What is Anatomy?

- comes from the Greek word “tome” means to cut

Anatomy
- It is the study of the structure and shape of the body and body parts
- describes the structures of the body:
● What they are made of
● Where they are located

Anatomy can be divided into Gross, Microscopic and Developmental:

● Gross anatomy/ macroscopic
- Large structures
- Easily observable
- The study of body structures visible to the naked eye (without a
microscope)
- Structures large enough that one can see with the unaided eye
1. Surface Anatomy- study of superficial markings
2. Regional Anatomy-The study of specific areas of the body
3. Systemic Anatomy- study of the 11 specific organ system
● Microscopic Anatomy
- Very small structures
- Can only be viewed with a microscope
1. Cytology-cells
2. Histology- tissue
● Developmental Anatomy
- Traces structural changes throughout life
1. Embryology- the study of developmental changes of the body
before birth

What is Physiology?
- It is the study of how the body and its parts work or function
- The science of body functions is how the body parts work
- Study of how the body and its parts work or function
- Considers the operation of specific organ systems
- Renal: kidney function
- Neurophysiology: workings of the nervous system
- Cardiovascular: operation of the heart and blood vessels
- Focuses on the function of the body, often at the cellular or molecular level

Physiology can be divided into the following specialties:

● Cell Physiology- study of cell
● Special Physiology- study of specific organ
● Systemic Physiology- study of organ system
● Pathological Physiology- study of the effect of disease on cell, tissue, organ,
and system.

Anatomical Position
 - Anytime you describe structures relative to one another, you must assume
this standard position:
1. Body erect
2. Feet slightly apart
3. Palms facing forward
4. Thumbs point away from the body

What are the levels of structural organization?

1. Chemical Level
Atoms
- Simplest level, the body is composed of atoms ( indivisible)
- The basic and smallest unit of all matter. (eg. Oxygen atom)
Molecules
- Combination of two or more atoms.
Compounds
- A molecule containing atoms of more than one element

2. Cellular Level/ Cells

- Smallest independent units of life
- Basic structural and functional units of an organism that are composed
of chemicals
- Growth, metabolism, irritability, and reproduction

3. Tissue Level/ Tissues

- Made up of many similar cells that perform specific functions

4. Organ level/ Organs

- Tissues that are joined together

5. Organ System
- Consists of related organs with a common function.

6. Organism Level
- Any living individual

What are the 11 systems of the Human Body?

● Integumentary System - Cardiovascular System

● Skeletal System
● Muscular System
● Nervous System
● Endocrine System
● Reproductive System
- Lymphatic System
- Respiratory System
- Digestive System
- Urinary System

Organ System Overview

● Integumentary System
- Forms the external body covering
 - Protects deeper tissue from injury
- Helps regulate body temperature
- Location of cutaneous nerve receptors
- Protects against environmental hazards
- Provides sensory information

*Major Organs
- Skin
- Hair
- Sweat Glands
- Nails

Skeletal System
- Protects and supports body organs
- Provides muscle attachment for movements
- Site of blood cell formation
- Provides support and protection for other tissues

*Major Organs:
- Bones
- Cartilages
- Associated ligaments
- Bone marrow

Muscular System
- Produces movement
- Maintains posture
- Produces heat
- Provides protection and support for other tissues

*Major Organs:
- Skeletal muscles and associated tendons and aponeuroses (tendinous
sheets)

Nervous System
- Fast-acting control system
- Responds to internal and external change
- Activates muscles and glands
- Direct immediate responses to stimuli
- Coordinates or moderates activities of other organ systems
- Provides and interprets sensory information about external conditions

*Major Organs:
- Brain
- Spinal cord
- Peripheral nerves
- Sense organs
Endocrine System
- Secretes regulatory hormones
- Growth
- Reproduction
- Metabolism
- Directs long-term changes in the activities of other organ systems
- Adjusts metabolic activity and energy use by the body
- Controls many structural and functional changes during development

Cardiovascular System
- Transport materials in body via blood pumped by heart
- Oxygen
- Carbon dioxide
- Nutrients
- Wastes
- Distributes blood cells, water, and dissolved materials including nutrients,
waste products, oxygen, and carbon dioxide
- Distributes heat and assists in control of body temperature

*Major Organs:
- Heart
- Blood
- Blood Vessels

Lymphatic System
- Returns fluid to blood vessels
- Cleanses the blood
- Involved in immunity
*Major Organs
- Thoracic duct
- Lymph nodes
- Lymphatic vessels

Respiratory System
- Keeps blood supplied with oxygen
- Removes carbon dioxide
- Delivers air to alveoli (sites in lungs where gas exchange occurs)
- Provides oxygen to bloodstream
- Removes carbon dioxide from bloodstream
- Produces sounds for communication

*Major Organs
- Nasal cavities - Bronchi
- Sinuses - Lungs
- Larynx - Alveoli
- Trachea
Digestive System
- Breaks down food
- Allows for nutrient absorption into blood
- Eliminates indigestible material
- Processes and digests food
- Absorbs and conserves water
- Stores energy reserves

