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Bba 400 Business Policies and Decisions Interactive Module 2019
Bba 400 Business Policies and Decisions Interactive Module 2019
Bba 400 Business Policies and Decisions Interactive Module 2019
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INTRODUCTION
This is the highest level of management course to undertaken in the B.com degree in
KU. Its contents are structured in such a way that all the students from the various
departments in the School of Business can identify with irrespective of their areas of
specialization.
Business policies may have two perspectives. First as the guidelines used in
decision making processes 2nd as long term plans of action.
Their contents of this unit are based on the perspective adopted in the University
Calendar – i.e. the 2nd perspective of Business Policies may have two
perspectives.
This perspective adopted helps to view Business Policies as the long term
decisions that govern the operations of the business. The students will therefore
relate with the long term planning of the business irrespective of their
specializations.
This module is divided into seven sessions as per the table of contents. Each
session has objectives to help guide you through the different lessons to be
learnt.
EVALUATION:
1. SIT – IN – CAT………………………………………………………...15%
2. TAKE AWAY ASSIGNMENT………………………………………...15%
3. FINAL EXAMINATION………………………………………………...70%
TOTAL………………………………………………………………….100%
TABLE OF CONTENTS
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LESSON ONE:THE NATURE AND SCOPE OF BUSINESS POLICIES...................................................................7
1.1: INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................................7
1.2: Lessonsobjectives.............................................................................................................................7
1.3: LESSON ONE : NATURE AND SCOPE OF BUSINESS POLICIES.............................................................7
1.3.2: Characteristics of Business policies..............................................................................................10
1.3.3: Trends influencing policies..........................................................................................................11
1.3.4: Importance of this Unit as an area of study.................................................................................13
1.4: SUMMARY......................................................................................................................................14
1.5: ACTIVITIES.......................................................................................................................................14
1.6: FURTHER READINGS.......................................................................................................................14
1.7: SELF TEST QUESTIONS....................................................................................................................14
LESSON TWO:SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY, ETHICS & POLICY DECISIONS....................................................16
2.1: INTRODUCTION..............................................................................................................................16
2.2: LESSONSOBJECTIVES.......................................................................................................................16
2.3: SUBLESSON 1: SCOPE OF SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY..........................................................................17
2.3.2: Dimensions of Social Responsibility & Ethics...............................................................................18
2.4: SUBLESSON II: TOOLS USED IN ETHICAL DECISION MAKING...........................................................20
2.5: SUBLESSON III: IMPORTANCE OF SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY.............................................................24
2.6: SUMMARY......................................................................................................................................26
2.7: ACTIVITIES.......................................................................................................................................26
2.8: FURTHER READING.........................................................................................................................26
2.9: SELF-TEST QUESTIONS....................................................................................................................26
LESSON THREE:ENVIRONMENT ANALYSIS AND TECHNIQUES...............................................................27
3.1: INTRODUCTION..............................................................................................................................28
3.2: LESSONSOBJECTIVES.......................................................................................................................28
3.3: LESSON I : THE ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS AND DEFINITIONS....................................................28
3.3.2: Sources of Information................................................................................................................29
3.3.3: Reasons for environmental analysis............................................................................................30
3.4; SUB LESSON II: TECHNIQUES OF ASSESSING THE ENVIRONMENT..................................................31
3.4.1: Techniques used for scanning......................................................................................................31
ETOP (Environmental Threats and Opportunities Profile).....................................................................31
QUEST (Quick, Environmental, Scanning Technique)............................................................................32
PESTLE ANALYSIS...................................................................................................................................33
CRAP METHOD......................................................................................................................................33
GEMBA METHOD...................................................................................................................................33
FORCE FIELD ANALYSIS (FFA).................................................................................................................34
3.4: SUMMARY......................................................................................................................................36
3.5: ACTIVITIES.......................................................................................................................................36
3.6: FURTHER READING.........................................................................................................................36
3.7: SELF-TEST QUESTIONS....................................................................................................................36
LESSON FOUR:FORMULATION OF POLICIES...........................................................................................37
4.1: INTRODUCTION..............................................................................................................................37
4.2: LESSONSOBJECTIVES.......................................................................................................................37
4.3: SUB LESSON I: DEFINATIONS AND APPROACHES............................................................................37
4.3.1: Definition and Phases..................................................................................................................38
4.3.2: Approaches based on time..........................................................................................................39
4.3.3: Approaches based on thrusts/ forces underlying the approach..................................................40
4.4: SUB LESSON II: DIFFERENT ORIENTATIONS.....................................................................................42
4.4.1: Stability orientation.....................................................................................................................42
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4.4.2: Growth orientation......................................................................................................................43
4.4.3: Retrenchment orientation...........................................................................................................44
4.4.4: Combination orientation.............................................................................................................45
4.5: ACTIVITIES.......................................................................................................................................46
4.6: FURTHER READING.........................................................................................................................46
4.7: SELF-TEST QUESTIONS....................................................................................................................47
LESSON FIVE:CHOICE OF POLICIES (ORGANIZATION PORTFOLIO).........................................................47
5.1: INTRODUCTION..............................................................................................................................47
5.2: LESSONSOBJECTIVES.......................................................................................................................48
5.3: SUB LESSON: DEFINITIONS AND CONSTRAINTS OF CHOICE............................................................48
5.3.1: Definition:....................................................................................................................................48
5.3.2: Constraints experienced in choice...............................................................................................49
5.4: SUBLESSON II : ANALYTICAL MODELS USED WHEN CHOOSING POLICIES.......................................52
5.4.1: Boston consulting group matrix (BCG Matrix).............................................................................53
5.4.2: Stop – light model/ Business planning matrix..............................................................................54
5.4.3: Strategic Budgetary process........................................................................................................55
5.4.4: Ansoff’s Product _Market matrix.................................................................................................55
5.4.5: Limitations of the above tools.....................................................................................................56
5.5: SUMMARY......................................................................................................................................56
5.6: ACTIVITIES.......................................................................................................................................56
5.7: FURTHER READINGS.......................................................................................................................56
5.8: SELF TEST QUESTIONS....................................................................................................................56
LESSON SIX:IMPLEMENTATION OF POLICIES.........................................................................................58
6.1: INTRODUCTION..............................................................................................................................58
6.2: LESSONSOBJECTIVES.......................................................................................................................58
6.3: SUB LESSON I : IMPLEMENTATION OF POLICIES.............................................................................58
6.3.1: Definitions...................................................................................................................................58
6.3.2: Implementation process includes the following:.........................................................................59
6.3.3: To ensure effective implementation............................................................................................60
6.3.5: Resource allocation.....................................................................................................................60
6.4: SUB LESSON II:TOOLS USED FOR ALLOCATION OF RESOURCES......................................................61
6.4.1: Boston consulting group matrix (BCG Matrix).............................................................................61
6.4.2: Stop-light matrix (Business Planning Matrix)...............................................................................62
6.4.3: Strategic Budgetary Process........................................................................................................62
6.4.5: Policy versus Management..........................................................................................................64
6.4.6: Policy verses Organization structure...........................................................................................65
6.4.7: Policy Implementation Controls..................................................................................................66
6.5: SUMMARY......................................................................................................................................67
6.6: ACTIVITIES.......................................................................................................................................67
6.7: FURTHER READING.........................................................................................................................67
6.8: SELF-TEST QUESTIONS....................................................................................................................68
LESSON SEVEN:REVIEW AND MONITORING OF POLICIES......................................................................68
7.1: INTRODUCTION..............................................................................................................................69
7.2: LESSONSOBJECTIVES.......................................................................................................................69
7.3: LESSON: REVIEW AND MONITORING OF POLICIES (EVALUATION).................................................69
7.3.1: Definitions...................................................................................................................................69
7.3.2: Criteria for evaluation..................................................................................................................70
7.3.3: The frequency of evaluation........................................................................................................71
7.3.4: Challenges experienced when evaluating organization portfolio...............................................71
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7.4: SUMMARY......................................................................................................................................73
7.5: ACTIVITIES.......................................................................................................................................74
7.6: FURTHER READING.........................................................................................................................74
7.7: SELF-TEST QUESTIONS....................................................................................................................74
GLOSSARY..............................................................................................................................................75
REFERENCES MATERIALS FOR ALL LESSONS..........................................................................................76
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LESSON ONE:
1.1: INTRODUCTION
Welcome to this lesson that deals with application of principles that are learnt in the
lower level management courses. This lesson deals with the scope and overview of
business policies. It gives a summary of the content of the whole unit. It also deals with
the definitions that are used in this unit.
