THE COLLAPSE OF

AUTOCRACY
1894 – 1917
Political authority and government under Nicholas II
Nicholas II had little interest in politics. However, he believed in his God-given right to rule.
Tutored by Pobedonostev, he set out to maintain the autocracy, continue the policy of
Russification and suppress demands for reform.

Demands for change and the government reaction

The years after 1894 were a time of serious unrest in Russia.

 Following the government’s failure to deal with the famine of 1891-92, support for
reform had broadened.
 New outbreaks of trouble in universities were firmly crushed by the Okhrana
 In the years 1902-07 there were widespread disturbances in both towns and
countryside. These were fiercely supported by Stolypin
 Industrial strikes escalated in the towns
 In 1904, Father Gapon formed an ‘officially approved’ trade union, the Assembly of
St Petersburg Factory Workers, to ‘channel’ workers grievances

The Russo-Japanese War

In 1904, the Japanese attacked the Russian naval base at Port Arthur. Plehve (Minister for
Internal Affairs 1902-1904) encouraged to launch a swift and successful war to divert
attention from the unrest at home. There was an initial outburst of patriotism, but a series
of defeats in war led to further opposition. Plehve was assassinated in July 1904.
There were renewed cries for a representative National Assembly Duma and in November
1904 the new Minister for Internal Affairs, Mirsky, agreed to invite zemstvo representatives
to discussions in St Petersburg. However, Nicholas refused to allow representative
government. He only conceded an expansion of the zemstvo's rights.

Political Opposition 1894 - 1917

There were several political opposing groups to the Tsarist rule:

 Social Democrats
- The Social Democrats in Tsarist Russia under Nicholas II's reign were a political party
founded in 1898 by a group of Marxist intellectuals. They advocated for the establishment
of a democratic, socialist, and secular society. The Social Democrats rejected the Tsar’s
autocratic rule and pushed for the rights of workers, women, and other minority groups.
They also sought to end the tyranny of the nobility and create a society where all citizens
had equal rights and opportunities. Despite facing immense repression from the Tsar and
the government, the Social Democrats were able to organize strikes and rallies, and even
had a limited amount of success in obtaining some reforms. However, their efforts
ultimately failed, and their organization was disbanded after the Bolshevik Revolution of
1917.

 Social Revolutionaries
- The Social Revolutionaries were a major political movement in Tsarist Russia during the
reign of Nicholas II (1894-1917). They were a populist socialist party that sought to bring
about a social revolution in Russia. The Social Revolutionaries were a driving force behind
the 1905 Revolution and were active in the labour movement and in resistance to the
autocratic government policies of the Tsar. They sought to build a society based on
democratic principles, as well as providing universal education, equal rights for all citizens,
land reform, and the redistribution of wealth. They advocated for the overthrow of the Tsar,
and their efforts helped lead to the February Revolution of 1917, which resulted in the
abdication of Nicholas II.

 Kadets
- The Kadets were a political party formed in Russia during the reign of Tsar Nicholas II
(1894-1917). They were a liberal, constitutionalist party that sought to reform the Tsarist
autocracy and build a parliamentary system. They called for more political and civil rights, as
well as an extension of the powers of the State Duma, the elected legislature of the Russian
Empire. They were opposed by the Tsar, who believed their reforms went too far, and by
the conservative and monarchist forces in Russia. The Kadets were the main opposition to
the Tsar until the February Revolution of 1917.

 Octobrists
- The Octobrists were a political party that existed in Tsarist Russia during the reign of
Nicholas II. The party was formed in 1905 and was a moderate, conservative party that
supported the Tsar and the existing autocratic system. The primary goal of the party was to
promote loyalty to the Tsar and conservative values, while also advocating for limited
reforms. The Octobrists were largely comprised of wealthy and educated members of the
nobility who were not necessarily in favour of revolutionary change, but who wanted to see
the Tsar's authority strengthened. The Octobrists were influential in the Duma, the Tsar's
legislative body, and were able to introduce some important reforms during their tenure.

