UNIT – I

DEFINITION OF COMPUTER:

Computer is an electronic device that can receive a set of instruction or program or any other information.
It stores and processes the data, and produces the output. It works under the direction of a detailed stored
program of instruction.

HISTORY AND GENERATIONS OF COMPUTER:

History of Computer

Name of
Device/Machine Year of Invention Name of the Inventor Specialty
invented
Abacus Ancient Babylonians First Manual Device for
5000 years ago
adding numbers
Slide Rule William Oughtred A device used by engineers
1620 to perform arithmetic
operations upto 1970’s
Arithmetic Engine Blaise Pascal First Mechanical device to
do arithmetic operations
1642
made with gears, wheels and
dials.
Difference Engine Charles Babbage A machine which calculated
successive difference of
1822
expressions and evaluated
expressions like X2 +5X+3
Analytical Engine Charles Babbage The arrangement of units in
this machine is much similar
1833 to the arrangement of units in
modern computers. But this
machine had failed to work.
Tabulating Machine Herman Hollerith Designed to process census
data of US government. It
1880
has read the data stored on
punched cards.
Electronic computer Prof. J.P. Eckert, It is designed by large
ENIAC(Electronic Prof. J.W. Mauchly, number of Vaccum Tubes.
Numeric Integrator and University of The Speed of calculation was
1946
Calculator) Pennsylvania 300 times faster than
previous machine. But it was
unreliable.

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Generation of Computer:

First Generation

● The period 1940 to 1956, roughly considered as the First Generation of

Computer.
● The first generation computers were developed by using vacuum tube or
thermionic valve machine.
● The input of this system was based on punched cards and paper tape; however, the
output was displayed on printouts.
● The first generation computers worked on binary-coded concept (i.e., language of 0-1).
Examples: ENIAC, EDVAC, etc.
Second Generation

● The period 1956 to 1963 is roughly considered as the period of Second

Generation of Computers.
● The second generation computers were developed by using transistor technology.

● In comparison to the first generation, the size of second generation was smaller.
● In comparison to computers of the first generation, the computing time taken by the
computers of the second generation was lesser.

Third Generation
● The period 1963 to 1971 is roughly considered as the period of Third Generation of
computers.

● The third generation computers were developed by using the Integrated Circuit (IC)
technology
● In comparison to the computers of the second generation, the size of the
computers of the third generation was smaller.
● In comparison to the computers of the second generation, the computing time taken
by the computers of the third generation was lesser.

● The third generation computer consumed less power and also generated lessheat.
● The maintenance cost of the computers in the third generation was also low.
● The computer system of the computers of the third generation was easier for
commercial use.

Fourth Generation
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 ● The period 1972 to 2010 is roughly considered as the fourth generation of
computers.
● The fourth generation computers were developed by using microprocessor
technology.
● By coming to fourth generation, computer became very small in size, it became
portable.
● The machine of fourth generation started generating very low amount of heat.
● It is much faster and accuracy became more reliable.
● The production cost reduced to very low in comparison to the previous generation.
● It became available for the common people as well.

Fifth Generation

● The period 2010 to till date and beyond, roughly considered as the period of fifth
generation of computers.
● By the time, the computer generation was being categorized on the basis of
hardware only, but the fifth generation technology also included software.

● The computers of the fifth generation had high capability and large memory
capacity.
● Working with computers of this generation was fast and multiple tasks could be
performed simultaneously.
● Some of the popular advanced technologies of the fifth generation include Artificial
intelligence, Quantum computation, Nanotechnology, Parallel processing, etc.

CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTER:

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Speed

A computer works with much higher speed and accuracy compared to humans while performing
mathematical calculations. Computers can process millions (1,000,000) of instructions per second. The
time taken by computers for their operations is microseconds and nanoseconds.

Accuracy

Computers perform calculations with 100% accuracy. Errors may occur due to data inconsistency or
inaccuracy.

Diligence

A computer can perform millions of tasks or calculations with the same consistency and accuracy. It
doesn’t feel any fatigue or lack of concentration. Its memory also makes it superior to that of human
beings.