*Major Organs:
- Teeth - Stomach
- Tongue - Small intestine
- Pharynx - Large intestine
- Esophagus - Liver
- Gallbladder - Pancreas

Urinary System
- Eliminates nitrogenous wastes
- Maintains acid-base balance
- Regulates water and electrolytes
- Excretes waste products from the blood
- Controls water balance by regulating volume of urine produced
- Stores urine prior to voluntary elimination
- Regulates blood ion concentrations and pH

*Major Organs
- Kidneys - Urinary bladder
- Ureters - Urethra

Reproductive System
- Produces offspring

Male Reproductive System

- Produces male sex cells (sperm) and hormones

*Major Organs:
- Testes
- Epididymis
- Ductus deferers
- Seminal vesicles
- Prostate gland
- Penis
- Scrotum

Female Reproductive System

- Produces female sex cells (oocytes) and hormones
- Supports developing embryo from conception to delivery
- Provides milk to nourish newborn infants
Necessary Life Functions
● Maintain boundaries- skin
● Movement
- Locomotion
- Movement of substances
- Walking, swimming, running

● Responsiveness
- Ability to sense changes and react
- Sense changes or stimuli in the environment

● Digestion
- Breaks down and absorption of nutrients

The Language of Anatomy

● Special terminology is used to prevent misunderstanding
● Exact terms are used for
- Position
- Directing
- Regions
- Structures

Body Planes and Sections

● A sagittal section divides the body (or organs into left and right parts)
● A median, or midsagittal, section divides the body (or organ) into equal left
and right parts
● A frontal section divides the body (or organ) into anterior and posterior parts
● A transverse, or cross, section divides the body (or organ) into superior and
inferior parts

Body Cavities
● Dorsal Body Cavity
- Cranial cavity houses the brain
- Spinal cavity houses the spinal cord

● Ventral Body Cavity

- Thoracic cavity houses heart, lungs, and others
- Abdominopelvic cavity houses digestive system and most urinary
system organs

SKELETAL SYSTEM

Osteology- the science of bones

Five Main Functions of the Skeletal System

1. Movement: The skeletal system provides points of attachment for muscles.
Your legs and arms move when the muscles pull on the bones
 2. Support: The backbone is the main support center for the upper body. It holds
your head up and protects your spinal cord
3. Protection: The bones of your skull protect your brain. Your ribs protect your
lungs and heart from injury
4. Blood Cell formation
5. Storage: Bones store minerals, such as calcium and phosphorus, for use by
the body

Parts of the skeletal system

- Bones (skeleton)
- Joints
- Cartilages
- Ligaments

Two subdivision of the skeleton

- Axial skeleton
- Appendicular skeleton

Bones of the Human Body

- The adult skeleton has 206 bones
- Two basic type of bone tissue
- Compact bone
- Homogeneous
- Spongy Bone
- Small needle-like pieces of bone
- Many open spaces

Classification of Bones
● Long Bones
- Typically longer than they are wide
- Have a shaft with heads at both ends
- Contains mostly compact bone
Example:
- Femur
- Humerus
Anatomy of a Long Bone
- Diaphysis
- Shaft
- Composed of compact bone
- Epiphysis
- Ends of the bone
- Composed mostly of spongy bone
- Periosteum
- Outside covering of the diaphysis
- Fibrous connective tissue membrane
- Sharpey’s Fibers
- Secure periosteum to underlying bone
- Arteries
 - Supply bone cells with nutrients
- Articular Cartilage
-covers the external surface of the epiphysis
-made of hyaline cartilage
-decreases friction at joint surfaces
- Epiphyseal Plate
-flat plate of hyaline cartilage seen in young growing bone
- Epiphyseal Line
-Remnant of the epiphyseal plat
-Seen in adult bones
- Medullary cavity
- Cavity inside of the shaft
- Contains yellow marrow (mostly fat) in adults
- Contains red marrow (for blood cell formation) in infants

● Short bones
- Generally cube-shape
- Contain mostly spongy bone
Example:
- Carpals
- Tarsals

● Flat bones
- Thin, flattened, and usually curved
- Two thin layers of compact bone surround a layer of spongy bone
Example:
- Skull
- Ribs
- Sternum

● Irregular bones
- Irregular shape
- Do not fit into other bone classification categories
Example:
- Vertebrae
- Hip bones

Surface Features of bones

- Sites of attachments for muscles, tendons, and ligaments
- Passages for nerves and blood vessels

Categories of bone markings

- Projections or processes- grow out from the bone surface
- Depression or cavities- indentations
Microscopic Anatomy of Bone
● Osteon (Haversian System)
- A unit of bone containing central canal and matrix rings

● Central (Haversian) canal

- Opening in the center of an osteon
- Carries blood vessels and nerves

● Perforating (Volkmann’s) canal

- Canal perpendicular to the central canal
- Carries blood vessels and nerves

● Lacunae
- Cavities containing bone cells (osteocytes)
- Arranged in concentric rings

● Lamellae
- Rings around the central canal
- Sites of lacunae

● Canaliculi
- Tiny canals
- Radiate from the central canal to lacunae
- Form a transport system connecting all bone cells to a nutrient supply