The events and outcomes of the 1905 Revolution

1.) The 1905 Revolution was a major political and social upheaval in Russia which began in
January 1905 and lasted until October of that year. It was a major turning point in the
country’s history, as it marked the end of Tsar Nicholas II’s autocratic rule and ushered in a
period of reform and liberalism.
2.) The revolution was sparked by a protest in January 1905, in which hundreds of workers
from a factory in St. Petersburg marched to the Tsar’s palace to present a list of grievances.
The Tsar refused to meet with the protesters, and instead ordered his troops to fire on
them, killing hundreds. This incident, known as Bloody Sunday, sparked widespread unrest
throughout the country, as people began to realize the extent of the Tsar’s autocratic rule
and to question why they were being denied basic rights.
3.) Over the course of the next few months, there were further protests and demonstrations
in major cities across Russia and strikes by workers in many industries. The Tsar responded
by attempting to suppress the unrest with military force, a strategy which only served to
further anger the people.
4.) In October 1905, the Tsar was forced to issue the October Manifesto, a document which
granted basic civil liberties to the people of Russia, such as freedom of speech, assembly and
the press. This was followed by the Creation of the Duma, the first elected national
legislature in Russian history.
5.) Although the 1905 Revolution ultimately failed to bring about a lasting change in Russia’s
political system, it marked an important shift in the country’s history, as it demonstrated the
power of the people to bring about change. It also helped pave the way for the 1917
Revolution which ultimately brought an end to Tsarist rule and ushered in the Soviet Union.

The era of the Dumas

The new constitution
In accordance with the Tsar’s October Manifesto, a new constitutional arrangement was
drawn up as follows:

Lower chamber (State Duma)

 Deputies elected through indirect voting (weighed in favour of the nobility and
peasants).
 Deputies elected for five-year term.

Upper chamber (State Council)

 Deputies half elected by zemstva, half appointed by the Tsar
 Representatives of nobility from the major institutions
The two houses had equal legislative power and all legislation had to be approved by the
Tsar.

Government (Council of Ministers under the Prime Minister)

 Appointed by the Tsar and responsible to the Crown, not the Duma.

The Fundamental Laws

On the 23rd April1906, five days before the first Duma met, Nicholas issued a series of
Fundamental Laws. These reassorted his autocratic power and his right to:

Political Groupings
There were to be four Dumas between 1905 – 1917. The main political parties which stood
in the elections were:

 Social Democrats (SDs) - divided since 1903 between the Bolsheviks and Mensheviks
 Social Revolutionaries (SRs)
 Trudoviks (Labour group)
 Kadets (Constitutional Democrats)
 Octobrists (Union of 17 October)
 Progressives
 Rightists – including the Union of Russian People
 National groupings
The first two Dumas were dominated by Kadets and left-wing groups; by the Third Duma,
Octobrists were in the majority; the Fourth Duma predominantly consisted of those on the
right-wing.

The Four Dumas

There were four Dumas between1906-1914.
The first Duma, May-July 1906:
  was boycotted by the Bolsheviks, SR and the extreme right
 was mostly radical-liberal; a third were peasants
 Request radical reforms; when these were refused, it passed a ‘vote of no
confidence’ in the government
 Was dissolved in July (the hard-line Stolypin became Prime Minister)
 Sent 200 delegates to Vyborg and tried to organise a protest. This failed and its
leaders were imprisoned.
The Second Duma, Feb – June 1907:

 was more left-wing, because the Bolsheviks, Mensheviks and SRs participated
 opposed the government
 was dissolved after refusing to support Stolypin’s agrarian reform; some delegates
were arrested and exiled
 changed in composition when Stolypin (illegally) increased the representation of the
gentry.
The Third Duma, Nov 1907 – June 1912:

 agreed to most government proposals but disputed some reforms

 was suspended twice in 1911
The Fourth Duma, Nov 1912 – 17:

 was largely ignored by the government.

Political developments by 1914

By 1914, autocracy appeared to have recovered:

 Stolypin had ruthlessly restored order in the countryside.

 Reform of agriculture meant that the agrarian situation had improved.
 The Duma’s influence had become almost non-existent.
 Revolutionary groups had weakened, partly because of police activity and exiles and
partly because of their own quarrels.
 Pan-Slavism and, war grew closer, patriotism, revived.
However, problems remained:

 From 1912, labour troubles resurfaced.