Versatility

Versatility refers to the capability of a computer to perform different kinds of works with same accuracy
and efficiency.

Reliability

A computer is reliable as it gives consistent result for similar set of data i.e., if we give same set of input
any number of times, we will get the same result.

Automation

Computer performs all the tasks automatically i.e. it performs tasks without manual intervention.

Memory

A computer has built-in memory called primary memory where it stores data. Secondary storage are
removable devices such as CDs, pen drives, etc., which are also used to store data.

LIMITATIONS OF COMPUTER

The limitation of computer primarily define some task that computer cannot perform or in which human
perform better than the computers. The term limitation indicates the drawbacks of Computer system.

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No IQ
A computer cannot act on situations that are not fed or programmed into them. They have zero
IQ(Intelligent Quotient). These outputs are completely dependent on the user’s input. That is they
produce the wrong output if the wrong input is provided instead of correcting it.

No feelings/ EQ

While the computer can work tirelessly and relentlessly. However, a few tasks require suggestions and
ideas. This can only be done if a person feels positive, negative, or some feeling toward the task.
A computer proves unsuccessful in such scenarios as it does not have feelings/ EQ(Emotional Quotient).
A computer can be used to search for any information from the web. But it cannot personally help a
person in a task. This is the biggest limitation of the computer.

Lack of Decision Making

A computer cannot decide on its own. Each operation that the computer performs is fed with an algorithm
to perform different processes for each situation. However, if it faces a problem that is not fed into the
system, the computer is not ready for it. It either gets corrupt or does not respond.
For making a decision humans have knowledge, wisdom, intelligence, the power to decide, etc.
Computers have none of these. They are programmed to work with logic and algorithms, not judgment.

Lack of Common Sense

A computer might be an automated machine, but it requires human assistance. It works only when it is
provided with some input. For example, you have to do calculations for your math homework. You will
have to feed each sum to get the output. The computer cannot read the whole homework and provide
results.
Another example is a spell in MS Word. Computer points to spelling and grammatical errors by
underlining them with red ink. But it cannot correct it by itself. It also shows errors in proper nouns like
names. This is because a computer can only identify words from a standard dictionary.

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Cannot Implement
A computer has huge storage and can store a hundred times more than a human brain. However, due to a
lack of implementation, it proves to be useless. A computer can store a book of law but cannot implement
it.
It can store hundreds of guides to solve different problems. Yet, it can only solve problems of which
algorithms are fed into it. This is where humans outperform computers.

Human dependency
A computer is a machine that is fully automated once switched on. But it cannot work to switch itself
on. The computer also does not when to start and when to stop unless it is fed with such a program.
Some human assistance is always required in most situations. It cannot work completely on its own
without human intervention.

HARDWARE / ANATOMY OF COMPUTER:

Computer hardware is a physical device of computers that we can see and touch.

Computer Hardware Parts

These hardware components are further divided into the following categories, which are:
1. CPU
2. Memory
3. Secondary storage devices
4. Input Devices
5. Output Devices

1) CPU

Central Processing Unit (CPU) consists of the following features −

 CPU is considered as the brain of the computer.

 CPU performs all types of data processing operations.
 It stores data, intermediate results, and instructions (program).
 It controls the operation of all parts of the computer.

CPU itself has following three components.

 Memory or Storage Unit

 Control Unit
 ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit)

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 2) Memory

Primary memory is also known as the computer system's main memory that communicates directly within
the CPU, Auxiliary memory and the Cache memory. Main memory is used to kept programs or data when
the processor is active to use them. When a program or data is activated to execute, the processor first
loads instructions or programs from secondary memory into main memory, and then the processor starts
execution. The primary memory is volatile, which means the data in memory can be lost if it is not saved
when a power failure occurs. It is costlier than secondary memory, and the main memory capacity is
limited as compared to secondary memory.

The primary memory is further divided into two parts:

1. RAM (Random Access Memory)

2. ROM (Read Only Memory)

Random Access Memory (RAM)

Random Access Memory (RAM) is one of the faster types of main memory accessed directly by the CPU.
It is the hardware in a computer device to temporarily store data, programs or program results. It is used
to read/write data in memory until the machine is working. It is volatile, which means if a power failure
occurs or the computer is turned off, the information stored in RAM will be lost. All data stored in
computer memory can be read or accessed randomly at any time.