1.2: Lessonsobjectives
At the end of this Lesson, you will be able to:
i) To define the terms: business policies, business policy framework, policy levels
and policies characteristics
ii) To describe the policy development process.
iii) Explain the importance of this unit as an area of study.
iv) Explain the trends that are likely to influence the performance of policies in
future.
LessonsOutcomes
1. Apply proper business policies
2. Understand how a policy framework can affect the performance of a business.
3. Be able to design a policy frame wok geared towards the attainment of specific
goals.
1.3.1: Definitions
Policy:
There are two major definitions of the term policy hence the following two perspectives.
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• Consistency in the relationships with stakeholders.
2. Policies can also be defined as long term plan (s) of action that
help(s) to ensure survival and growth of the organization in the long
term future. In this context, policies help to guide the following:
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Policy development process
Environment scanning
Formulation of policies
Policy levels
5. International level
6. Global level
Activity
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opportunities, gather the necessary resources and exploit the
opportunities for some gain in the implementation of the portfolio.
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controlled so that there will not be white elephant projects in the
organization.
• Long term perspective. The portfolio adopted must have long term
orientation. This helps to achieve one of the two major objectives of
any portfolio that there must be growth and longevity in the portfolio
adopted.
• Industry driven. The industry goes through cycles and seasons and
policy makers should align policies to the industry dynamics.
• Political developments and liberalization. All over the world, there are
political dynamics that keep changing and influencing business
activities.
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• Increased levels of awareness amongst the stakeholders. Right now
the dynamics and unrest in Middle East and other areas in the world
are affecting the way businesses are done. The level of technology is
bringing the awareness of what is happening at real time.
ACTIVITY
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KVvhaRakXXo
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0Ed6n9JkJT8
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give the characteristics of business policy and explain the
current trends in business policy
• Acts as a frame of reference for all business activities both now and
in the future.
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• Helps in identifying trends that are likely to influence business
formulation and choices of portfolio
ACTIVITIES
You should identify some large businesses in your neighborhood or an
organization recognized nationally. Explain the activities that the chosen
business undertakes.
1.4: SUMMARY
This lesson deals with the scope of business policies. Policies give
guidelines that act as guide to all the activities of the business, all
relationships of the business and the future of a business. Policies help
managers to plan, choose, implement and evaluate the activities of the
business. Policies sensitizes the business about the relationships with
stakeholders.
d) List and briefly explain the reasons as to why this unit is important.
REFERENCES
Dubrin,A. j., (2009). Essentials of Management. South Western Cengange,
Canada.
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Gamble, E.J., & Strickland, A. J. (2007). Crafting and Executing Strategy: Concepts and
Cases. McGraw Hill Irwin.
LESSON TWO
2.1: INTRODUCTION
Welcome to this lesson that deals with issues related to social and ethical objectives of
the business. As organizations grow, it becomes important for them to consider the
needs of all stakeholders who contribute directly or indirectly to the organization’s
welfare.
This lesson is divided into 3 sections –
1. Scope of social responsibility and ethics.
a) Decisions
b) Dimensions
c) Stakeholders
2. Tools used in decision making
3. Importance and challenges of social responsibility and ethics.
2.2: LESSONSOBJECTIVES
: The following objectives will be covered under this lesson. By the end of this lesson,
you should be able to:
a. Define the terms Social Responsibility, Ethics, Corruption and corporate
governance
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b. Explain the dimensions of social responsibility
c. Identify the different stakeholders and their respective needs
d. List the areas where social responsibility should be observed
e. Briefly explain how the stated tools can be used in policy decision making
f. Explain limitations of the tools
g. Identify the various reasons as to why social responsibility is important in a
business
h. Explain the challenges that organizations go through when undertaking social
responsibility activities.
Lesson’s Outcomes
i. Draw insights into social responsibility as a business driver
ii. How good governance affects a business output
iii. The relationship between good governance and social responsibility
iv. How environment affects governance in business
v. The effect of lack of CSR and good governance in a business environment
Business Ethics
Business Ethics can be defined as the principles that help to guide managers in
business decisions as to what fair or unfair good or bad; right or wrong; acceptable or
not acceptable and as to the yes or no. A reporter once said that there are no clear cut
distinctions between white and black, good or bad, Yes or No. Between white and black
there are grey areas, between good and bad, there are confusing questions, and
between Yes and No, there is a strong “may be”. There are a lot of rationalizations,
considerations and dilemmas. Yet managers are expected to make policy decisions
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according to some moral principles, norms or standards that are generally acceptable to
the stakeholders. This forces us to answer the following questions that arise –
a) Who sets the standards?
b) What standards are acceptable to all stakeholders?
c) What can the manager do to handle any ethical dilemmas that arise in the course
of his/her decision making?
There are many varying Schools of thought on the same namely: Ethics are Universal;
ethics are relative and Ethics are an integrated social contract (you should be able to
define these three terms).
Corruption
We will use the definition as per Anti-Corruption and Economic crimes Act – 2007
There is no universal definition of the term corruption and hence the amorphous nature
of the term. However according to the Act, the following terms have been used;
1. Classical Vs modern. Classical category is where there are only two major
stakeholders involved namely the consumer and the producer. Modern category
is where there are so many stakeholders as explained below.
2. Reactive Vs proactive. Reactive is where the policy maker waits until there is a
crisis to come up with a solution. The proactive is where the policy makers
considers and incorporates all the stakeholders even before they demand the
rights. This is an anticipatory approach.
Nature of stakeholders
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Stakeholders are defined as all those who relate or interact with the business in the
course of its operations. Policy makers must identify the different stakeholders, their
classifications, their respective needs and consequent satisfaction .Previously,
stakeholders used to be limited to a monolitic relationship between the producer and
consumer. They had direct contact with each other; they related openly and met
each other’s needs without the need for a broker. Producer ↔consumer. Nowadays,
stakeholders have pluralistic relationship. A relationship that is so amorphous and
the stakeholders have no direct contact with each other. Most businesses may not
know all the stakeholders of the business because of pluralistic relationship.
Whereas it is not possible to satisfy all the stakeholders, the business must endeavor to
do the following;
1. Identify who the stakeholders are?
2. Identify where the stakeholders are?
3. Identify their respective needs, tastes and preferences.
4. Prioritize the stakeholders and their needs – (who is more important than the
other)
5. Create tradeoffs amongst the different stakeholders’ needs.
6. Identify what kinds of conflict can be there if the needs are not met.
The following areas should be observed when making policy decisions to ensure that
there is little or no conflict between the business and the stakeholders. The areas can
broadly be categorized into Human relations, customer relations and public relations.
They may specifically incorporate;
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1. Equity for all without unfair discrimination
2. Consumer rights and protection
3. Disclosure and confidentiality of information
4. Acceptable marketing practices
5. Employees’ education, training and development
6. Employees’ commitment and motivation
7. Safety and health of all stakeholders
8. International and local relationships
9. Legal and Ethical relationships
10. Community development
11. Environmental protection and welfare
12. Fair and all inclusive code of ethics
13. Government relations
Activity
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rOobyymbTJI
There are various tools that can be used for making socially responsible decisions.The
tools depend on the following factors;
1. Nature of Business activities
2. Nature of stake holders concerned
3. Nature of management and leadership
4. The interest of the business
5. Environmental factors
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Egoism y y1
(Maximum
Personal benefits)
X1
X
Altruism
Maximum social benefits
Social responsibility curve compares two variables in decision making i.e. Egoism Vs
Altruism. It compares the point making business objectives Vs the social objectives.
