Chapter 4

4.1:
Electrolytes are the chemicals that are detached into positively and negatively charged ions,
when dissolved in water. The body of species depends on the proper exchange of electrolyte ions
between internal and external medium of cell.

A continuous active transport of ionic species against electromechanical gradients of these ions
maintains the ionic imbalance between the internal and external media of cell in steady-state.

In steady-state condition, the major factors associated in the movement of ions across cell
membrane are,

• Membrane structure

• Diffusion gradients

• Active transport of ions against an established electromechanical gradient.

• The inwardly directed electric field

Thus, the four main factors that are involved in the ions movement across the cell membrane in
steady-state condition are listed.

4.2:

Write the expression for equilibrium potential using Nernst equation .

Here,

is intracellular concentration of , and

is extracellular concentrations of .

Re-arrange the expression to find the intracellular concentration of .

 …… (1)

Consider three ion species as , and , and their extracellular concentrations in

millimoles per liter 4, 145 and 120 respectively.

Substitute for and 100 mV for in equation find intracellular concentration

of .

Thus, the intracellular concentration of is .

Re-write the equation (1) to find the extracellular concentration of .

Substitute for and 100 mV for in equation find intracellular
concentration of .

Thus, the intracellular concentration of is .

Write the expression for equilibrium potential using Nernst equation for .

Here,

is intracellular concentration of , and

 is extracellular concentrations of .

Re-arrange the expression to find the intracellular concentrations of .

Substitute for and 100 mV for in equation find intracellular

concentration of .

Thus, the intracellular concentration of is .

4.3:
The impalement of excitable cell into a micropipette and by placing the extracellular electrode
near to the outer-membrane surface results a current application circuit. In this current
application circuit electrodes are connected to terminals of stimulus isolation unit .

For the evaluation of occurrence of action potential, consider the arrangement of recoding
electrode system in such manner that extracellular reference electrode and second micropipette
are placed at a little away from the simulating site, so that this arrangement helps in detecting
gross excitability changes in cell and a switch is used change the polarity of SIU terminals.

The current application circuit is shown in Figure 1.

The current passing through membrane by means of simulating pair of electrodes introduces a
potential drop across membrane. The amount of change in this ohmic potential drop causes a
proportionate change in steady-state resting potential magnitude and the polarity of voltage
determines the amount of change in potential drop.

• The micropipette and extracellular electrode acts as anode and cathode respectively, if the
current is leaving from membrane. Accordingly, the potential drop possesses opposite polarity to
resting transmembrane potential and hence it results in the reduction in overall magnitude of
resting potential. This phenomenon is referred as depolarization.

• The polarities of potential drop and resulting membrane potential are similar if current is
entering into the membrane. And hence, the overall magnitude of resting potential increases
considerably. This phenomenon is referred to as hyperpolarization.

Draw the characteristics of Figure 1 as shown in Figure 2.

Get the following inferences from Figure 2:

• Before membrane penetration, potential difference across extracellular electrode and

micropipette is zero and the resting potential is established after successful penetration.

• A short pulse of hyperpolarizing stimuli with micropipette is negative directly generates non-
propagating electronic potentials. These non-propagating electronic potentials increase the
amount of resting potential irrespective interference of exciting action potentials.

• A short pulse depolarizing stimuli with micropipette is positive directly generates non-
propagating electronic potentials. These non-propagating electronic potentials decrease the
amount of resting potential.

• To excite the action potential the membrane threshold level must exceed the adequate
membrane depolarization. The wave shape of action potential indicating all-or-none law is not
influenced by stimuli of strong depolarizing.

Thus, the influence of polarity of a simulating pair on membrane potential and subsequently, the
activity of excitable cell is explained.

4.4:
Refer to the Figure P4.1 in the textbook for the stimulating electrodes located at the excitable
cell.

Draw the diagram of lines of current flow between stimulating pair of electrodes of Figure P4.1
as shown in Figure 1.