Types of Bones Cells

● Osteocytes- mature bone cells
● Osteoblasts- bone-forming cells
● Osteoclasts- bone-destroying cells
- Break down bone matrix for remodeling and release of calcium in
response to parathyroid hormone

Bone remodeling is performed by both osteoblasts and osteoclasts

BONE FRACTURES

Fracture- break in a bone

Types of bone fractures

● Closed (simple) fracture- break that does not penetrate the skin
● Open (compound) fracture- broken bone penetrates through the skin

Bone fractures are treated by reduction and immobilization

Repair of Bone Fractures

- Hematoma (blood-filled swelling) is formed
- Break is splinted by fibrocartilage to form a callus
- Fibrocartilage callus is replaced by a bony callus
 - Bony callus is remodeled to form a permanent patch

Stages in Healing of a Bone Fracture

- Hematoma Formation
- Fibrocartilage callus formation
- Bony callus formation
- Bone remodeling

2 Divisions of Skeletal System

Axial Skeleton
- supports and protects organs of head, neck and trunk
- forms the longitudinal axis of the body
*skull (cranium and facial bones)
*vertebral column (vertebrae and disks)
*bony thorax (ribs and sternum)

Appendicular Skeleton
- includes bones of limbs and bones that anchor them to the axial skeleton
*pectoral girdle (clavicle and scapula)
*upper limbs (arms)
*pelvic girdle (sacrum, coccyx)
*lower limbs (legs)

22 bones in skull 4 in pectoral girdle

6 in middle ears 60 in upper limbs
1 hyoid bone 60 in lower limbs
26 vertebral column 2 in pelvic girdle
25 in thoracic cage = 206 bones in all

THE SKULL

Two sets of bones

*Cranium
*Facial bones

Bones are joined by sutures only the mandible is attached by a freely movable joints

The Fetal Skull

- The fetal skull is large compared to the infant’s total body length
- Fontanels- fibrous membranes connecting the crania bones
- Allow the brain to grow
- Convert to bone within 24 months after birth

The Hyoid Bone

- The only bone that does not articulate with another bone
- Serves as a moveable base for the tongue
 - Aids in swallowing and speech

Axial Skeleton

The Vertebral Column

Cervical Vertebrae (7)
Thoracic Vertebrae (12)
Lumbar Vertebrae (5)
Sacrum
Coccyx

The Vertebral Column

- Nine vertebrae fuse to form two composite bones
- Sacrum
- Coccyx
- Each vertebrae is given a name according to its location
- There are 24 single vertebral bones separated by intervertebral discs
- Seven cervical vertebrae are in the neck
- Twelve thoracic vertebrae are in the chest region
- Five lumbar vertebrae are associated with the lower back
- The spine has a normal curvature
- Primary curvatures are the spinal curvatures of the thoracic and sacral
regions
- Present from birth
- Secondary curvatures are the spinal curvatures of the cervical and lumbar
regions
- Develop after birth

SACRUM AND COCCYX

- Formed from the fusion of three to five vertebrae
- “Tailbone”, or remnant of a tail that other vertebrates have

THE BONY THORAX

- Forms a cage to protect major organs
- Consists of three parts
- Sternum
- Ribs
- True ribs (pairs 1-7)
- False ribs (pairs 8-7)
- Floating ribs (pairs 11-12)
- Thoracic vertebrae

Bones of the Pelvic Girdle

- Formed by two coxal bones
- Composed of three pairs of fused bones
● Ilium
● Ischium
● Pubis
Bones of the Pelvic Girdle
- The total weight of the upper body rests on the pelvis
- It protects several organs
- Reproductive organs
- Urinary bladder
- Part of the large intestine

The female ilia flare more laterally

The female sacrum is shorter and less curved
The female ischial spines are shorter and farther apart; thus the outlet is larger
The female pubic arch is more rounded because the angle of the pubic arch is
greater

Bones of the Lower Limbs

The thigh has one bone
● Femur
- The heaviest, strongest bone in the body
The lower leg has two bones
● Tibia
- Shinbone
- Larger and medially oriented

● Fibula
- Thin and sticklike

The foot
● Tarsals
- Two largest tarsals
- Calcaneus (heelbone)
- Talus
● Metatarsals- sole
● Phalanges- toes

Joints
- Articulations of bones
- Functions of joins
- Hold bones together
- Allow for mobility
- Ways joints are classified
- Functionally
- Structurally

Functional Classification of Joints

Synarthroses
- Immovable joints
Amphiarthroses
- Slightly moveable joints
Diarthroses
 - Freely moveable joints

Arches of the Foot

- Bones of the foot are arranged to form three strong arches
● Two longitudinal
● One transverse

Fibrous Joints
- Bones united by fibrous tissue
Example:
● Sutures
● Syndesmoses
- Allows more movement than sutures
Example: Distal end of tibia and fibula

Cartilaginous Joints
Bones connected by cartilage
Example:
Pubic symphysis
Intervertebral joints

Structural Classification of Joints

- Fibrous joints
- Generally immovable
- Cartilaginous joints
- Immovable or slightly moveable
- Synovial joints
- Freely moveable