Egoism represents the interest of the owners of the business which in a number of
businesses may be the needs of the managers.
This principle states that a policy decision is good if it contributes to maximum
generation of profits at the expense (or exploitation of all the other stakeholders.
Altruism on the other hand represents the needs/interests of all other stakeholders who
may not contribute directly to the activities of the business. This principle states that a
policy decision is good/ acceptable if it contributes maximumly to the benefit of all the
other stakeholders at the expense of the profit objective (or owners’ expense).
When making policy decisions, ensure they are not made at the extremes (i.e. points x
or y) because those points will create a lot of conflict amongst the stakeholders. This
conflict can easily bring down the business. Therefore this curve dictates that policy
decisions must be made at the extremes x or y.
Along the curve, preferable between x1 or y1 are areas where majority of the
stakeholders will be satisfied.
Ethical/legal matrix
This is a tool that compares 2 variables the ethical status of the decision and the legal
status of the decisions.
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The ethical status reflects the compliance to the generally accepted norms/standards for
the different stakeholders in a given environment.
Ethical Ethical but Ethical The best place to make a policy decision
Illegal Legal is quadrant A- decision is both legal and
D A Ethical. The worst place to make a policy
decision is quadrant B- decision is both
Unethical Legal but
Unethical and Illegal. In quadrant C-
Illegal Unethical
policy decision is legal but unethical. In
B C
quadrant D- policy decision is ethical but
Unethical Illegal Legal
illegal. For both policy decisions to be
made they must consider both the laws
(legal status) and the Ethical status.
This is a tool that was developed by Pride and Terrel in their attempt to
categorize the areas that must be considered when dealing with social
responsibility. They categorized all organizations’ objectives into four major areas
as shown below.
Philanthropic objectives
Ethical objectives
Legal objectives
Economic objectives
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The very basic objective for any organization is economic objective. The need to
make profit, some gain or benefit for the owners of the business. This provides
the basis for justification of the existence for any business.
The second level is to ensure that the business’s activities are legal objectives
according to national laws, county laws and local authorities by- laws.
The next level is Ethical objectives ensure that the policy decisions are made
according to the generally accepted principles and norms of the stakeholders.
These are the principles that guide the decision make as to what is wrong/right,
just or unjust good or bad, fair or unfair in a given decision, so as to avoid harm
to the stakeholders.
The next level is Philanthropic objectives that help to ensure that the business
gives back to the society by contributing its resources and improving on the
welfare or quality of life of the stakeholders.
All the above objectives help to ensure that the business maximizes its positive
impact and minimizes its negative impact on the society.
In conclusion
Ethical decision making, irrespective of the tool used has the following
components:
Characteristics of the decision maker
The decision – maker’s ethical standards,
Moral awareness (recognizing the existence of moral dilemmas when
making policy decision)
Ethical actions (taking step (s) to do what is right).
Research has shown that from four months old to adulthood, a human being is “wired”
with an ethical dimension and self-interest consciousness. Neuroscience has identified
a “moral sense” in humans through imaging technologies whereby, human beings are
said to have a unique neuron in the brain that lights up when a person perceives
unfairness and deception. The same neuron is found in African Apes, Chimpanzees and
humans.
In order to ensure all the variables in the above tools provide maximum welfare to all the
stakeholders the policy – maker can try the following:
1. Be involved in continuous scanning of the environment to keep up with new
developments
2. Identify stakeholders and their respective needs.
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3. Establish consequences of satisfaction and dissatisfaction of different
stakeholders
4. Prioritize the stakeholders – who is more important than the other
5. Prioritize stakeholders’ needs
6. Establish policies on the treatment of different stakeholders
7. Establish clear feedback systems
8. Be accountable and responsive in the mobilization allocation, utilization and
control of the organization resources.
9. Development and encourage positive organization culture from top-down in the
whole organization
10. Provide effective feedback systems in case of any conflict.
Activity
i)Briefly explain how the stated tools can be used in policy decision making
ii)Explain limitations of the tools
10. Reduces cooperation costs of the business e.g. workers stay longer in the
business reducing costs of hiring and firing
11. The management earns respect amongst the stakeholders
12. It may help to motivate the stakeholders when they realize there is equity and
fairness in their treatment
13. The stakeholders may be willing to participate in socially responsible activities
and contribute their resources
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14. If there is positive culture in the organization, the stakeholders will be willing to
speak out against ethical practices irrespective of the LessonsOutcomes
15. Creates positive public image and creates a competitive edge
16. Social Responsibility is directly related to increasing number of customers.
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Activity
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HF9ba7k-dPc
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k5HANkhPEmQ
a. Identify the various reasons as to why social responsibility is important in
a business
b. Explain the challenges that organizations go through when undertaking
social responsibility activities.
2.6: SUMMARY
You should read more on the different tools described above and the different
approaches to social responsibility and ethics.
(1) Explain how you can make decisions on the following areas;
Matatu drivers tampering with speed governors
Employing underage employees in transport industry
Trafficking human for sex businesses
Attracting customers through vulgar language and pictures (phonography)
Buying cheap fuel from illegal fuel depots.
Constructing apartments on top of a petrol station
(2) Suppose your manager insists on giving a bribe to secure a tender for the business,
as an individual how can you react?
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(3) Explain how you can eliminate corruption in an organization as a new manager ?
Gamble, E.J., & Strickland, A. J. (2007). Crafting and Executing Strategy: Concepts and
Cases. McGraw Hill Irwin.
Hugh Maillah and Tampoe M., (2000). Strategic Management. Oxford University Press.
25
LESSON THREE
3.1: INTRODUCTION
Welcome to this lesson that deals with the process of assessing the environment or the
context within which policy decisions are made for effectiveness and efficiency. This
helps you to identify all the forces for or against the policy decisions made. Environment
usually specifies the dynamics that must be considered as policies are made. The
dynamics can be positive or negative depending on the impact they have in the
business.
3.2: LESSONSOBJECTIVES
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
1. Define the terms use in environment analysis
2. Explain the different kinds of environments and the causes of environmental
dynamics.
3. Explain the importance and challenges of environment analysis
4. Explain and give examples of different analysis techniques
3.3.1: Definitions
Environment is any internal/eternal factor which influences activities of a business
and must be considered in designing business policies.
Environment is also defined as all the dynamics that are likely to have a positive or
negative impact on the performance of policies.
These factors could be categorized into the following categories:
According to the scope: MACRO vs MICRO vs MESSO vs META
According to how the manager can handle the factors: CONTROLLABLE VS
NON-CONTROLLABLE
According to their relationship with the organization: INTERNAL VS EXTERNAL
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Examples of environmental factors
Environmental dynamics
These include:
Known and unknown factors
Friendly or hostile factors
Predictable and unpredictable factors
Local or international factors
Intended or unintended, that are likely to have a positive or negative impact on
the performance of policies.
Environmental analysis
Also called environment appraisal/assessment/ evaluation/ scanning / monitoring. It is a
systematic and comprehensive process through which the strategic manager monitors
the environmental factors which may determine the success or failure of the business.
It is also defined as a process of identifying business trends both within and outside the
business and subjecting them to the projected business performance. It involves the
following:
1. Identifying each of the critical factors
2. Identifying the scope of these factors
3. Identifying and determining the effects each of these factors will have on the
business i.e. the current effects and future effects
4. Assessing the positive and negative consequences of the various effects
5. Determine the inter-relationship amongst different environmental factors (both
obvious and remote relationships)
6. Identify the most beneficial/ influential for the success of the business
7. Subject the factors to the future of the business.
1. Identify the external factors that may create opportunities for the business. Will
also be able to identify external threats which will lead to downfall of the business
2. To identify the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and Threats existing in the
of the business
3. To identify strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats of the competitors
4. To identify market niche / market segment to be addressed thro business
performance.