The flow of current is in the outward direction through the membrane under cathode and in the
inward direction through the membrane under anode. The increase or decrease in potential of
membrane depends on the polarity of applied voltage. If the direction of flow of current is in the
outward direction through the membrane, then the direction of potential drop is opposite to that
of the resting transmembrane potential. Hence, membrane potential undergoes depolarization or
decrease in potential drop of similar polarity under cathode, and hyperpolarization or increase
in ohmic potential drop of similar polarity under anode.

Draw the anodal and cathodal electronic potentials as shown in Figure 2.

The electronic potentials in Figure 2 are recorded by placing the electrode, in such a way that
the immediate vicinity of anode and then cathode.

Thus, the occurrence of subthreshold-membrane potential changes at the immediate vicinity of

each of two extracellular stimulating electrodes placed at the outer-membrane surface of an
excitable cell is explained.

4.5:
Refer to Figure P4.1 in the textbook for the stimulating electrodes located at the excitable cell.

Refer to Figure 4.4 in the textbook for charge distribution in vicinity of active region of an
unmyelinated fiber conducting an impulse and local circuit current flow in the myelinated nerve
fiber.

The charge distribution in stimulating pair that is located at excitable cell is relatively similar to
charge distribution of unmyelinated fiber conducting an impulse as shown in Figure 4.4(a).
Consider the direction of propagating action potential is polarized as it moves from left and is
frozen in time.

The depolarization occurs for positive values of potential and hence an opposite polarity exists
within the active region. The membrane which lies behind the active zone is regarded as
repolarized membrane.
The current flows in a fashion as mentioned in Figure 4.4(a) from indicated charge distribution.
In forward region of active zone, the ohmic potential drop across membrane is due to closed
path current flowing in outward direction through membrane that depolarizes membrane.

The transmembrane potential is depolarized to its threshold level is typically about 20 mV and
hence it is more positive than resting potential so that this region turns activated. The behind
region to active zone stays fails to re-excite the membrane though the flow of current remains
same as shown in Figure 4.4(b) and remains in refractory state. Each new membrane increment
is brought to level of threshold using lines of current from active source region as the self-
excitatory nature of this process.

Hence, the membrane continues in active region or state for a short time period and eventually
repolarizes entirely. In this fashion, the action potential is propagated down the length of fiber
in unattenuated manner and built signal at each and every point along the way that is away from
stimulation site.

Thus, the concept of action potential that is capable of propagating in unattenuated fashion
down the fiber and away from site of stimulation through local circuit current flow is explained.

4.6:
The differences in the response of action potential that is measured at equal distances on both
sides of simulation site are as follows:

• The fiber with a closely-spaced, external stimulating pair of electrodes is stimulated and
placed in the middle of fiber, causing action potentials to travel in opposite direction. These
action potentials are conducted on both ends of the fiber.

• The action potential is elicited at the cathode of a simulating pair that occurs first as the
membrane region lying underneath the cathode depolarizes upon the application of a brief
stimulus.

• Initially, the membrane region beneath the anode is hyperpolarized, but the inhibitory effect is
gradually overcome by the current flow of a depolarizing local circuit from an active membrane
source region in the vicinity of the cathode.

• The background provided by an anode produces a form of temporary block to a neutral

transmission in the vicinity of the anode, which is referred to as anodal block.

• The strong depolarizing current from the region of source overcomes the anodal block and the
action potential is ultimately launched from the anodal region. The sketch of this configuration
is shown in Figure 1.
• A small temporal difference is present at the time of occurrence of both action potentials due to
the time required to overcome an anodal block. It is easy to imagine the other configurations of
simulating electrodes. Hence, it is encouraged to apply the same principles to other possible
configurations.

Thus, the expectations of the action potential response differences that are measured at equal
distances on either side of the simulation site have been described.

4.7:
(a)

A portion of refractory period, when a muscle or nerve fiber is unable to react to a stimulus
since contrasted with the relative refractory period is referred as absolute refractory period.

Thus, the term absolute refractory period is defined.

(b)

A short portion that tracks absolute refractory period during repolarization that is present in
membrane of cell that extends so that fiber responds to a strong stimulus is referred as relative
refractory period. But, the normal resting potential cannot be reached during this process.