 The influence on the Tsar and Tsarina of the mystical ‘faith-healer’ Rasputin
damaged Nicholas’ reputation among his traditional supporters.

Sergei Witte
Sergei Witte was a Russian statesman who served as Prime Minister from 1892 to 1903. He
is best remembered for his role in implementing the industrialization of Russia and
introducing the Trans-Siberian Railway, the longest railway line in the world. As Minister of
Finance, Witte also introduced the gold standard, a system of currency exchange based on a
fixed amount of gold, and he strengthened the Russian rouble. He also oversaw the
modernization of the Russian army and the expansion of the Russian Empire, including the
acquisition of new territories in the Far East.

Policies & outcomes

1. Introduction of Currency Reform: This reform, which was implemented in 1897, had the
goal of improving the Russian economy by introducing the gold standard and stabilizing the
value of the rouble. The outcome of this policy was to help restore financial stability,
allowing the government to borrow money from foreign countries at low rates.
2. Introduction of Land Reform: This reform, which was implemented in 1901, aimed to
encourage agricultural development by granting peasants the right to own land, and
allowing them to sell or mortgage it. The outcome of this policy was to increase agricultural
production and productivity, as well as improving the financial situation of many peasants.
3. Introduction of Railroad Development: This policy, which was implemented in 1901,
aimed to improve infrastructure and transportation by constructing a network of railroads.
The outcome of this policy was to improve communication, trade, and economic growth in
Russia.
4. Introduction of Industrial Development: This policy, which was implemented in 1902,
aimed to encourage industrial development by granting tax exemptions and subsidies to
factories. The outcome of this policy was to stimulate the growth of Russia's industrial
sector and increase employment opportunities.
5. Introduction of Education Reform: This policy, which was implemented in 1903, aimed to
improve the quality of education by reforming the school system and introducing vocational
training. The outcome of this policy was to increase literacy rates, and to provide more
educational opportunities for the people of Russia.
6. Introduction of Social Reform: This policy, which was implemented in 1906, aimed to
improve the welfare of the people by introducing minimum wages and limiting working
hours. The outcome of this policy was to reduce poverty and improve the standard of living
for many Russians.

Successes
Sergei Witte is widely regarded as one of the most important figures in modernizing Russia
in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. He is best known for his successful efforts to
modernize the Russian economy and introduce market reforms. Witte's successes included:

 Establishing the Gold Standard: Witte was the first to introduce the gold standard in
Russia, which provided a stable monetary framework for the economy.
 Industrialization and Urbanization: Witte oversaw the building of a modern railway
network and the development of new factories and industrial centres, which spurred
economic growth and increased urbanization.
  Expansion of Trade: Witte opened Russia to foreign trade, which allowed the country
to benefit from the sale of its natural resources. He also sought to reduce the
country's reliance on imports, encouraging domestic production instead.
 Tax Reform: Witte introduced a progressive tax system that allowed the government
to collect more revenue from the wealthy, which was used to fund public works
projects. 5. Social Reforms: Witte also sought to improve the living conditions of the
working-class by-passing reforms that provided better healthcare and education. He
also sought to reduce the number of peasant revolts by introducing land reforms.

Problems with his policies

Despite the several improvements Witte brought to Russia, some of his policies were also
flawed and some problems with his policies include:

 His policies contributed to a severe economic crisis. He was too focused on rapid
industrialization, which led to large-scale public spending, a huge deficit, and a sharp
rise in inflation.
 His policies did not adequately address the needs of the peasantry. He made some
efforts to improve their lives, but these efforts were limited in scope.
 His policies did not create enough jobs for the working classes. This led to a growth
in poverty and inequality.
 His policies did not adequately address the needs of the minority ethnic groups in
the Russian Empire. This led to the growth of ethnic tensions and unrest.
 His policies were too lenient on those who had committed crimes and took too long
to bring them to justice, which led to a breakdown of law and order in some areas.

Was Russia a strong economy by 1914?