5. To be proactive/progressive and not reactive and parochial with regard to
business policies.
6. To incorporate the most up-to-date developments in the environment
7. To identify Industry drivers.
8. To adopt best practices in the industry, locally or internationally.
9. To help in bench marking
10. To help Resolve the conflicts amongst the stakeholders
11. To justify Business policy framework
12. The manager is able to anticipate the changes that are likely to occur in the
environment and plan accordingly
13. To assist in the day to day running of the business
14. Information helps the managers to plan for mobilization, acquisition, utilization and
allocation of factors of production.
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15. To be able to formulate the best policies for the business.
16. To be able to set the boundaries of operations, limits or parameters of operations.
Activity
When using this method the management uses critical SUCCESS factors
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Environmental Threats Opportunities
factors
Competition Unfair competition Producers improved goods in
quality
Limited suppliers or competition Can create different lines of
among the suppliers products for different customers
Productivity levels are low Diversifying the location
Synergistic effects
Export
Import
Economic factors Decrease in consumption Diversify to different customers/
Decrease in purchasing power markets
Increase in cost of inputs
Taxation variations
Political factors Closure of the business Diversity for the business
Political biases Can Create different lines of
Political zoning products
Change of business locations
N/B: After identifying all the critical environmental factors the manager must choose
the opportunities to take advantage of. The investment portfolio will be based on
cost benefit analysis (CBA). If benefits ˃ cost – exploit the opportunity and vice
versa. With reference to the above analysis; for the competitive forces, the
opportunities are more than the threats; with reference to Economic factors, threats
are more than the opportunities, do not base investment on this. With reference to
political factors, threats and opportunities are equal, feasibility studies are required
to identify either more threats or more opportunities.
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PESTLE ANALYSIS
This method analyses the external dynamics. It is an acronym that stands for:
political, economic, social-cultural, technological, legal and regulatory and
ecological factors. These factors are mainly external hence non-controllable. The
manager must develop policies aimed at helping the business to adapt to these
dynamics.
CRAP METHOD
This is an industry specific method. It analyses the competitive dynamics
affecting a specific industry. It involves identification of the critical success and
competitive factors and provides a rating against the competitors in the industry.
How well or bad are the competitors doing verses the business. It helps
organizations to identify their strengths and weaknesses and undertake the
actions necessary. It involves the following:
Identification of the competitors
Choosing a rating scale eg a scale of 1 up to 10
Identifying the critical success factors
Profiling the success factors based on how important they are.
Scoring the factors based on the chosen scale for each of the competitors
Getting the totals of each competitor
Comparing competitors scores with the organization’s scores.
Identifying areas of strengths and weaknesses for the business
Developing strategies to develop strengths in the weak areas and
compete on the strengths.
GEMBA METHOD
This is a Japanese style of assessing the operational areas, “going out where the
action is”. If the implementation process is going on, the managers will be
involved in assessing how the process is progressing. If there are any deviations
from the planned implementation, they can be identified and the relevant
corrective measures can be undertaken immediately. It helps managers to
identify the real issues affecting the implementation and not window dressed
situations. The managers are able to avoid the symptoms to any negative
developments and address the situations immediately. Decisions are made
without delays because decisions can be made on the spot.
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FORCE FIELD ANALYSIS (FFA)
The policy maker identifies the forces for or against the organization’s
performance. If there are more forces for the policy performance, investment
decisions are made because the environment id conducive. If there are forces
against the organizations policy performance, it implies that the environment is
not conducive and investment decisions can be delayed until the dynamics
change.
(OTHER METHODS…CHECK THE SLIDES)
Activity
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5SxvhHnEzno
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=syDRegjvFEw
1. Explain and give examples of different analysis techniques
1. There are so many interest groups with a lot of lobbying powers and each of
these group have to be considered when designing policies. These groups may
include political parties, human rights organizations, local and international NGOs
etc
2. The society is more informed and more educated hence the stakeholders are
more aware of their rights. In case of any infringement of their rights, they can
claim their rights in court.
3. The trend of liberalization of the economies. It implies a lot of freedom in regard
to business operations very few controls in regard to business policies hence the
organizations cannot predict what a competitor will do considering the freedom of
trade.
4. There are a lot of international influences that have brought about drastic
changes in the environment. These can be political influence, economic
influence, technology influences.
5. Privatization of public sector i.e. a lot of parastatals have been sold to the general
public. This means that the managers are not only concerned with the interests
of the government but also concerned with the interest of the new owners. This
makes the environment within the business to become very dynamic.
6. Development of entrepreneurship culture worldwide. This has been inculcated in
all levels of the society and world over. It has also been developed among the
workers and other stakeholders.
7. Regionalization and globalization in the world. The world has become a global
village. Under this area a lot of free trade zones have been established with very
little or no restrictions eg AU, COMESA EAC, EU, etc.
32
8. A lot of women participation in the labor force. This implies a lot of changes in life
style, welfare of workers, working conditions and also changes with respect to
the attention given to the most critical issues of the business i.e. women use
more intuition in decision making than men, women’s needs are different from
men’s in the workplace.
9. Consideration of ethical and moral behavior of the stakeholders. This is the way
people behave towards the job, each other and inter relationships within and
outside the business. The managers are challenged to be more alert in regard to
changes in behavior.
10. Trends of negative attitudes towards work e.g. people disinterested with the
performance of the organization, workers not interested in giving their best,
workers spending working hours undertaking private activities (receiving private
calls, browsing on the internet, etc)
11. A lot of changes in demographics of the stakeholders. These changes can be in
terms of age groups, urbanization, movement of people, educational levels,
changes in social classes and other variables that help to define a given
population.
12. Single parent culture has a major influence in the way some businesses are
done. This could be families with single parents headed by men or women. It
could also be community families or even children headed families. The
implication is that each of these groups has brought a different dimension in their
relationship with the organization. For example, since a single parent is very
busy, he or she wants to do one stop shopping, a variety of/ or lot of choices in
purchasing decisions.
13. Self-service culture. This has developed because people are more informed,
more educated and more involved in working environment. They prefer to have
freedom for various activities and if they don’t have freedom they will spend a
little more money to acquire that freedom. They will prefer shopping in Malls,
multipurpose stores, exhibitions as opposed to across-the-counter shopping.
14. Selfishness and greed amongst the stakeholders. This has become a cultural
development eg where the MPs and Governors are demanding higher pay
regardless of the performance of the economy. More than 50% of the GDP going
to 1.6% of the population and the remaining (less than 50% of GDP being shared
by 98.4% of the population (2014). The culture has become, “what is there for
me?”.
Activity
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=loKC3yuTSl4
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FCqdER7695Q
33
3.4: SUMMARY
Environmental dynamics are critical for the performance of businesses. The forces for
and against the performance of the business determine whether even the best policies
will succeed or not. All the relationships of the business determine how the business
performs in a given environment or not. The different methods of scanning the
environment include SWOT, PESTLE, CRAP, GEMBA, ETOP among other
REFERENCES
Ghosan, S., Quinn, J. B., et al. (2002). The Strategy Process. McGraw Hill Irwin. (5th Edition)
Kamieniecki , S. & Kraft, E. M. (2007). Business and Environmental Policy. MIT Press,
Cambridge.
Hugh Maillah and Tampoe M., (2000). Strategic Management. Oxford University Press.
34
Plunkett W. R. & Attner R. F. (1997). Management: meeting and Exceeding Customer
Expectations. South-western College Publishing.
LESSON FOUR
FORMULATION OF POLICIES
4.1: INTRODUCTION
This lesson deals with the process of developing different alternatives that the
management can adopt. It outlines the definitions of formulation, different approaches
used in formulation, the different orientations and their respective advantages or
disadvantages.