Thus, the term relative refractory period is defined.

(c)

The compound nerve-action potential is group of roughly action potentials of synchronous

nerve fiber from motor trunk, mixed nerve, or sensory. The action potentials are generally
elicited by stimulations of nerve and are recorded as an active potential with summation of
multiple peaks.

Thus, the term compound nerve-action potential is defined.

(d)
The synapse is an area of functional positioning linking neurons at which the impulse is
transferred from a neuron to another basically using chemical neurotransmitter which is
liberated from the axon terminal of presynaptic on excitation.

The neurotransmitter disperses across the synaptic split to attach with receptors on membrane
of postsynaptic cell, results causing electrical changes that further leads to either
hyperpolarization or depolarization in postsynaptic cell.

The occurrence of synapse is possible at areas of joining places linking effector organs and
nerve endings such as neuromuscular junction. A few synapses are considered as electrical
synapses in the central nervous system.

Thus, the term synapse is defined.

(e)

The neuromyo junction is an innervating area of joining places of motor end plate and skeletal
muscle fiber’s subneural split. The excitatory neurotransmitter acetylcholine is liberated from
axon terminal after the nerve is excited.

If the nerve is excited, it starts diffusing across the synaptic split and attaches oppositely with
molecules of receptor on the fiber surface of muscle sourcing the action potential to begin,
which propagates along the fiber of muscle and contracts.

Thus, the term neuromyo junction is defined.

(f)

The motor unit is a unit of motor activity initiated by a nerve cell of motor which has several
innervated fibers of muscle.

Thus, the term motor is defined.

(g)

The reflex arc is a neutral arc that is used in a reflex action. When the nerve impulse travels
from a receptor to a center of nerve over afferent fibers, it responds to an effector part or limb
over efferent fibers.

Thus, the term reflex arc is defined.

4.8:
(a)
Attenuation of field potential leads to diminishing magnitude and loss in frequency content,
according to the increasing radial distance from the nerve trunk. As the radial distance from
active fiber increases, the magnitude of field potential falls off exponentially in a large bathing
medium.

The amount of surface area of active cell membrane is directly influences the surface of the
amount of filed potential located on surface of fiber and this field potential’s magnitude is
generally in the order of tens of microvolts.

Thus, the behavior of field potential with increasing radial distance from the nerve considering a
fixed angle and axial distances has been described.

(b)

A bioelectric source is basically considered as an active cell which acts as a constant-current

source in electrical terms and delivers solenoidal activation current to a resistive bathing
medium of extracellular volume for various loading conditions. Hence, the total resistance at
bioelectric source increases as the bathing medium specific resistivity increases.

Eventually, the results of applying Ohm’s law to volume conductor is observed as, the increased
amount of field potential with increased values of specific resistivity. The increasing specific
resistivity is attained experimentally by blending different quantities of Ringer fluid and isotonic
dextrose solution.

For illustration, the mixture solution with one part of amphibian Ringer solution and two parts
of isotonic dextrose possess four time greater specific resistivity compared to the specific
resistivity of normal ringer solution alone.

Thus, the effect of increasing specific resistivity of a bathing medium on field potential
magnitude is described and the accomplishment of change in specific resistivity through
experimental results is explained.

(c)

The change in the radius of the volume-conductor changes the total resistance of bathing and
hence, influences the field potential in an expected fashion. In other words, a decreasing radius
causes an increase in the external resistance that increases the field of potential magnitude.

Thus, the effect in the shape of a wave of an extracellular field potential due to a change in
radius of the surrounding volume conduction is described.

d)

The volume conductor is considered as an infinite volume conductor only if the dimensions of
volume conductor are huge compared to the constant current bioelectric source field scope. The
experiment of examining the extracellular field through proper exploring electrode proves the
effectiveness of this consideration.

Thus, the consideration for changing a volume conductor of finite dimensions to an infinite
volume conductor has been discussed.

4.9:
Refer to Figure 4.8 in the textbook for the sensory nerve action potentials evoked from the
stimulation of the index finger with ring electrodes to the median nerve of the elbow and wrist of
a healthy subject.