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There are two types of RAM:

o SRAM(Static Random Access Memory)

o DRAM(Dynamic Random Access Memory)

Advantages of RAM

o It is a faster type of memory in a computer.

o It requires less power to operate.
o Program loads much faster
o More RAM increases the performance of a system and can multitask.
o Perform read and write operations.
o The processor can read information faster than a hard disc, floppy, USB, etc.

Disadvantages of RAM

o Less RAM reduces the speed and performance of a computer.

o Due to volatile, it requires electricity to preserve the data.
o It is expensive than ROM
o It is unreliable as compared to ROM
o The Size of RAM is limited.

Read-Only Memory (ROM)

ROM is a memory device or storage medium that is used to permanently store information inside a chip.
It is a read-only memory that can only read stored information, data or programs, but we cannot write or
modify anything. A ROM contains some important instructions or program data that are required to start
or boot a computer. It is a non-volatile memory; it means that the stored information cannot be lost even
when the power is turned off or the system is shut down.

Advantages of ROM

1. It is a non-volatile memory in which stored information can be lost even power is turned off.
2. It is static, so it does not require refreshing the content every time.
3. Data can be stored permanently.
4. It is easy to test and store large data as compared to RAM.

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 5. These cannot be changed accidently
6. It is cheaper than RAM.
7. It is simple and reliable as compared to RAM.
8. It helps to start the computer and loads the OS.

Disadvantages of ROM

1. Store data cannot be updated or modify except to read the existing data.
2. It is a slower memory than RAM to access the stored data.
3. It takes around 40 minutes to destroy the existing data using the high charge of ultraviolet light.

RAM Vs. ROM

RAM ROM

It is a Random-Access Memory. It is a Read Only Memory.

Read and write operations can be performed. Only Read operation can be performed.

Data can be lost in volatile memory when the Data cannot be lost in non-volatile memory when
power supply is turned off. the power supply is turned off.

It is a faster and expensive memory. It is a slower and less expensive memory.

Storage data requires to be refreshed in RAM. Storage data does not need to be refreshed in ROM.

The size of the chip is bigger than the ROM The size of the chip is smaller than the RAM chip to
chip to store the data. store the same amount of data.

Types of RAM: DRAM and SRAM Types of ROM: MROM, PROM, EPROM,
EEPROM

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 3) Secondary Storage device

Secondary memory is a permanent storage space to hold a large amount of data. Secondary memory is
also known as external memory that representing the various storage media (hard drives, USB, CDs, flash
drives and DVDs) on which the computer data and program can be saved on a long term basis. However,
it is cheaper and slower than the main memory. Unlike primary memory, secondary memory cannot be
accessed directly by the CPU. Instead of that, secondary memory data is first loaded into the RAM
(Random Access Memory) and then sent to the processor to read and update the data. Secondary memory
devices also include magnetic disks like hard disk and floppy disks, an optical disk such as CDs and
CDROMs, and magnetic tapes.

Types of Secondary Storage Devices:

 Hard Disk: Hard Disk is a storage device (HDD) that stores and retrieves data using magnetic
storage. It is a non-volatile storage device that can be modified or deleted n number of times
without any problem. Most computers and laptops have HDDs as their secondary storage device. It
is actually a set of stacked disks, just like phonograph records. In every hard disk, the data is
recorded electromagnetically in concentric circles or we can say track present on the hard disk, and
with the help of a head just like a phonograph arm(but fixed in a position) to read the information
present on the track. The read-write speed of HDDs is not so fast but decent. It ranges from a few
GBs to a few and more TB.
 Floppy Disk: Floppy Disk is also known as a floppy diskette. It is generally used on a personal
computer to store data externally. A Floppy disk is made up of a plastic cartridge and secured with a
protective case. Nowadays floppy disk is replaced by new and effective storage devices like USB,
etc.
 CD: It is known as Compact Disc. It contains tracks and sectors on its surface to store data. It is
made up of polycarbonate plastic and is circular in shape. CD can store data up to 700MB. It is of
two types:
 CD-R: It stands for Compact Disc read-only. In this type of CD, once the data is written
can not be erased. It is read-only.
 CD-RW: It stands for Compact Disc Read Write. In this type of CD, you can easily
write or erase data multiple times.
 DVD: It is known as Digital Versatile Disc. DVDs are circular flat optical discs used to store
data. It comes in two different sizes one is 4.7GB single-layer discs and another one is 8.5GB
double-layer discs. DVDs look like CDs but the storage capacity of DVDs is more than as
compared to CDs. It is of two types:

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  DVD-R: It stands for Digital Versatile Disc read-only. In this type of DVD, once the
data is written can not be erased. It is read-only. It is generally used to write movies, etc.
 DVD-RW: It stands for Digital Versatile Disc Read Write. In this type of DVD, you can
easily write or erase data multiple times.
4) Input Devices
Input devices are those devices with the help of which the user interacts with the computer. Or, In other
words, with the help of input devices, the user enters the data or information into the computer. This
information or data is accepted by the input devices and converted into a computer-acceptable format,
which is further sent to the computer system for processing.
 Keyboard: It is the most common and main input device for computers. The data is inputted by
typing on the keyboard. It consists of 104 keys in total. It contains numeric keys, alphabet keys, and
different function keys as well. Earlier, it was connected to the computer via cable, now as
technology has advanced, you can connect a keyboard using Bluetooth.
 Mouse: A mouse is a kind of pointing device which is rolled over to control the cursor on the
screen and it has functional keys like left, middle, and right buttons. Using these functional keys, on
by the click of which an object is selected or to open a file by just a click of a mouse. It also
consists of a sensor inside which notifies its speed to the computer and according to which the
cursor is moved on the screen.
 Scanner: As the name suggests, it scans images, documents, etc., and converts them into digital
form and that can be further edited and used. It works just like a Xerox machine.
 Track Ball: It is a device much like an upside-down mouse. It does not use much space for
movement like a mouse. As the trackball remains stationary and the user moves the ball in various
directions, it affects the screen movements directly.
 Light Pen: It is a light-sensitive device and it is touched to the CRT screen where it can detect, a
raster on the screen as it passes by and, with the help of this user can draw anything like lines,
figures, or any objects.
 Microphone: It is a kind of voice input system that can be attached to a computer system to record
sounds. It converts human speech or voice into electrical signals. This electrical signal is processed
by the computer and the word is recognized.

5) Output Devices
These are the devices that are used to display the output of any task given to the computer in human-
readable form.
Now we discuss some output devices:

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 Monitor: The monitor is the main output device. It is also called VDU(visual display unit) and it
looks like a TV screen. The Monitor displays the information from the computer. It is used to
display text, video, images, etc.
 Plotter: It is similar to a printer but potters are large in size. A plotter is used to generate large
drawings, architectural blueprints, etc. on paper and these are high-quality images and drawings and
large in size.
 Speakers: It is a very common output device and it gives sound as an output. Speaker is generally
used to play music or anything having sound.
 Printer: A printer is an output device that transfers data from the computer in a printed format by
using text or images on paper. There are both colored and black & white printers. Further, there are
also different types of printers, like Laser Printer, Dot-matrix printers, and Inkjet printers.

1) Inkjet Printers

It is widely used by home and business computer users that prints characters by spraying the ink using
magnetic plates on the paper. It contains a paper feed assembly, ink cartridge, print head, stabilizer
bar, and belt.It stores the ink in cartridges, and uses separate cartridge to print several types of color
documents. These colors are a combination of cyan, magenta, yellow, and black color.

Advantages of Inkjet Printers:

o The Inkjet printers have the ability to produce high-quality output.

o These printers are reasonably fast and easy to use.
o Additionally, these types of printers do not take warm up time.

Disadvantages of Inkjet Printer:

o It may take more time to print.

o Its running cost is high.
o It does not allow the highlighter marker.
o Sometimes, it can produce a wrong warning of an empty cartridge.