Russia was a rapidly industrializing economy by 1914, as evidenced by its production of
steel, coal, and oil. Russia was the world's leading producer of oil and was the fourth-largest
producer of coal. Its steel production had grown to over 6 million tons a year, making it the
world's sixth-largest producer of steel.
Russia had also become a major exporter of grain, and by 1914 it was the world's third-
largest exporter of grain, behind the United States and Canada. Its agricultural production
had grown rapidly in the late 19th century, and by 1914 it was the world's sixth-largest
producer of wheat.
Russia had also developed a strong railway network by 1914, with over 65,000 miles of
track. This allowed for rapid transportation of goods and people, which stimulated industrial
growth.
Overall, Russia was a rapidly growing economy by 1914, and its industrial and agricultural
production was increasing. However, it was still far behind the more developed economies
of the West, particularly in terms of technology and infrastructure.

Stolypin and Living Conditions in the towns/countryside

Under the leadership of Stolypin, there were significant improvements in the working and
living conditions of people in both the towns and the countryside. In the towns, he
introduced a series of reforms such as the expansion of the industrial sector and the
introduction of new social and economic policies.
This allowed for the growth of manufacturing, improved labour conditions, and the
development of a more diverse and vibrant economy. In the countryside, Stolypin increased
access to education, improved land ownership rights, and introduced reforms that ensured
greater protection for peasants.
He also implemented measures to reduce the size of the peasant communes and to
encourage the development of a market-oriented agricultural sector. These measures led to
an increase in the productivity of the agricultural sector, which provided an important
source of income for the rural population.

Agriculture, 1880 – 1914

Agricultural production was stagnant between the 1860s and 1880s. The practice of
agriculture changed little in the years immediately following the emancipation.
Change and Geographical variations

 Grain production increased by 2.1% annually between 1883 – 1914, or by 1.1million

tons per year.
 The amount of land received by peasant household after emancipation was less than
previously farmed
 Peasants were producing cereals, livestock and dairy products in Siberia
 Landowners with access to Western grain markets had established capitalist farms
worked by wage-labourers

New Methods and Approaches

Different crop rotations were used, new varieties of crops, fertilisers, iron instead of
wooden ploughs and other new methods.

 Potato production grew by 43% between 1880 – 1913

 Increasing urbanisation
 Improved transport
There were burgeoning co-operative movement in some villages which provided facilities
for credit and savings, such as loans to buy livestock and tools.
Stolypin’s Agrarian Reforms
Stolypin aimed to:

 Allow peasants to leave the mir

 Reduce power of the mir
  Redistribute the land of some nobles
 Help go-ahead peasants to buy land from less enterprising peasants and create
larger, more efficient farms
 The khutor - where the owner lived on land with his house separate from the village
 The otrub – owner had land in one unit but lived in the village with rights of access to
communal pastures and woods.

Social developments to 1914

Developments in working and living conditions in towns
In Russia’s major cities, the arrival of new large factories, in addition to the growing
numbers of smaller workshops, swelled the Urban population.

 There were 2 million factory workers in Russia by 2900, and 6 million by 1913
 Between 1867 – 1917, the urban population quadrupled from 7m to 28m
 By 1914, ¾ people living in St Petersburg were peasants at birth; compared to 1/3 50
years earlier
 Half the city’s population had arrived in the previous 20 years
The facilities needed to provide for this growing urban class were grossly inadequate.

 Workers found themselves living in barrack-like buildings

 Dangerously overcrowded
 Lacked adequate sanitation
 30,000 inhabitants died of cholera in 1908 – 09
 40% of houses had no running water or sewage system
 Those who could not afford rent simply lay down in the factory alongside the
machines/ rough on the streets
 Women (compromising 1/5 of the industrial workforce in 1885, but 1/3 by 1914
were among the lowest paid, earning less than half the average industrial wage
Even when industry began to revive, the wages of industrial workers failed to keep pace
with inflation.

 The industrial wage increased from just 245 to 264 roubles per month in the years
down to 1914, while inflation was running at 40%
 Working hours reduced to 10 hours
 85% rise in primary school provision (1905-1914)
 Only 55% of children were in full-time education by 1914
It was easy for towns and cities to become breeding places for political discontent. As
political activism was comparatively rare before 1905 – partly because strike activity was
illegal.

 By 1914, there were 3574 stoppages.