Consider the median nerve serves as a bioelectrical source that is submerged in a volume
conductor with approximately cylindrical cross-section and lightly attenuated from the forearm
to the wrist. Consider that the resistive volume conductor medium is homogeneous, uniform and
isotropic, and is specified by average volume specific resistivity in first approximation.

The arm consists of non-identical tissues of non-identical specific resistivities such as blood,
extracellular fluid, bone, connective tissue, tendon and skeleton muscle. Consider the average
count for specific resistivity of extracellular medium with the label . The experimental
recordings in Figure 4.8 are easily explained using the terms volume conductor’s radial
dimension changes by considering the active region in spatial range has a small relation with
volume conductor’s axial dimensions.

The nerve behaves as a constant action current source. In the qualitative view, the current
source experiences a more resistance loading near extracellular medium at wrist when
compared to extracellular medium at forearm. Hence, the recorded surface potential at wrist is
higher with greater frequency content. In other words the medium basically behaves as low-pass
filter and the degree of low-pass filtering is directly proportional to the medium’s radial extent.

Consider that regional differences are present in average specific resistivity because, the
extracellular medium at the wrist accommodates bone, huge connective tissue and tendon
components compared to the forearm. The specific resistivity of these tissues is higher compared
to skeleton, muscles and blood.

Hence, specific resistivity at wrist is credibly much bigger than at forearm. This difference leads
to additional enlargement of recorded surface potential magnitude at wrist.

Thus, the reasons for potential waveforms that are recorded at the wrist differing considerably
from those recorded at the level of the forearm in terms of changes in specific resistivity and
geometry is explained.

4.10:
The evoked filed potential is recorded in the event of a simulation of peripheral nerve.
Occasionally, it is possible to record second potential that occurs later than the initial response.
There are two possibilities in such a case. They are,

• As the neural stimulus site is moved progressively, closer to muscle, the latency of the first
response is called as M wave or muscular response.

• The latency of second response is referred as H wave or later potential. The long latency
potential is specified as a spinal reflex, and is called H reflex.

M wave has decreasing short latency. H wave diminishes as M wave increases.

H wave has increasing long latency. H wave is a response of low-threshold. H wave which is
maximally excited by stimulus is too poor to evoke the M wave.

Thus, the M wave and H reflex are defined.

4.11:

The shape of single motor unit potentials is altered considerably by disease. The
muscle’s partial denervation is often occurred and is followed by regeneration in peripheral
neuropathies. The fibers conduct more slowly in regenerating nerves than the healthy axons.
Additionally, the neurons excitability is changed and widespread slows down the conduction of
nerve in several forms of peripheral neuropathy.

The effect of altering the excitability of some neurons and their conduction velocities on EMG
recording is as follows,

The localized differences present in the conduction velocities of component nerve fibers of a
motor nerve innervating a specific skeletal muscle. This results in the desynchronization of
neutral volley of impulses.. This causes the electroneurogram and electromyogram
scatter or desynchronization. If this desynchronization is pronounced, then the mechanical
contradiction of muscle is unequal and spastic.

Thus, the effect of consequently modified conduction velocities of neurons and excitability of
neurons on EMG recording has been discussed.

4.12-4.13: Missing
4.14:
Refer to Figure 4.12 in the textbook for the distribution of specialized conductive tissues in the
atria and ventricles, showing the impulse-forming and conduction system of the heart.
Refer to Figure 4.13 in the textbook for representative electric activity from various regions of
the heart.

Refer to Figure 4.14 for the cellular architecture of myocardial fibers.

(a)

The internodal tracts are bundles of specialized conducting tissue running between sinoatrial
node and antriventicular node and are shown in Figure 4.12. There are three
intermodal tracts that are present in heart. They are,

• Anterior internodal tracts

• Middle internodal tracts, and

• Posterior internodal tracts

(b)

The sub endocardial layer is a layer of cardiac musculature lying immediately beneath the
endocardium of the ventricular wall. In other words, it is a layer of tissue that joins the
endocardium and myocardium. Endocardium is an endothelial lining of the ventricular that
penetrates the main cardiac musculature. The extent of this penetration is almost as large as
30% of the wall thickness in some species and 15 to 20 % in humans.