2) Laser printers

The laser printer is one of the common personal computer printers. It was introduced in 1971, and
after that it was developed at Xerox PARC by Gary Starkweather. It uses the laser or non-impact
photocopier technology to print the text and images on the paper. Whenever it gets input to print any

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 document, a laser beam draws the document on the selenium-coated drum with the help of electric
charges.

o When the drum is charged, it is rolled in toner (dry ink powder). The ink follows the image, which
has charged on the drum. The ink is combined with the paper, including heat and pressure, then
transferred on a chunk (piece) of paper.

Advantages of a Laser printer:

o These types of printers have a higher paper capacity.

o It is less expensive than the inkjet printer.
o It has the ability to print documents speedily.
o Furthermore, it is able to increase productivity.

Disadvantages of a Laser printer:

o Laser printers may need warm up time.

o Laser printers are bulky as they required the laser technology and imaging drum.
o It requires high voltage leads to small carbon emissions.

3) Dot Matrix Printers

The dot matrix printers are also known as a pin printer that was released by IBM in 1957.
Although, in 1970, Centronics created the first dot-matrix impact printer. It strikes an ink ribbon
using print heads that place thousands of little dots to form images and text. Nowadays, as
compared to laser and inkjet printers, it is less used, as its printing speed slow and generates lower
quality images. However, dot matrix printers are still in use in some sectors like package delivery
companies and auto part stores.

Advantages of Dot matrix printer:

o A dot matrix printer is less expensive as compared to most of the printers, and it is easily available
in the market.
o It has the ability to print carbon copies of a particular print out, unlike non-impact printers.
o Its printing cost is lowest than the other printers.
o Furthermore, its maintenance cost is less expensive than the other printers.

Disadvantages of Dot matrix printer:

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 o The speed of the dot matrix printer is slow as compared to non-impact printers, and its output is
also not of high resolution.
o It creates high noise when the pins hit the ribbon to the paper.
o It may be a time-consuming printer as it requires a single paper to wound up and aligned
manually.

TYPES OF COMPUTER:

Computers are of various types and they can be categorized in two ways on the basis of size and on
the basis of data handling capabilities.

 Super Computer
 Mainframe computer
 Mini Computer
 Workstation Computer
 Personal Computer (PC)
Supercomputer
When we talk about speed, then the first name that comes to mind when thinking of computers is
supercomputers. They are the biggest and fastest computers (in terms of speed of processing data).
Supercomputers are designed such that they can process a huge amount of data, like processing trillions
of instructions or data just in a second. This is because of the thousands of interconnected processors in
supercomputers. It is basically used in scientific and engineering applications such as weather
forecasting, scientific simulations, and nuclear energy research. It was first developed by Roger Cray in
1976.

Characteristics of Supercomputers
 Supercomputers are the computers that are the fastest and they are also very expensive.
 It can calculate up to ten trillion individual calculations per second, this is also the reason which
makes it even faster.
 It is used in the stock market or big organizations for managing the online currency world such as
Bitcoin etc.
 It is used in scientific research areas for analyzing data obtained from exploring the solar system,
satellites, etc.
Mainframe computer
Mainframe computers are designed in such a way that they can support hundreds or thousands of users
at the same time. It also supports multiple programs simultaneously. So, they can execute different

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processes simultaneously. All these features make the mainframe computer ideal for big organizations
like banking, telecom sectors, etc., which process a high volume of data in general.
Characteristics of Mainframe Computers
 It is also an expensive or costly computer.
 It has high storage capacity and great performance.
 It can process a huge amount of data (like data involved in the banking sector) very quickly.
 It runs smoothly for a long time and has a long life.
Minicomputer
Minicomputer is a medium size multiprocessing computer. In this type of computer, there are two or
more processors, and it supports 4 to 200 users at one time. Minicomputer is similar to Microcontroller.
Minicomputers are used in places like institutes or departments for different work like billing,
accounting, inventory management, etc. It is smaller than a mainframe computer but larger in
comparison to the microcomputer.
Characteristics of Minicomputer
 Its weight is low.
 Because of its low weight, it is easy to carry anywhere.
 less expensive than a mainframe computer.
 It is fast.
Workstation Computer
A workstation computer is designed for technical or scientific applications. It consists of a fast
microprocessor, with a large amount of RAM and a high-speed graphic adapter. It is a single-user
computer. It is generally used to perform a specific task with great accuracy.