  When workers at the Lena goldfields went on a strike for better wages in 1912 – 270
workers were killed and 250 injured

Opposition: ideas and idealogies

 Liberals
The liberal movement in Russia was a political force that advocated for greater civil liberties,
constitutional government, and reforms of the Tsarist autocracy. It grew in popularity in the mid-
19th century among the educated elite, who were seeking more freedom, but it was largely
suppressed by the Tsar. In the early 1900s, the movement gained momentum, and the Union of
Liberation was formed in 1905 in response to the Tsar’s refusal to introduce a constitution. The
Union played a significant role in the Revolution of 1905 and provided a platform for the people to
voice their grievances. SDs: The Social Democratic Party (SDs) was founded in 1898 and was the
largest Marxist party in Russia at the time. It was led by Vladimir Lenin and was based on the
principles of socialism and Marxism. The party was divided into two factions:

 The Bolsheviks

who favored a more radical approach, and the Mensheviks, who favored a more moderate
approach. The SDs opposed the Tsar’s autocratic rule and sought to reform the government and
promote social and economic justice. The party was influential in the Revolution of 1905 and was
part of the Soviet government after the Bolshevik Revolution in 1917.

 Social Revolutionaries
The Socialist Revolutionary Party (SRs) was founded in 1901 and was a populist party that sought to
overthrow the Tsar and establish a socialist state. The party was led by Victor Chernov and was
heavily influenced by the ideas of populism and anarchism. The SRs sought to promote social justice
and protect the rights of the peasantry. The party was influential in the Revolution of 1905 and
sought to bring about social and political reforms. The SRs were a significant part of the Provisional
Government after the February Revolution in 1917, but they were eventually pushed aside by the
Bolsheviks.

 Trade Unions
The growth of trade unions in Russia during this period was a significant factor in the development
of the opposition to the Tsar. Trade unions provided a platform for workers to voice their grievances
and to organize for better wages and working conditions. They also provided a way for workers to
unite and form a collective voice that could challenge the power of the Tsar and the ruling class. The
most influential trade union during this period was the All-Russian Union of Workers, which was
founded in 1902 and had over one million members by 1914.

 Overall Impact of Opposition up to 1914

The opposition to the Tsar in Russia up to 1914 was a significant factor in the development of a
revolutionary movement. The various political and social movements that emerged during this
period, such as the liberals, SDs, SRs, and trade unions, provided a platform for the people to express
their grievances and demand reform. The Revolution of 1905 was a result of this opposition, and it
showed that the Tsar’s autocratic rule could not be sustained in the face of a unified opposition. The
opposition continued to grow in strength up until the outbreak of World War I, and it ultimately
played a key role in the overthrow of the Tsar in 1917.

Political authority, opposition and the state of Russia in wartime

The Political Problems of Tsardom in wartime
The Tsar’s decision to go to war in 1914 was initially popular – supported by a wave of anti-
German sentiment.
- Strike activity ceased.
- Extremists were imprisoned for their lack of patriotism.
- The Duma dissolved itself, declaring that it did not want to burden the country with
‘unnecessary politics’ in war time.
- St Petersburg became the new Slavonic ‘Petrograd’ - a vast army was rapidly
assembled, amazing the Germans by the speed which this Russian ‘steamroller’ was
able to get to the Eastern Front.
However, the spirit of national solidarity was dampened when initial victories gave way to
defeat at the hands of the Germans in the disastrous Battle of Tannenberg in East Prussia,
which left 300,000 dead or wounded in August 1914.
- Thousands were taken prisoner
- A subsequent defeater wounded Masurian Lakes in September forced the Russia
army into a temporary retreat from East Prussia
- Although the Russian troops were rather more successful in the south against Austria
– it was soon clear that the war would not end in a quick victory, as had been hoped,
and reports of military incompetence inflamed the simmering discontent in the
Russian capital.
Wartime government and organisation
Even before the end of 1914, there were disputes over the organisation of the war effort.
- In July 1914, the tsarist government had set up ‘military zones’ within which all
civilian authority was suspended, and the military assumed command. This, however
was opposed to by the liberal zemstva who regarded the government as insensitive
to the needs of the people and believed that civilians had a major part to play in
running the war
- For example, the government’s decision to prohibit the sale of alcohol at the end of
1914, alcohol was resented.