(c)

The intercalated disk is a region of close abutment between adjacent cardiac cells. The
intercalated disk is shown in Figure 4.14. In other words, the microscopic identifying aspects of
cardiac muscles are referred as intercalated discs.

d)

The bundle branches are the specialized conduction systems, that are bifurcated into two, that
is, right and left, the uppermost portions of interventricular septum near the atrioventricular
border of the heart. These are shown in Figure 4.13.

(e)

The ventricular activation is a sequence of events associated with electrical activation of

ventricle.

Thus, internodal tracts, sub endocardial layer, intercalated disk, bundle branches and
ventricular activation are defined.
 4.15:
The Einthoven triangle has three leads. They are lead I, lead II and lead III.The wave shapes of
allthree Einthoven leads are similar. While recording the conventions of polarity, the deflection
of R wave for all three Einthoven leads is positive.

Draw the electrocardiogram of lead II as shown in Figure 1.

The electrical phenomenon during each wave described below:

• In Figure 1, the atrial activity onset, ventricular repolarization and ventricular activation onset
are represented by P wave, T wave and QRS complex respectively.

• The occurrence of atrial repolarization is slower than the occurrence of ventricular

repolarization.

• The field potential related to atrial repolarization is considerably small and obscured by a
QRS complex.

• In a few cases, the ECG does not display Q wave and hence named as the P–R interval. The
most area of P–R intervals are supplied by the delay of conduction at the AV node.

• This effect separates the mechanical contraction of ventricles and atria.

• The duration of S–T segment is directly related to the plateau region duration of action
potential recorded through a micropipette from the regular ventricular cell.

• The S–T segment is expected to be zero due to the presence of constant ventricular action
potential.

• In various forms of diseases, the S–T segment no longer stays as isoelectric , when the
potential time duration in plateau is not constant.
Thus, the labeled typical lead II electrocardiogram is drawn and the electrical phenomenon
during each wave or interval within the heart is explained.

4.16:
The following description is about noninvasive method of His bundle activity

• The noninvasive method of His bundle activity allows harmless examinations that to be carried
out and permits précised studies as often as desirable.

• This method reduces work of catheterization in some clarifying questionable situations.

• The electrical potentials results from His bundle activity are present on the surface human
body.

• The magnitudes of these potentials are considerably very small and experimentally reduced.
And these magnitudes are generally in the order of a few microvolts.

• Such small magnitudes are generally enveloped by electrical noise. Band-pass frequency
filtering and coherent time-averaging are used to improve the signal-to-noise ratio, so that His
bundle activity voltages distinguished from background noise.

The invasive method of His bundle activity is also referred to as invasive intracardiac
catheterization. The typical His bundle activity recording using invasive intracardiac
catheterization is as shown in Figure 1.

The technique of invasive intracardiac catheterization is very helpful in the study of disorders in
a conduction system.

In the atrial electrogram of Figure 1, the His bundle response is referred, and in the ventricular
electrogram, A, H and V are referred respectively.
Thus, diagnosing various disorders of conduction system using noninvasive and invasive
methods of recording His bundle activity has been discussed.

4.17:
It is essential to have a reasonably long absolute refractory period because of following
reasons:

• If ventricular action potential comprises an extensive refractory period, then the mechanical
response of ventricle results as discrete.

• The discrete mechanical response of ventricle is a response in which one coordinated

mechanical response is present and is considered per electrical activation sequence.

• Otherwise, the mechanical responses are summated, generating extended contradiction with an
additional electrical stimuli.

Thus, the necessity of ventricular action potential for possessing relatively long absolute
refractory period is explained.

4.18:
The block diagram of the retina as a photo-electric sensor is shown in Figure 1.

The incident light on the retina is the input of the photoreceptor unit. The photoreceptor unit
output is a slow wave response similar to that of a generator potential and this is the input
of bipolar cells.