4.2: LESSONSOBJECTIVES
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
1. Define the terms: formulation, growth orientation, stability orientation,,
retrenchment orientation and combination orientation.
2. Outline the advantages and disadvantages of the different orientations.
3. Explain the different approaches used in formulation
35
Formulation is a process of getting a set of decisions that will lead to effectiveness in an
organization. It is also defined as a comprehensive process of defining what the
business will be involved in the long term. It involves making decisions on:
Vision and mission of the business
Setting the objectives
Setting the overall plans/ strategies which will help 1 and 2 above.
Specifically, formulation entails the following steps:
• Identifying information from environmental analysis
• Match between information and Vision, Mission and objectives
• Positives and negatives of alternatives
• Assessment of available / can be available resources (what, how, how much,
where, when, etc)
• Identifying viewpoint to use
• The Perspectives Adopted may include (Reactive, Proactive, Analytic, Adaptive,
Defensive, Offensive, Muddling through)
Intelligent phase
It involves scanning the environment both internal and external. During this phase the
managers are able to identify the SWOT of the business. If the manager identifies any
opportunity he looks for different way of exploiting that opportunity. If he identifies any
problem that may threaten the business he looks for possible solution even before the
problem occurs. If he identifies weakness he looks for ways of strengthening his
business capabilities and he cannot strengthen the business, he withdraws or
retrenches from the business. The intelligent phase requires the conceptual skills of the
manager i.e. he is able to identify all the activities of a business in form of a system/
series of activities and he understands the consequences of a failure in those activities
36
C=B – Conduct more research, go back to intelligent phase
C>B – Withdraw or retrench
C<B – Grow the business
The order in which the management undertakes the three phases vary from one
organization to another. Some businesses will choose an activity to undertake, then
they scan the environment and they design the alternatives after the environmental
scanning. The approaches used when formulating policies include:
Traditional approach
It is where the management identifies a problem, diagnoses it, and comes out with the
objectives of solving such a problem and designing a plan of action. The management
then exercises strict control on their plan of action until another problem arises which
requires the above process to be repeated. This approach is used mainly by parochial
goal setters and will only survive in a stable environment. This approach can be used
when short-term decisions are required but it is a very risky approach in a dynamic
environment.
Activity
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vl5syUCg4ps
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6yLCkH9Wi9U
37
Define the terms: formulation, growth orientation, stability orientation,,
retrenchment orientation and combination orientation.
The following approaches are classified as based on the underlying forces pushing the
formulation process:
Entrepreneurial approach
Intuition approach
Muddling through approaches
Key factor approach
Integrated approach
Entrepreneurial approach
This is where the manager is expected to act like an entrepreneur when making
decisions. An entrepreneur is supposed to identify the opportunities, gather resources
necessary to exploit the opportunity profitably. This approach is based on opportunities
that exist within and outside the organization.Using this approach the managers’
decision is always opportunity- based and not problem-based. Any change in
environment is viewed as an opportunity and not threat. The policies are aimed at
generating profit, value adding or benefit creation for the stakeholders.
Intuition approach
It is where the manager has no formal way of developing policy orientations. Most of the
policies are developed and kept in the mind of the manager. If a problem arises or any
opportunity, there is no set plan of activities that must be followed. It will all depend on
situation and manager’s capability. The manager uses a lot of personal value judgment
and he utilizes his conceptual skills when making decisions. The danger with this
approach is that there is no standard way of formulating policies. It all depends with
manager, his creativity and his integrity. When a manager uses this approach, he has to
combine it with other approaches.
38
required for corporate decision-making. Managers usually set objectives which are not
challenging to the workers because they don’t want to the involved in solving new
problems.
Integrated approach
It is where the management identifies very comprehensive procedure, which can be
used continuously whether the business has problem, or not. Management has to scan
environment on continuous basis and identify the SWOT of the business. If there are
any threats in the environment, there is a consistent procedure to be used either to
overcome the threats or to adapt to the threats for business survival. It follows the
following steps:
Analyzing the environment. This helps the business to identify the environmental
factors that may influence it success.
Evaluate current business policies to identify whether the business is coping with
the current environment.
Identify the strengths and weaknesses of the current policies as compared to the
environment
Identify the changes that are required
Identify the different alternative action that can be used to implement the required
changes
Choose the most appropriate alternative either to solve an existing problem or
take advantage of an existing opportunity
Implement the alternative taken
Evaluate the alternative implemented
N/B: Managers using the above approach must always scan the environment and
review the business policies accordingly.
Activity
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ntX9xeDgDo8
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0Ijw0xA2TEs
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MCaYRLQXDFg
1. Explain the different approaches used in formulation
39
4.4: SUB LESSON II: DIFFERENT ORIENTATIONS
There are four broad ways of categorizing portfolio orientations. They include the
following:
Stability orientation
Growth orientation
Retrenchment orientation
Combination orientation
For each of the above orientations, it is important to know what the orientation entails,
why the orientation is adopted and the challenges therein.
40
• Creates negative Public image
• Repels unique resources and investors
• May create dilemmas for some stakeholders
• Eventually, it may cause the fall of the business if used for a long period of time.
41
N/B: Growth orientation is favorable in turbulent environment where managers are
progressive in nature and workers are in need of self-actualization.
• Attracts conflict (this is the reason Kenya is facing allot of opposition because as
per the recent world bank reports, Kenya’s economy is amongst the fastest
growing in Africa and world at large, 20114/15).
• Requires Continuous appraisal of environment
• Extra resources/ extra costs are required to support growth.
• Diseconomies of large scale operations
• Occurrence of bureaucracies, delays in decision making, increased levels of
authority
• Occurrence of unethical practices due to pluralistic relationships
• Counter reactions from competitors eg collusive behaviour
This is where the management does two or all of the following things
Withdraws the resources from production
Reduces the number of products or services offered by the business
Reduces the number of objectives, narrows its vision.
Changes or lowers the nature, number and the level of personnel
Withdraws from some market segments.
Changes the number of stakeholders especially those directly related to the
organization.
N/B: This orientation is usually adopted by parochial managers who would rather
withdraw their resources than engage in competition. If the progressive managers adopt
this orientation, it is usually for a short period and it is done after a lot of environmental
analysis. The progressive managers will withdraw when the products or services they
are offering have negative cash flow, negative public image and unfair competition and
if they have to withdraw, it is based on the premise that there are better opportunities to
exploit..
42
If the size of the market reduces
If Political dynamics demand.
Unethical practices that are likely to influence the stakeholders
When there is no market niche.
When there is a shift in customers / market.
If there are Market changes i.e. changes in taste and preferences, changes in
demographics, fashion etc
If tastes of various interest groups change e.g. owners of business may prefer to
invest in other areas.
As a survival tactic especially where the economic situation changes.
Challenges of retrenchment
• Competitors activities may interfere with the planned orientation
• Lack of confidence of stakeholders especially workers and investors.
• Creates Negative Public image
• There is always concern as to What and when to retrench
• Resources may be left idle and this may create unnecessary expenses.
• Creates conflict /resistance amongst the stakeholders
• Social evils may arise especially if the personnel are retrenched.
This is where management adopts two or more orientations at the same time
(concurrently) in the same environment. The management can adopt growth orientation
in one area and retrenchment in another area. Other combinations may include
retrenchment and stability, stability and growth; stability, retrenchment and growth.
However, when adopting combination, the manager must always ensure that there is
growth orientation to take care of the long term survival of the business.
43
Helps the management to become more efficient in resource allocation and
utilization and hence ensures the survival of the business irrespective of the
nature of the environment. For example, resources retrenched in one area can
be used for growth in another area of the organization.
ACTIVITIES
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iTgobtN46lQ
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WCeSnK_oLDk
In small groups, discuss the different areas where the learners can contribute to
the different areas where they have seen or experienced the different
orientations.