Characteristics of Workstation Computer

 It is expensive or high in cost.
 They are exclusively made for complex work purposes.
 It provides large storage capacity, better graphics, and a more powerful CPU when compared to a
PC.
 It is also used to handle animation, data analysis, CAD, audio and video creation, and editing.
Personal Computer (PC)
Personal Computers is also known as a microcomputer. It is basically a general-purpose computer
designed for individual use. It consists of a microprocessor as a central processing unit(CPU), memory,
input unit, and output unit. This kind of computer is suitable for personal work such as making an
assignment, watching a movie, or at the office for office work, etc. For example, Laptops and desktop
computers.

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Characteristics of Personal Computer (PC)
 In this limited number of software can be used.
 It is the smallest in size.
 It is designed for personal use.
 It is easy to use.

SOFTWARE:
In a computer system, the software is basically a set of instructions or commands that tell a computer
what to do. In other words, the software is a computer program that provides a set of instructions to
execute a user’s commands and tell the computer what to do. For example like MS-Word, MS-
Excel, PowerPoint, etc.
Types of Software
It is a collection of data that is given to the computer to complete a particular task. The chart below
describes the types of software:

1. System Software
 Operating System
 Language Processor
 Device Driver
2. Application Software
 General Purpose Software
 Customize Software
 Utility Software
System Software
System software is software that directly operates the computer hardware and provides the basic
functionality to the users as well as to the other software to operate smoothly. Or in other words, system
software basically controls a computer’s internal functioning and also controls hardware devices such
as monitors, printers, and storage devices, etc. It is like an interface between hardware and user
applications, it helps them to communicate with each other because hardware understands machine
language(i.e. 1 or 0) whereas user applications are work in human-readable languages like English,
Hindi, German, etc. so system software converts the human-readable language into machine language
and vice versa.
Types of System Software
It has two subtypes which are:

1. Operating System: It is the main program of a computer system. When the computer system ON it
is the first software that loads into the computer’s memory. Basically, it manages all the resources
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 such as computer memory, CPU, printer, hard disk, etc., and provides an interface to the user,
which helps the user to interact with the computer system. It also provides various services to other
computer software. Examples of operating systems are Linux, Apple macOS, Microsoft Windows,
etc.
2. Language Processor: As we know that system software converts the human-readable language into
a machine language and vice versa. So, the conversion is done by the language processor. It
converts programs written in high-level programming languages like Java, C, C++, Python,
etc(known as source code), into sets of instructions that are easily readable by machines(known as
object code or machine code).
3. Device Driver: A device driver is a program or software that controls a device and helps that device
to perform its functions. Every device like a printer, mouse, modem, etc. needs a driver to connect
with the computer system eternally. So, when you connect a new device with your computer
system, first you need to install the driver of that device so that your operating system knows how
to control or manage that device.

Application Software
Software that performs special functions or provides functions that are much more than the basic
operation of the computer is known as application software. Or in other words, application software is
designed to perform a specific task for end-users. It is a product or a program that is designed only to
fulfill end-users’ requirements. It includes word processors, spreadsheets, database management,
inventory, payroll programs, etc.
Types of Application Software
There are different types of application software and those are:

1. General Purpose Software: This type of application software is used for a variety of tasks and it is
not limited to performing a specific task only. For example, MS-Word, MS-Excel, PowerPoint, etc.
2. Customized Software: This type of application software is used or designed to perform specific
tasks or functions or designed for specific organizations. For example, railway reservation system,
airline reservation system, invoice management system, etc.
3. Utility Software: This type of application software is used to support the computer infrastructure. It
is designed to analyze, configure, optimize and maintains the system, and take care of its
requirements as well. For example, antivirus, disk fragmenter, memory tester, disk repair, disk
cleaners, registry cleaners, disk space analyzer, etc.