The bipolar cell layer output is a slow wave and it is the input of the ganglion cell layer.
The ganglion cell layer output is a neutral impulse train nothing but the optic nerve impulses.
Practically, retinal electrophysiology is more complex than the short description given above.

This is due to the reason that main pathway is represented in Figure 1 and the roles of
horizontal and amacrine cells of the retina are not indicated.

Thus, the labeled block diagram of the retina as a photo-electric sensor is drawn and the
corresponding outputs at the ganglion cell layer and photoreceptive layer have been discussed.
 4.19:
Refer to Figure 4.22 in the textbook for the transparent contact lens which contains one
electrode in the horizontal section of the right eye.

Refer to Figure 4.23 in the textbook for the vertebrate ERG.

A temporal sequence of characteristic changes in potential is recorded between exploring

electrode and indifferent electrode when simulation of retina is done with a brief flash of light.

Exploring electrode is placed either on retina’s inner surface or on cornea. Indifferent electrode
is placed on the body such as temple, earlobe or forehead. , These changes in potential is
referred as electroretinogram .

Clinically ERG is recorded using the aid of an Ag/AgCl electrode which is embedded in a
special contact lens that is used as exploring electrode. The contact lens is generally well
supported by a subject that allows long examinations without causing discomfort.

Consider an eye as a fluid-filled sphere and retina as thin sheet such as bioelectric source
attached to posterior pole of sphere to easily visualize the volume conductor problem in ERG as
shown in Figure 4.22.

For 2s flash of light, the resulting typical vertebrate ERG waveform is shown in Figure 4.23.
The a, b, c, and d waves are most commonly recognized components of ERG. In ERG, a wave is
provided by photoreceptive layer cells, b wave is contributed by bipolar and ganglion cells, and
c wave is supplied by pigment epithelium cells in terms of retinal cell activity.

Thus, the components of ERG in terms of retinal cell activity have been explained.

4.20:
Refer to Figure 4.22 in the textbook for the transparent contact lens which contains one
electrode in the horizontal section of the right eye.

Consider eye as a spherical volume conductor with retina, as a sheet-like bioelectric source
covering most of one hemisphere in terms of volume conductor theory. Consider a surface of
corneal lying opposite to this surface and potentials are measured conveniently through
deployment of contact lens with embedded measurement electrode.

A brief light flash which is presented to a dark-adapted eye evokes a typical flash ERG and is
recorded as potential difference between contact lens electrode and indifferent electrode lens as
shown in Figure 4.22.
It is possible to record ERGs from localized regions of retina using averaging techniques. The
localized regions of retina have been subjected to a brief low-intensity localized light stimulus
against general steady background illumination, which provides partial adaptation of the whole
retina. A great deal of lateral communication present between the unit of retina and localized
light stimulus provides an extra diffuse response from the cells lying outside stimulated area
boundary.

This further intercommunication between retinal units is inhibited with comparatively high
intensity background illumination of retina. Comparatively low intensity localized light stimuli
are generally preferred to produce low-amplitude ERG signals. In the presence of measurement
of noise through signal averaging, these low amplitude signals are detected.

In this fashion, ERG responses from many regions of retina are obtained through measurement
at fixed corneal recoding site.

The reason for employing only a single recording site is experimentally demonstrated by Krakau
(1958) that the field potential within the volume conductor drops off rapidly in vicinity of thin
retinal source and very slowly at larger distances from source like vicinity of corneal surface.

Hence, recording potentials at variety of corneal and close sclera measurement sites produces a
data set which is similar to each other. This data set consists of less value which solves the
inverse field problem for the purpose of retinal bioelectric source identification.

The gross model of retinal source which is mainly used for purposes of characterizing b wave
activity in ERG, consists of mosaic of non-uniform retinal regions, each characterized
electrically by per unit volume of dipole current source.

The distribution of retinal dipole source is shown in Figure 1.

The local ERG response is obtained through an application of localized light stimulus against a
general background illumination that permits the experimenter to excite the model dipole,
individually.
Processing and making analysis of resultant ERG data results in specifying a set of retinal
current dipole parameters for an independent subject. This equivalent source characterization of
retinal bipolar generator has a diagnostic significance.