Outline the advantages and disadvantages of the different orientations
44
Dubrin,A. j., (2009). Essentials of Management. South Western Cengange,
Canada.
Gamble, E.J., & Strickland, A. J. (2007). Crafting and Executing Strategy: Concepts and
Cases. McGraw Hill Irwin.
Hugh Maillah and Tampoe M., (2000). Strategic Management. Oxford University Press.
LESSON FIVE
5.1: INTRODUCTION
This lesson deals with what happens after the formulation of policies. A choice has to be
made for the organization portfolio to be selected. However, there are various
challenges that can constrain the process of choice. Various tools are explained below
that can help to deal with the choice.
5.2: LESSONSOBJECTIVES
45
LESSONSOUTCOMES
1. Establish the connection between leadership and business
2. Identify the effects of the environment in the running of a business
3. Establish various systems used in running a business
4. Choice of timing in business establishment
5.3.1: Definition:
Choice is the process of selecting or getting the best and most appropriate
course of action so as to direct the resources towards the right objectives. This is
the process of comparing the impact of all possible strategies on the product
market/ business and getting a trade off amongst different courses of action.
Process of selecting the most appropriate/ applicable and sustainable policy
orientation
Developing a match between the internal and external dynamics of the business
and the envisioned destiny
Getting the best mix between the policy, the context and the resources so as to
achieve the overall purpose of the business.
. There are three major forces which influence the choice of orientation. These include:
Environment
This comprises of all the factors that influence the success or failure of business. These
factors are important because they dictate which of orientations will succeed and which
will fail. They either impede or enhance portfolio’s performance.
Leadership
The leaders will determine which orientations to be adopted. A leader is a person who
will direct group effort towards group objectives through effective and efficient use of the
resources. If the leaders are parochial, they will choose stability or retrenchment. If they
are adoptive they will choose what has been given to them (combination). If they are
progressive, they will choose growth that is usually based on the environmental analysis
and their value judgment. If they are good risk takers they will opt for growth orientation.
If they cannot handle uncertainty and risks, they opt for stability or retrenchment. The
orientation chosen will depend on the leaders. If they prefer acceptance from the
surrounding society they will opt for orientation that creates harmony in the society. If
not interested with social responsibility they will choose with their biases.
46
Organization systems
The organizations’ systems include the operating systems and patterns of decision
making within business. If a system is so bureaucratic, the leaders will rarely have time
to take advantage of the opportunities hence in most cases they opt for stability. If the
decision-making is through teamwork, they opt for growth orientation because the group
will quickly identify opportunities and make decision. During implementation, it is good
to avoid complex systems that may hinder implementation of good investment portfolio.
Activity
Define the terms
https://www.youtube.com/user/FPA1918
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cCKQ-6x9Bkg
1. Choice
2. Environment
3. Organization systems
4. Leadership
1. Information constraints
This refers to the amount of data required which is relevant for a decision to be made.
The more the information available, the less the risk taken when making a decision and
the less the information, the higher the risk. In decision making, information should be
available when it is needed and in the form required. You should also have what is
required i.e. the relevant data should be simple and brief for the purpose of the decision
required. You should have information when it is required. Care should be taken to
avoid information going to the wrong stakeholders and especially competitors
N/B: Information is usually gathered from scanning the environment and if the
management does not scan the environment, most of the decisions taken will not relate
to the environment.
2. External constraints
When making the choice of the portfolio, the management must include all the
stakeholders outside the organization e.g. owners, suppliers of factors of production,
competitors, general society, government, consumer etc. When an orientation is
adopted, the managers have to prioritize the needs of different interest groups and
make a trade off amongst different interest groups. The trade off depends on how
important a certain interest group is as far as the success of the business is concerned.
It also depends on how much the business relies on a particular group e.g. if a business
has a monopoly supplier of raw materials, choice will be biased towards the needs of
that supplier. If you have a monopoly consumer of the product, choice will be biased
towards the needs of that consumer. If you have majority shareholder in the company,
47
the choice will be biased towards the needs of that shareholder. In a number of cases
the management may have to meet the needs of those interest groups in order to
survive. Otherwise the interest groups may sabotage the activities of the business.
5. Time constraint
Time is a very important resource, supplied freely by God and yet the most
misused in organizations. When making choices, managers must consider the
time resource. There are four considerations when dealing with time.
Time horizon
Time frame
Time pressure
Timing
Time horizon
This is the longest time variable that policy makers have to make a decision. It usually
sounds like an unimaginable time, of a long term future. However, even that long term
48
future eventually becomes short term. Consequently, decisions with reference to time
horizon can be made now. It is when management considers whether the orientation is
short term/ long term. Any orientation that requires to be implemented in one year is
considered as short term. Orientations to be implemented five years onwards are
considered long term. Any orientation between one and five years is considered as
medium term.
Time frame
Usually defined as the time around which a decision can be made. The time frame
usually determines the period within which the rewards and punishments for different
activities will be experienced. If rewards are attached to long term success, managers
may tend to relax because they can’t identify with current success. If rewards are
attached to short-term success, it is difficult for managers to anticipate the future of the
business. There has to be a specified future. For example, in two months’ time, or at the
end of two months, we should have made the choices for the portfolio.
Time pressure
This deals with deadlines that are set for managers to make a choice. If the deadline is
too short you tend to make an irrational decision because you can’t account for all
factors that may influence the choice. Also managers are not able to analyze and
compare different alternatives; eventually the choices taken may be unsuccessful
If the deadline is too long managers may have access to sufficient information and will
tend to make a favorable choice because they are able to analyze and compared
different alternatives. Deadlines should be set and communicated to all.
Timing
Refers to when exactly the choice and implementation will take place e.g. if a marketer
intends to use pricing strategy against his competitors, he has to be careful of that exact
time that he increases or decreases the price in order to counter competitors strategies.
Also called the law of delay which states, “The longer a decision is delayed the lower
the probability that the consequences of that decision will ever be accepted, relevant or
applicable”. When choices are made, they usually apply to a specific environment in a
given time and if there is a change in that environment that choice will no longer be
applicable. The major question to ask is, “what else must be in place for this choice to
be acceptable and successful”. This defines time in relation to the environmental
dynamics.
6. Managerial values and systems
The management, leadership and the administration are critical for choice. Each
plays a different role in the choice of policies.
7. Resources (uses and sources)
49
The resources deal with and include all the factors of production. The manager
must ensure there is quality and quantity of the resources needed. Also consider
whether the resources are available and if not available, can they be available.
He should answer what, when, where, by whom, who, etc
8. Nature of competitive dynamics
This deals with the dynamics in the industry. This is determined by the SWOT of
the competitors’.
9. Risks, Returns and sustainability.
The risks and returns most of the times are related. The higher the returns: the
higher the risks. The question we need to ask is whether the returns and the risks
are sustainable and justifiable.
10. Business Policy Framework.
This includes the five variables of the framework ie environment, identity,
purpose, resources and activities. (Refer to lesson one of this module).
Activity
1. List and briefly explain the different constraints encountered during choice.
If a product has a very high market share and high growth rate it is called a star. If it has
a high market share and very low growth rate it is called Cash cow. If a product has a
very high market growth rate and very low market share, it is called Question mark. If a
product has low market growth rate and low market share it is called Cash trap/ dog.
50
Stars
These are the products that have high market share and high market growth rate. The
stars require a lot of new, high quality resources. They are unique products, attracts
unique resources, unique investors and are the long term future of the business. The
best choice of policy is growth orientation.
Cash cow
It is called so because one gets high returns after investing very little resources. Initial
investment is required but after the product matures, minimal resources are required for
maintenance. The customers are loyal and so committed to these products that the
sales are predictable and the market is fully saturated. The best choice of policy is
stability orientation.
Question Marks
Any investment you put here has 50-50% chance of returns. Sometimes the products
give good returns and other times there is loss. In this quadrant, adopt combination of
policies.