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Difference Between System Software and Application Software

System Software Application Software

It is designed to manage the resources of the

It is designed to fulfill the requirements of the
computer system, like memory and process
user for performing specific tasks.
management, etc.

Written in a low-level language. Written in a high-level language.

Less interactive for the users. More interactive for the users.

System software plays vital role for the effective Application software is not so important for the
functioning of a system. functioning of the system, as it is task specific.

It is independent of the application software to run. It needs system software to run.

PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES:

A programming language is a computer language that is used by programmers (developers) to

communicate with computers. It is a set of instructions written in any specific language ( C, C++, Java,
Python) to perform a specific task.

A programming language is mainly used to develop desktop applications, websites, and mobile
applications.

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 1. Machine Languages/First-Generation Language(1GL):
The first-generation languages are also called machine languages/ 1G language. This language is
machine-dependent. The machine language statements are written in binary code (0/1 form) because the
computer can understand only binary language.

Advantages :
1. Fast & efficient as statements are directly written in binary language.

2. No translator is required.

Disadvantages :
1. Difficult to learn binary codes.

2. Difficult to understand – both programs & where the error occurred.

2. Assembler Languages/Second Generation Language(2GL) :

The second-generation languages are also called assembler languages/ 2G languages. Assembly
language contains human-readable notations that can be further converted to machine language using
an assembler.

Assembler – converts assembly level instructions to machine-level instructions.

Programmers can write the code using symbolic instruction codes that are meaningful abbreviations of
mnemonics. It is also known as low-level language.

Advantages :
1. It is easier to understand if compared to machine language.

2. Modifications are easy.

3. Correction & location of errors are easy.

Disadvantages :
1. Assembler is required.

2. This language is architecture /machine-dependent, with a different instruction set for different
machines.

3. High-level languages/Third-Generation Language(3GL) :

The third generation is also called procedural language /3 GL. It consists of the use of a series of
English-like words that humans can understand easily, to write instructions. It’s also called High -Level
Programming Language. For execution, a program in this language needs to be translated into machine
language using a Compiler/ Interpreter. Examples of this type of language are C, PASCAL,
FORTRAN, COBOL, etc.

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Advantages :
1. Use of English-like words makes it a human-understandable language.

2. Lesser number of lines of code as compared to the above 2 languages.

3. Same code can be copied to another machine & executed on that machine by using compiler-specific
to that machine.

Disadvantages :
1. Compiler/ interpreter is needed.

2. Different compilers are needed for different machines.

4. Fourth Generation Language(4GL) :

The fourth-generation language is also called a non – procedural language/ 4GL. It enables users to
access the database. Examples: SQL, Foxpro, Focus, etc.

These languages are also human-friendly to understand.

Advantages :
1. Easy to understand & learn.

2. Less time is required for application creation.

3. It is less prone to errors.

Disadvantages :
1. Memory consumption is high.

2. Has poor control over Hardware.

3. Less flexible.

5. Fifth Generation Language(5GL) :

The fifth-generation languages are also called 5GL. It is based on the concept of artificial intelligence.
It uses the concept that rather than solving a problem algorithmically, an application can be built to
solve it based on some constraints, i.e., we make computers learn to solve any problem. Parallel
Processing & superconductors are used for this type of language to make real artificial intelligence.

Examples: PROLOG, LISP, etc.

Advantages :
1. Machines can make decisions.

2. Programmer effort reduces to solve a problem.

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3. Easier than 3GL or 4GL to learn and use.

Disadvantages :
1. Complex and long code.

2. More resources are required & they are expensive too.

TRANSLATORS:

A translator is a programming language processor that modifies a computer program from one language
to another. It takes a program written in the source program and modifies it into a machine program. It
can find and detect the error during translation.

There are various types of a translator which are as follows −

 Compiler − A compiler is a program that translates a high-level language (for example, C, C++,
and Java) into a low-level language (object program or machine program). The compiler converts
high-level language into the low-level language using various phases. A character stream inputted
by the customer goes through multiple stages of compilation which at last will provide target
language.
 Interpreter − An interpreter is a program that executes the programming code directly rather than
only translating it into another format. It translates and executes programming language
statements one by one.

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