Thus, the production of ERG signal at a point on the corneal surface eye in terms of volume-
conductor theory and the special technical involved have been discussed.

4.21:
The uses of steady corneal-retinal potential of eye are,

• The position of eye is evaluated arranging the surface electrodes to left and right using steady
corneal-retinal potential dipole.

• The output of electro-oculogram is zero for a straight gaze due to the uniform
positioning of steady dipole between electrodes. If the gaze is moved towards the left, then,
positive cornea gets closer to left electrode and becomes more positive. This establishes a linear
relation between the horizontal gaze angle and the output of EOG up to of arc
approximately.

The steady corneal-retinal potential of eye suffers from lack of accuracy at the extremes of the
following range,

• Eye movementsless than one or two degrees are difficult to record in the presence of noise
compounded effects from ongoing EEG and EMG activity, and amplifier noise.

• The large eye movements comprising greater arc of fails to produce magnitudes of
bioelectrical signal that exactly relate the eye position.

The applications of steady corneal-retinal potential of eye are,

• During sleep related activities, the movements of eye are recorded by the method of EOG.

• This method is applied for recording movements of eye and estimating their visual fatigue and
reading ability in newborns and children.

Thus the use, accuracy and applications of the steady corneal-retinal potential of eye have been
discussed.

4.22:
Refer to Figure 4.24 in the textbook for the anatomical relationship of brainstem structures.

(a)
The ascending general sensory nerve fiber pathways to brain are an input pathway that transfers
general sensory information regarding pain, coarse touch, temperature and fine touch, pressure,
proprioceptive and kinesthetic information regarding location of body in space.

These general sensory pathways are hard wired to an amazing degree and are divided to
specific sensory modality such as pain, temperature.

(b)

The ascending reticular formation is considered crucial for an existence of a state of

awareness. RAS is a complex polysynaptic network within the reticulate formation that sends
projecting fibers to thalamus which is a specific thalamocortical fiber to the cortex, and other
bundles of fiber which bypass the thalamus and project diffusely to cortex which is non-specific
thalamocortical fibers. The RAS can influence the electrical activity of cortex to a considerable
degree.

(c)

The precentral gyrus is the basic motor cortex of brain, and

Big fast conducting nerve fibers begin in this region from pyramidal cells which are known as
Betz cells. The fibers descend to the spinal cord in a well-defined tract referred as corticospinal
tract or pyramidal tract.

The objective of precentral gyrus is to make contact with neuronal segments of the ventral horn
of spinal cord at different spinal levels either by direct synaptic contact or more regularly
indirectly through interneurons.

The postcentral gyrus is the primary cortical projection area for general sense pathway. The
postcentral gyrus is laminated typographically as incoming general pathways according to the
body position and sensory modality..

(d)

The primary auditory cortex is a basic cortical projection area of auditory system and is
positioned on the temporal lobe as shown in Figure 4.24. Likewise, the primary visual cortex is
a basic projection area for visual system and is positioned on the occipital of brain.

(e)

Activation of thalamocortical pathway to brain evokes a particular localized cortical response

which is in fact, particular for given type of sensory modality. This response to general sensor
stimulation is usually referred as primary cortical response.

Activation of nonspecific thalamocortical pathways includes activation of RAS which is

nonspecific by its nature, and evoked cortical response is quite diffused. This final response is
often referred as diffuse secondary cortical response to general sensory stimulation and is
recorded from many areas of cortex simultaneously.

In case of stimulation of sciatic nerve of leg, a primary or specific evoked cortical response is
recorded in the vicinity of postcentral gyrus, followed by a slower, bigger magnitude secondary
response with general sensory stimulation.

The primary response is recorded in localized region of postcentral gyrus only, whereas
secondary or nonspecific response is recorded over wide areas of cortex.

Thus, the functional role of CNS structures has been explained.

4.23:
The cortical surface layers, specifically layer I initiates activity of slow-wave from brain.