Business strengths
High
51
Orange/ Yellow – (D) Green – (A)
(Combination) (Growth)
Red – (B) Orange/ Yellow –(C)
(Retrenchment) (combination)
Low Industry attractiveness High
The model uses traffic lights analysis hence the term STOP-LIGHT MATRIX. If the
industry is very attractive and the business has a lot of strengths it falls in quadrant (A).
It means that business is doing very well and the management should continue with the
business and adopt growth orientation. If the industry is not attractive and the business
strengths are very low, the choice falls in (B) Quadrant. The management should
withdraw resources from such investment and thus adopt retrenchment options. If the
industry is very attractive and the business has very little strengths, it falls under (C) and
you should adopt stability because the business can maximize the use of the little
strength in the business and maximize the opportunities you get because the business
is very attractive. If the industry is not attractive but the business has a lot strengths, this
falls in quadrant (D) and you should adopt combination orientation i.e. you keep trying
the areas you think there exists opportunities especially through NICHE creation..
When using this tool the management should be very careful to identify the variables
that may contribute to success or failure e.g. the level of technology may create
opportunities for one business but it may be threatening to other businesses.
52
Present Products New Products
NEW
MARKETS Market Product
development diversification
REVIEW QUESTION:
How can you use this tool for choosing the organization portfolio?
53
Explain the tools used to choose the portfolio.
5.5: SUMMARY
Choice of the policy orientation because it helps to develop the portfolio to be adopted.
Choice also helps to differentiate stakeholders and their respective needs. The tools
used are equally critical and their respective advantages and disadvantages.
REFERENCES
Kamieniecki , S. & Kraft, E. M. (2007). Business and Environmental Policy. MIT Press,
Cambridge.
Hugh Maillah and Tampoe M., (2000). Strategic Management. Oxford University Press.
54
LESSON SIX
IMPLEMENTATION OF POLICIES
6.1: INTRODUCTION
Welcome to this lesson that deals with the process of ensuring that the portfolio adopted
is put into action successfully. It involves choice and allocation of resources so as to
ensure what was planned is implemented as required.
6.2: LESSONSOBJECTIVES
LessonsOutcomes
Be able to practically design a business policy
Be able to advice on the implementation of a policy
Be able to draw relationships between good and bad business polices
Be able to know policies that are good for an enabling business environment
55
6.3: SUB LESSON I : IMPLEMENTATION OF POLICIES
6.3.1: Definitions:
Process of putting into action the chosen policy to ensure achievement of all
benchmarks of the orientation chosen
Execution of the portfolio options by getting things done thro:
Right decisions
Commitment
Efficiency
Effectiveness in the utilization of the factors of production
Process of creating systems and patterns of operation to ensure that the chosen
policies are actualized for the future survival and growth of the business.
Putting the policies into action.
During implementation, the following questions are answered:
How to get policies into action?
What and how to change or improve to accommodate the new portfolio?
How to make sure portfolio is adopted as was intended?
How to ensure all the control measures are executed as planned?
How to make sure the resources are directed towards desired
LessonsOutcomes?
How to differentiate and integrate the different components of the options
adopted?
NB/
56
Differentiation
This involves the dividing up of the policy into very specific components that can be
achieved by the different section/ units of the business. This can be done in terms of
tasks, responsibilities, roles, authority, departments, sections etc.
Integration
It involves making sure that the above units work in harmony i.e. they work as a system
for the strategy to be effective. Integration must identify the inter-relationship amongst
different units and try as much as possible to match the different units.
Elements of Implementation
We consider 3 major things. Namely:-
Policy versus the Leadership, Management and administration
Policy versus Resource allocation
Policy versus Organizational structure
57
5. The management must identify the amount required of the above resources
should be able to state when the resources are required e.g. for short term or
long term purposes, deadline of the materials.
6. Should be able to determine how much of the resources can be generate within
the business and how much can be borrowed from outside sources
7. Should be able to identify the cost associated with different resource e.g. salary
for the personnel, renting/ leasing cost for the facilities, credit facilities for the
supply.
8. Management must always match the resources available with the need. If the
business has very little resources and is not capable of acquiring some more, the
manager should choose stability and retrenchment until resources are available.
If the business has a lot of resources the management must implement growth
orientation in order to take advantage of the opportunities in the environment.
If a business is new it should not borrow a lot of resources at the beginning instead is
should undertake what is called Multi-stage investment i.e. borrow and invest as and
when need arises.
Activity
Explain the challenges encountered during implementation.
58
? Stars
(Combination) (Growth)
The growth orientation requires a lot of resources to develop new products, new
designs and take advantage of the opportunities in the environment. The orientation is
adopted for STARS. Stability orientation requires very little if any resources just to
maintain the current level of businesses. This orientation is adopted for CASH COWS.
Cash cow is used as resource generator because there is very little investment required
and yet it generates a lot of resources. In combination orientation, the amount of
resources depends on the combination adopted. This is usually adopted for QUESTION
MARKS that are unpredictable. Sometimes they perform well, other times they perform
poorly. With THE CASH TRAPS, the amount of resources required in retrenchment
depends on what factor of production is being retrenched. If personnel or labor has
been retrenched, it requires a lot of resources because workers have to be given
terminal benefits. If land or other physical facilities have to be retrenched there will be
no resources required, instead resources will be generated e.g. land can be sold,
leased, physical facilities can also be leased or rented. The disposal value may be
higher than the book value, hence generating profit.
This matrix compares two variables; Business Strengths or capabilities and industry
attractiveness (opportunities).
High
Yellow Green
Red Yellow
59
Green – a lot of resources are required for the product to maintain its position.
Red – stop allocation of the resources because there are no opportunities for the
business to exploit.
Yellow – the resources should be allocated cautiously, depending on the step by step
progress (multi-investment).
This is the normal annual finance budget that organizations have every financial year.
The budgetary process in most cases depends on interest groups and the priorities that
the interest groups have. This is a resource based tool and so the allocation of
resources depends on whether the resources are available or can be available
depending on the sources.
Activity
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pHT0dmSqze8
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wKc-2aHDf5s
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_bBxONDbrMA
Explain the tools used for allocation of resources.
time variable
60
When using this tool, the resource allocation depends on the nature of activities being
undertaken. Introduction- stage is when the business starts operations or introduces a
product in the market. If the product survives birth stage they reach growth stage.
Growth- stage. This is where repeat purchases are occurring; people are looking for the
product, and they are developing loyalty for the product.
Maturity – this is where the market becomes saturated with the organization’s products.
The marketing mix is relatively stable, and the environment is also stable. The
customers have developed complete loyalty for the products.
Death/Decline – the products demand declines until the product dies or is withdrawn
from the market.
Introduction stage
Resources are needed for promotion activities, designing the products, test marketing;
also a lot of resources to purchase, lease or rent of whatever factors of production are
required.
Growth stage
Resources are needed for:- product development, promotion, research, redesigning the
products, expansion in terms of distribution of the products, mass production in order to
satisfy the new market and counter competition.
Maturity stage
Requires very little resources to maintain the product in the market, these products are
resource generators for the other products. There is mass production so as to satisfy
the large market available.
Decline stage
If you are not able to jump-start or re-engineer the product, you may have to withdraw
the product hence you require resources to withdraw / retrench. Also concurrent with
the withdrawal, you can introduce a competing product. This may require promotional
expenses amongst other resources to introduce the product in the market..
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Leadership
The choice of leaders will determine whether the portfolio will fail or not, even
when all the other constraints have been overcome. A leader is expected to be a
guide and is supposed to give directions as to how objectives will be achieved.
This requires him to have a clear vision and mission of the business so as to
enable the organization to undertake the implementation towards desired
objectives.
Administration
It is the day-to-day running of the business which helps to ensure that business policies
are adhered to.
Functions of an administrator during implementation
1. He ensures that the resources are available at the right time, amount, quality,
quantity etc.
