, b, θ
The case θ = 1 has no special name but is the commonly used version of this distribution.

Γ(a + b) a 1
f (x) = u (1 − u)b−1 , 0 < x < θ, u = x/θ,
Γ(a)Γ(b) x
F (x) = β(a, b; u),
θk Γ(a + b)Γ(a + k)
E[X k ] = , k > −a,
Γ(a)Γ(a + b + k)
θk a(a + 1) · · · (a + k − 1)
E[X k ] = if k is a positive integer,
(a + b)(a + b + 1) · · · (a + b + k − 1)
θk a(a + 1) · · · (a + k − 1)
E[(X ∧ x)k ] = β(a + k, b; u)
(a + b)(a + b + 1) · · · (a + b + k − 1)
+xk [1 − β(a, b; u)].

11
Appendix B

An Inventory of Discrete Distributions

B.1 Introduction
The 16 models presented in this appendix fall into three classes. The divisions are based
on the used to compoute the probabilities. For some of the more familiar distributions
these formulas will look different from the ones you may have learned, but they produce
the same probabilities. After each name, the parameters are given. All parameters are
positive unless otherwise indicated. In all cases, pk is the probability of observing k losses.
inxx For finding moments, the most convenient form is to give the factorial moments. The
jth factorial moment is µ(j) = E[N (N − 1) · · · (N − j + 1)]. We have E[N ] = µ(1) and
Var(N ) = µ(2) + µ(1) − µ2(1) .
The estimators presented are not intended to be useful estimators but, rather, provide
starting values for maximizing the likelihood (or other) function. For determining starting
values, the following quantities are used (where nk is the observed frequency at k [if, for
the last entry, nk represents the number of observations at k or more, assume it was at
exactly k] and n is the sample size):
∞ ∞
1X 1X 2
µ̂ = knk , σ̂ 2 = k nk − µ̂2 .
n n
k=1 k=1

When the method of moments is used to determine the starting value, a circumflex (e.g., λ̂)
is used. For any other method, a tilde (e.g., λ̃) is used. When the starting value formulas
do not provide admissible parameter values, a truly crude guess is to set the product of
all λ and β parameters equal to the sample mean and set all other parameters equal to 1.
If there are two λ or β parameters, an easy choice is to set each to the square root of the
sample mean.
The last item presented is the probability generating function,

P (z) = E[z N ].

12
B.2 The (a, b, 0) Class
The distributions in this class have support on 0, 1, . . . . For this class, a particular distri-
bution is specified by setting p0 and then using pk = (a + b/k)pk−1 . Specific members are
created by setting p0 , a, and b. For any member, µ(1) = (a + b)/(1 − a), and for higher j,
µ(j) = (aj + b)µ(j−1) /(1 − a). The variance is (a + b)/(1 − a)2 .

B.2.1.1 Poisson—λ

e−λ λk
p0 = e−λ , a = 0, b = λ, pk = ,
k!
E[N ] = λ, Var[N ] = λ,
λ̂ = µ̂,
P (z) = eλ(z−1) .

B.2.1.2 Geometric—β

1 β βk
p0 = , a= , b = 0, pk = ,
1+β 1+β (1 + β)k+1
E[N ] = β, Var[N ] = β(1 + β),
β̂ = µ̂,
P (z) = [1 − β(z − 1)]−1 , −(1 + 1/β) < z < 1 + 1/β.

This is a special case of the negative binomial with r = 1.

B.2.1.3 Binomial—q, m

(0 < q < 1, m an integer)

q (m + 1)q
p0 = (1 − q)m , a = − , b= ,
1−q 1−q
 
m k
pk = q (1 − q)m−k , k = 0, 1, . . . , m,
k
E[N ] = mq, Var[N ] = mq(1 − q),
q̂ = µ̂/m,
P (z) = [1 + q(z − 1)]m .

13
B.2.1.4 Negative Binomial—β, r

β (r − 1)β
p0 = (1 + β)−r , a= , b= ,
1+β 1+β
r(r + 1) · · · (r + k − 1)β k
pk = ,
k!(1 + β)r+k
E[N ] = rβ, Var[N ] = rβ(1 + β),
σ̂ 2 µ̂2
β̂ = − 1, r̂ = 2 ,
µ̂ σ̂ − µ̂
P (z) = [1 − β(z − 1)]−r , −(1 + 1/β) < z < 1 + 1/β.

B.3 The (a, b, 1) Class

To distinguish this class from the (a, b, 0) class, the probabilities are denoted Pr(N =
k) = pM T
k or Pr(N = k) = pk depending on which subclass is being represented. For this
class, p0 is arbitrary (i.e., it is a parameter), and then pM
M T
1 or p1 is a specified function
of the parameters a and b. Subsequent probabilities are obtained recursively as in the
(a, b, 0) class: pM M T
k = (a + b/k)pk−1 , k = 2, 3, . . . , with the same recursion for pk . There
are two subclasses of this class. When discussing their members, we often refer to the
“corresponding” member of the (a, b, 0) class. This refers to the member of that class with
the same values for a and b. The notation pk will continue to be used for probabilities for
the corresponding (a, b, 0) distribution.