Layer I has valuable resources as pyramidal cell dendrites and input fibers. The level during the
synchronized activity of slow-wave illustrated as an influence of huge unspecified
thalamocortical input.

The cortical substance is submerged with current sources in huge pyramidal cell to provide
general field potential. The area of individual soma consists of high potentials, as the distance
from soma increases accordingly field decreases rapidly.

The bioelectric activity source comprises of embedded field of huge pyramidal cells of cortex
layer V and stays away from recording site of scalp electrode when compared to the close-
packed neutral mat of cortex layer I. therefore; the bioelectric activity source has a very less
impact on recorded potential.

In electroenphalogram (EEG), there is a possibility for the contribution in supplying general

electric field potential from a few of tiny pyramidal cells on layers II and III.

Thus, the relation of EEG-wave activity that is recorded at the surface of cortex to the primary
activity of cortical neurons is described.

4.24:
The design of spectrum analyzer which performs an automatic analysis of EEG waves involves
the construction of set of bandpass filters with appropriate center frequencies and bandwidth set
for each of major slow-wave components of EEG.

The EEG is represented simultaneously to the parallel set of bandpass filters which
accomplishes the spectral detection of alpha, beta, theta and delta wave activity. The frequency
range of these waves are as follows,
• The frequency range of alpha wave is 8-13 Hz.

• The frequency range of beta wave is 14-30 Hz.

• The frequency range of theta wave is 4-7 Hz.

• The frequency range of delta wave is less than 3.5 Hz.

The approach refinements is used to distinguish beta I and beta II EEG activity.

The general terms in spectrum analyzer design that performs automatic analysis of EEG waves
have been discussed.

4.25:
In volume-conductor theory, the approximation of brain is done by a sphere that is surrounded
by concentric shells which differ in impedance and consists connective tissue covering of brain,
skull, cerebral spinal fluid, and scalp. This approximation is inaccurate as the shape of brain is
not sphere since coverings are irregular in shape and thickness. Upper half of brain consists of
these type irregularities. These irregularities introduce complications since marked departure of
lower parts of brain is considered as a spherical shape. The conducting medium of brain is
neither isotropic nor homogeneous.

Neurological generators are not suitable for precisely to simple one-dimensional dipoles
practically. Any source of activity is quiet enough to exhibit itself in EEG comprises at least a
little area of cortex which contains synchronously active neurons that is cortical potentials. This
type of source is regarded as three-dimensional sheet that is polarized across its thickness. If
cortex area is considerably small, it is represented using equivalent dipole per unit volume. A
larger cortex area is curved or convoluted and dipole equivalent then turns complex vector.

If sources of EEG are highly focal, then determining the equivalent dipole of cerebral activity
becomes close to practical value. And this condition appears often in response of brain to
sensory stimulation and also in pathological conditions.

Thus, the analysis of evoked cortical potentials produced by specific repetitive stimuli using
volume-conductor theory is explained.

4.26:
Refer to Figure 4.28 in the textbook for the 10-20 electrode system.

The design of three types of electrode connections of potential recordings involves the following:

• The three types of electrode connections are monopolar, bipolar and average potential
recordings.
• Consider a differential amplifier with three inputs. One of the three inputs is connected from
the head to the ground of an electrode. This connection keeps the differential inputs within the
common-mode voltage range and lead interference currents from the body to the ground.

• The bipolar and average potential recordings require action on multiple switches whereas the
monopolar potential recording requires a single- or double-rotating switch.

• The value of resistors must not to be small as it initiates the problem of short circuiting the
electrodes.

• The value of resistors must not be too large as it creates the problem of bias currents. The
suitable value of the resistors is 1 mega ohm.

• Additional op-amps are allowed to be connected to the circuit. Unity gain buffers between
electrodes and resistors isolate the resistors from electrodes.

The design of monopolar potential recording is shown in Figure 1.

The design of bipolar potential recording is shown in Figure 2.

The design of average potential recording is shown in Figure 3.

Thus, the monopolar, bipolar and average potential recordings using switches, resistors, and
differential amplifiers are designed.