2. He ensures that the resources are efficiently utilized
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3. Ensures that the plans/ decisions/ policies are designed at the right time and
communicated to the various interest groups.
4. Supposed to ensure the plans of actions are adhered to and any deviation from
the plan is identified and rectified.
5. He is expected to identify any changes in the environment that may affect the day-
to-day implementation
As a policy decision maker, ensure that there are effective control systems. The
management must ensure the organization has both inbuilt and independent
control structures. The questions to answer include but are not limited to:
• What or who should be controlled, when, where , by whom, why, what control
system, how, for how long etc
• What PRELIMINARY, CONCURRENT AND FEEDBACK CONTROLS systems
should be established? (define each of these controls and explain when they can
be used) these controls are briefly defined as follows:
• Preliminary controls are put at the INPUTTING LEVEL. This is before the
implementation begins eg on the quality and quantity of the factors of production,
the nature of the policy orientation being adopted, nature of environmental
dynamics, etc..
• Concurrent controls are put at the processing level and they run concurrent with
the implementation activities. This involves making sure that the processing
activities are undertaken as per the stipulated time variables.
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• Feedback controls are exercised at the end of the implementation process. To
assess the level of success of the implementation process. It is usually done on
the outputs to check if the objectives have been achieved.
Problems encountered during implementation
6.5: SUMMARY
ACTIVITIES
List and explain different implementation activities in any organizations that you
have related with.
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6.7: FURTHER READING
Read further on the steps involved in the implementation process.
i) What is implementation?
ii) List the factors to be considered in allocation of resources.
iii) Scan the current environment in Kenya and identify factors that can affect
implementation.
REFERENCES
Gamble, E.J., & Strickland, A. J. (2007). Crafting and Executing Strategy: Concepts and
Cases. McGraw Hill Irwin.
Ghosh , P.K. & Kapoor, G. K., (1985). Business Policies. Sultan Chand & sons, New
Delhi.
Ghosh , P.K. & Kapoor, G. K., (1985). Business and society: A study of Business-
Environment Interface.. Sultan Chand & sons, New Delhi.
Ghosan, S., Quinn, J. B., et al. (2002). The Strategy Process. McGraw Hill Irwin. (5th Edition)
Kamieniecki , S. & Kraft, E. M. (2007). Business and Environmental Policy. MIT Press,
LESSON SEVEN
7.1: INTRODUCTION
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This lesson deals with the “Why” of all business activities and decisions. After the policy
implementation process, assessment must be done to ensure that policy objectives are
met. The planned objectives and the LessonsOutcomes are either very close or they
tarry. If there are any deviations, they should be explained, justified and rectified. The
evaluation process helps to give the results of the implementation activities.
7.2: LESSONSOBJECTIVES
7.3.1: Definitions
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4. Review or revise policy formulation process so as to make any changes that
are necessary
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7.3.3: The frequency of evaluation
Evaluation process and frequency depends on the nature of business involved. Some
businesses have fixed intervals and others have variable intervals. If a business varies
its frequency of evaluation, it means that the management will conduct evaluation only
when there is a major change either in the internal environment or external environment
which may affect the success of a given option of the portfolio e.g. changes in
leadership, performance of various factors of production, changes in technology, social
factors, political factors etc.
Evaluation should not be conducted so frequently because of the following reasons:
1. Financial constraints involved
2. The time required to conduct the evaluation may affect the performance of the
stakeholders and consequently affect the performance of the portfolio
3. Stereo – typing may occur especially where the evaluators do not have enough
resources. They assume the LessonsOutcomes of the policies are all the same
hence the evaluators end up copying what was previously reported.
4. To reduce any unnecessary cost which may be incurred in formulating sub
strategies which may be required during evaluation activities
5. The implementers may question the validity of the policy implemented, creating
fear of failure amongst the stakeholders.
6. If evaluation is conducted frequently it interferes with the activities of all the stake
holders and may contribute to the failure of the portfolio implemented.
7. In most cases the evaluators tend to be the same people as the formulators
hence they may not want to reflect any negative consequences which may
influence the performance.
Activity
Highlight the reasons why evaluation should not be carried frequently
1. The uniqueness of each policy orientation. Each policy has different variables to
be considered. This requires a lot of resources if all the variables have to be
evaluated
2. The criteria to be used in evaluating the portfolio even when the objectives of the
portfolios are different.
3. Conflict of interest amongst the stakeholders. Different stakeholders have their
own objectives and any one orientation may have positive consequences for one
stakeholder at the same time negative consequences for another stakeholder.
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subordinates will tend to blame the failure on uncontrollable factors like external
environment.
5. Motivation during evaluation. The management must always identify the factors
that will help to motivate different stakeholders towards the success of the
portfolio. Motivation depends on the objectives of different stakeholders. If one
stakeholder perceives that his objectives will be met if the implementation
succeeds, he will always be motivated towards the success. If another
stakeholder perceives that his objectives will not be met, he will tend to sabotage
the success of the implementation. In order to ensure that the stakeholders are
motivated, the manager should:
Involve them in decision making
Communicate any progress that has been achieved in implementation
activities especially where there are positive consequences
Ensure that the implementation is accompanied by rewards e.g. increase
in salary, recognition, promotion, praise, sharing of the profits.
Avoid giving punishment when a portfolio fails especially when the
implementers did their best.
Identify and specify the specific roles played by every person in
implementation activity so as to avoid blaming everybody in case of a
particular person’s failure.
They must communicate the vision, mission and objectives of the business
so that the implementers may have a clear view of what is expected of
them.
The above three categories of information will help managers to allocate new resources
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Acquire new resources
Quick decision making
Planning for current and future objectives
In control activities i.e. Comparing achievement against plans.
To identify necessary changes for success of the business
Also provide basis for continuous environmental analysis
N/B: In most cases, for evaluation to be genuine, external consultants are needed to
evaluate the portfolio implementation in relation to the following areas:
Environmental dynamics and their respective impact
Skills of the evaluators
Negative attitudes towards evaluation variables and processes.
Time constraints ie Time horizon, time frame, time pressure and timing.
Financial resources required
Interpretations by different stakeholders.
Ethical/ moral dilemmas encountered by different stakeholders.
Activity
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JkLCC4-2AcM
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3hOAs-MoFAI
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=99k_B4qHvvA
Discuss the challenges of evaluation in organizations.
7.4: SUMMARY
This lesson deals with the aspects of evaluation so as to ensure the planned
objectives were achieved just as was intended. It involves comparing planned
results vs actual results and identifying any deviations. If any deviations occur,
corrective measures are undertaken. The output of the evaluation process is used
for decision making in the environment scanning and consequently to review the
vision, mission and objectives.
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7.7: SELF-TEST QUESTIONS
REFERENCES
Dubrin,A. j., (2009). Essentials of Management. South Western Cengange,
Canada.
Gamble, E.J., & Strickland, A. J. (2007). Crafting and Executing Strategy: Concepts and
Cases. McGraw Hill Irwin.
Hugh Maillah and Tampoe M., (2000). Strategic Management. Oxford University Press.
GLOSSARY
Concurrent control. All control activities undertaken at the same time with the
implementation process
.
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Corporate Social Responsibility. This is a concept that businesses have obligations to
the society over and above their profit making (economic) objectives. This may include
organic objectives, legal objectives among others
.
Deviation. This occurs in the control systems where there is a discrepancy between
performance standards and the actual results
.
Ethics. The principles that guide individual to make a decision as to what is right or
wrong, good or bad, equitable or inequitable especially in relation to other people.
Feedback control. Incorporates all activities that aim at evaluating an activity after it is
completed. Evaluating the outputs.
Leadership. The ability to direct group efforts towards group goals by motivating them
towards set objectives.
Organization structure. The way the people and tasks in an organization are arranged to
reflect
Preventative control. Incorporates all activities aimed at monitoring the inputs into the
implementation process
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