B.3.1 The Zero-Truncated Subclass

The members of this class have pT0 = 0, and therefore it need not be estimated. These
distributions should only be used when a value of zero is impossible. The first factorial
moment is µ(1) = (a+b)/[(1−a)(1−p0 )], where p0 is the value for the corresponding member
of the (a, b, 0) class. For the logarithmic distribution (which has no corresponding member),
µ(1) = β/ ln(1 + β). Higher factorial moments are obtained recursively with the same
formula as with the (a, b, 0) class. The variance is (a + b)[1 − (a + b + 1)p0 ]/[(1 − a)(1 − p0 )]2 .
For those members of the subclass that have corresponding (a, b, 0) distributions, pTk =
pk /(1 − p0 ).

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B.3.1.1 Zero-Truncated Poisson—λ

λ
pT1 = , a = 0, b = λ,
eλ −1
λk
pTk = ,
k!(eλ − 1)
E[N ] = λ/(1 − e−λ ), Var[N ] = λ[1 − (λ + 1)e−λ ]/(1 − e−λ )2 ,
λ̃ = ln(nµ̂/n1 ),
eλz − 1
P (z) = .
eλ − 1

B.3.1.2 Zero-Truncated Geometric—β

1 β
pT1 = , a= , b = 0,
1+β 1+β
β k−1
pTk = ,
(1 + β)k
E[N ] = 1 + β, Var[N ] = β(1 + β),
β̂ = µ̂ − 1,
[1 − β(z − 1)]−1 − (1 + β)−1
P (z) = , −(1 + 1/β) < z < 1 + 1/β.
1 − (1 + β)−1

This is a special case of the zero-truncated negative binomial with r = 1.

B.3.1.3 Logarithmic—β

β β β
pT1 = , a= , b=− ,
(1 + β) ln(1 + β) 1+β 1+β
βk
pTk = ,
k(1 + β)k ln(1 + β)
β[1 + β − β/ ln(1 + β)]
E[N ] = β/ ln(1 + β), Var[N ] = ,
ln(1 + β)
nµ̂ 2(µ̂ − 1)
β̃ = − 1 or ,
n1 µ̂
ln[1 − β(z − 1)]
P (z) = 1− , −(1 + 1/β) < z < 1 + 1/β.
ln(1 + β)

This is a limiting case of the zero-truncated negative binomial as r → 0.

15
B.3.1.4 Zero-Truncated Binomial—q, m,
(0 < q < 1, m an integer)

m(1 − q)m−1 q q (m + 1)q

pT1 = m
, a=− , b= ,
1 − (1 − q) 1−q 1−q
m k m−k


k q (1 − q)
pTk = , k = 1, 2, . . . , m,
1 − (1 − q)m
mq
E[N ] = ,
1 − (1 − q)m
mq[(1 − q) − (1 − q + mq)(1 − q)m ]
Var[N ] = ,
[1 − (1 − q)m ]2
µ̂
q̃ = ,
m
[1 + q(z − 1)]m − (1 − q)m
P (z) = ,.
1 − (1 − q)m

B.3.1.5 Zero-Truncated Negative Binomial—β, r (r > −1, r 6= 0)

rβ β (r − 1)β
pT1 = , a= , b= ,
(1 + β)r+1 − (1 + β) 1+β 1+β
 k
r(r + 1) · · · (r + k − 1) β
pTk = ,
k![(1 + β)r − 1] 1+β
rβ
E[N ] = ,
1 − (1 + β)−r
rβ[(1 + β) − (1 + β + rβ)(1 + β)−r ]
Var[N ] = ,
[1 − (1 + β)−r ]2
σ̂ 2 µ̂2
β̃ = − 1, r̃ = 2 ,
µ̂ σ̂ − µ̂
[1 − β(z − 1)]−r − (1 + β)−r
P (z) = , −(1 + 1/β) < z < 1 + 1/β.
1 − (1 + β)−r

This distribution is sometimes called the extended truncated negative binomial distri-
bution because the parameter r can extend below zero.

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B.3.2 The Zero-Modified Subclass
A zero-modified distribution is created by starting with a truncated distribution and then
placing an arbitrary amount of probability at zero. This probability, pM 0 , is a parameter.
The remaining probabilities are adjusted accordingly. Values of pM k can be determined
from the corresponding zero-truncated distribution as pM k = (1 − p M )pT or from the corre-
0 k
sponding (a, b, 0) distribution as pM
k = (1 − p M )p /(1 − p ). The same recursion used for
0 k 0
the zero-truncated subclass applies.
The mean is 1 − pM 0 times the mean for the corresponding zero-truncated distribution.
The variance is 1 − p0 times the zero-truncated variance plus pM
M M
0 (1 − p0 ) times the square
of the zero-truncated mean. The probability generating function is P M (z) = pM 0 + (1 −
M
p0 )P (z), where P (z) is the probability generating function for the corresponding zero-
truncated distribution.
The maximum likelihood estimator of pM 0 is always the sample relative frequency at
zero.

17