Internal problems
The war brought mounting domestic problems:

 Military spending soared as the war progressed.

 Production slumped – yet greater production was needed to supply the army.
  German and Austro-Hungarian invasions of Poland and other parts of Western
Russia weakened industrial capacity.
 Naval blockades and the loss of overland routes severely damaged trade.
 The government paid low prices for grain and other goods, so many peasants
hoarded their produce.
 Railways were questioned for the troops, so foodstuff were often unable to reach
the cities, where conditions became increasingly hard. The cost of living rose by
300% and thousands nearly starved. In January 1917, strike activity in Moscow and
Petrograd escalated.

The opposition to the autocracy and the political collapse of February/March

1917
Key events in February/March 1917:
Early Feb Strikes took place in 58 factories in Petrograd
23 Feb Striking workers plus students and women from the bread queues joined the
traditional women’s march in Petrograd for international women’s day
24 – 28 Feb Strikes and demonstrations brought Petrograd almost to a standstill.
Rodzianko, the Duma President, sent Nicholas a telegram demanding he take action;
Nicholas ignored it. Around 40 demonstrators were killed and many soldiers mutinied. The
Duma set up a provisional committee, supported by the army’s High Command.
Revolutionaries established the Petrograd Soviet and Nicholas left for Petrograd
2nd March Nicholas abdicated in favour of his brother Grand-Duke Mikhail

The development of Russia under the Dual Power of 1917

The Provisional Government
Grand- Duke Mikhail rejected the tsardom and passed political authority to a ‘Provisional
Government’, under Prince Lvov. Its members represented the elites; they were men who
had favoured constitutional monarchy.
The Provisional Government was intended to be temporary until elections could be held for
a new Constituent Assembly. However, it was accepted by the old tsarist civil service, army
officers and police.
The Petrograd Soviet
The mass of workers, soldiers and peasants regarded the Provisional Government as a
committee of the wealthy and preferred to be led by the Petrograd Soviet.
The Petrograd Soviet was elected by the capital’s soviets. It was dominated by Mensheviks
and SRs, with a few Bolsheviks. It was mainly composed of radical socialist intellectuals.
Alexander Kerensky negotiated an agreement that the two bodies would work together,
sharing Dual power.
The Provisional Government promised:

 Amnesty for political prisoners

 Basic civil liberties
 The abolition of legal discrimination based on class, religion and nationality
 The right to organise trade unions and to strike
 Elections to a Constituent Assembly
The Soviet accepted these promises and did not demand land redistribution or the
nationalisation of industry.
The Provisional Government also:

 Allowed freedom of religion and the press

 Abolished the death penalty at the front
 Replaced the tsarist police force with a ‘people’s militia
 Dismissed Provincial Governers, giving their work to the Zemstva
The Dual Power in action
The alliance between liberals and radicals was marred by disagreements.

Provisional Government Petrograd Soviet

 Wanted to maintain the war effort
 Believed discipline was needed to
end desertions and restore order
 Wanted to focus on social
conditions
 Wanted to improve standards of
living for workers and peasants
 Encouraged workers and peasants
to assert their rights

Worker’s strikes and military desertions continued, while peasant disturbances increased.
The Provisional Government’s efforts to continue the war were met by an anti-war
demonstration in 1917 April which led to the resignation of two ministers. They were
replaced by socialists from the Petrograd Soviet, including Kerensky as War minister. In July
1917, Prince Lvov was replaced as chairman by Kerensky.
The upper classes were disillusioned with the Provisional Government, which failed both to
win the war and to protect their property and maintain order during the July Days, when
riots, involving Bolsheviks, broke out in the Streets. Some therefore, supported Kornilov,
Commander-in-chief of the army, who mounted a right-wing coup in august. Kerensky, who
had initially supported Kornilov, panicked and released Bolsheviks who had imprisoned after
July, allowing them arms to halt Kornilov’s advance. The coup collapsed.
By summer 1917, there was little support for the Provisional Government. Food supplies
were chaotic. Pay conditions were deteriorating. The continuation of the war and the
government's failure to redistrubute land led to suspicions that the ‘bourgeois’ government
was postponing greater democracy in order to preserve its own power.