Malaysia (/məˈleɪziə, -ʒə/ ⓘ mə-LAY-zee-ə, -zhə; Malay: [malɛjsia]) is a country in Southeast Asia.

The federal constitutional monarchy consists of thirteen states and three federal territories,
separated by the South China Sea into two regions: Peninsular Malaysia and Borneo's East
Malaysia. Peninsular Malaysia shares a land and maritime border with Thailand and maritime
borders with Singapore, Vietnam, and Indonesia. East Malaysia shares land and maritime borders
with Brunei and Indonesia, as well as a maritime border with the Philippines and Vietnam. Kuala
Lumpur is the national capital, the country's largest city, and the seat of the legislative branch of
the federal government. Putrajaya is the country's administrative centre, which represents the seat of
both the executive branch (the Cabinet and federal ministries and agencies) and the judicial
branch of the federal government. With a population of over 33 million, The country is the
world's 43rd-most populous country. The southernmost point of continental Eurasia is Tanjung Piai.
Located in the tropics, the country is one of 17 megadiverse countries and home to
numerous endemic species.
The country has its origins in the Malay kingdoms, which, from the 18th century on, became subject
to the British Empire, along with the British Straits Settlements protectorate. During World War
Two, British Malaya, along with other nearby British and American colonies, was occupied by
the Empire of Japan.[14] Following three years of occupation, Peninsular Malaysia was unified as
the Malayan Union in 1946 and then restructured as the Federation of Malaya in 1948. The country
achieved independence on 31 August 1957. On 16 September 1963, independent Malaya united
with the then British crown colonies of North Borneo, Sarawak, and Singapore to become Malaysia.
In August 1965, Singapore was expelled from the federation and became a separate, independent
country.[15]
The country is multiethnic and multicultural, which has a significant effect on its politics. About half
the population is ethnically Malay, with minorities of Chinese, Indians, and indigenous peoples. The
official language is Malaysian Malay, a standard form of the Malay language. English remains an
active second language. While recognising Islam as the official religion, the constitution
grants freedom of religion to non-Muslims. The government is modelled on the Westminster
parliamentary system, and the legal system is based on common law. The head of state is
an elected monarch, chosen from among the nine state sultans every five years. The head of
government is the prime minister.
After independence, the gross domestic product (GDP) grew at an average rate of 6.5% per year for
almost 50 years. The country's economy has traditionally been driven by its natural resources, but it
is expanding into commerce, tourism, and medical tourism. The country has a newly
industrialised market economy, ranked fifth-largest in Southeast Asia and 36th-largest in the world.
The country is a founding member of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), the East Asia
Summit (EAS), and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), and a member of the Non-
Aligned Movement (NAM), the Commonwealth, and the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC).

Etymology

Malaysia used as a label for the Malay Archipelago on a 1914 map

from a United States atlas
The name Malaysia is a combination of the word Malays and the Latin-Greek suffix -ia/-ία[16] which
can be translated as 'land of the Malays'.[17] The origin of the word Melayu is subject to various
theories. It may derive from the Sanskrit Himalaya, referring to areas high in the mountains,
or Malaiyur-pura, meaning 'mountain town'.[18] Another similar theory claims its origin lies in
the Tamil words malai and ur meaning 'mountain' and 'city, land', respectively.[19][20][21] Another
suggestion is that it derives from the Pamalayu campaign. A final suggestion is that it comes from
a Javanese word meaning 'to run', from which a river, the Sungai Melayu ('Melayu river'), was
named due to its strong current.[18] Similar-sounding variants have also appeared in accounts older
than the 11th century, as toponyms for areas in Sumatra or referring to a larger region around the
Strait of Malacca.[22] The Sanskrit text Vayu Purana, thought to have been in existence since the first
millennium CE, mentioned a land named 'Malayadvipa' which was identified by certain scholars as
the modern Malay peninsula.[23][24][25][26][27] Other notable accounts are by the 2nd-century
Ptolemy's Geographia that used the name Malayu Kulon for the west coast of Golden Chersonese,
and the 7th-century Yijing's account of Malayu.[22]
At some point, the Melayu Kingdom took its name from the Sungai Melayu.[18][28] Melayu then became
associated with Srivijaya,[22] and remained associated with various parts of Sumatra, especially
Palembang, where the founder of the Malacca Sultanate is thought to have come from.[29] It is only
thought to have developed into an ethnonym as Malacca became a regional power in the 15th
century. Islamisation established an ethnoreligious identity in Malacca, with the
term Melayu beginning to appear as interchangeable with Melakans. It may have specifically
referred to local Malays speakers thought loyal to the Malaccan Sultan. The initial Portuguese use
of Malayos reflected this, referring only to the ruling people of Malacca. The prominence of traders
from Malacca led Melayu to be associated with Muslim traders, and from there became associated
with the wider cultural and linguistic group.[22] Malacca and later Johor claimed they were the centre
of Malay culture, a position supported by the British which led to the term Malay becoming more
usually linked to the Malay peninsula rather than Sumatra.[29]
Before the onset of European colonisation, the Malay Peninsula was known natively as Tanah
Melayu ('Malay Land').[30] Under a racial classification created by a German scholar Johann Friedrich
Blumenbach, the natives of maritime Southeast Asia were grouped into a single category, the Malay
race.[31][32] Following the expedition of French navigator Jules Dumont d'Urville to Oceania in 1826, he
later proposed the terms of Malaysia, Micronesia and Melanesia to the Société de Géographie in
1831, distinguishing these Pacific cultures and island groups from the existing term Polynesia.
Dumont d'Urville described Malaysia as "an area commonly known as the East Indies".[33] In 1850,
the English ethnologist George Samuel Windsor Earl, writing in the Journal of the Indian Archipelago
and Eastern Asia, proposed naming the islands of Southeast Asia as "Melayunesia" or "Indunesia",
favouring the former.[34] The name Malaysia gained some use to label what is now the Malay
Archipelago.[35] In modern terminology, Malay remains the name of an ethnoreligious
group of Austronesian people predominantly inhabiting the Malay Peninsula and portions of the
adjacent islands of Southeast Asia, including the east coast of Sumatra, the coast of Borneo, and
smaller islands that lie between these areas.[36]
The state that gained independence from the United Kingdom in 1957 took the name the Federation
of Malaya, chosen in preference to other potential names such as Langkasuka, after the historic
kingdom located at the upper section of the Malay Peninsula in the first millennium CE.[37][38] The
name Malaysia was adopted in 1963 when the existing states of the Federation of Malaya, plus
Singapore, North Borneo and Sarawak formed a new federation.[39][d] One theory posits the name was
chosen so that si represented the inclusion of Singapore, North Borneo, and Sarawak to Malaya in
1963.[39] Politicians in the Philippines contemplated renaming their state Malaysia before the modern
country took the name.[41]

History
Main article: History of Malaysia
 The Malacca Sultanate played a major role in spreading Islam throughout
the Malay Archipelago.
Evidence of modern human habitation in Malaysia dates back 40,000 years.[42] In the Malay
Peninsula, the first inhabitants are thought to be Negritos.[43] Areas of Malaysia participated in
the Maritime Jade Road between 2000 BC to 1000 AD.[44][45][46][47] Traders and settlers
from India and China arrived as early as the first century AD, establishing trading ports and coastal
towns in the second and third centuries. Their presence resulted in
strong Indian and Chinese influences on the local cultures, and the people of the Malay Peninsula
adopted the religions of Hinduism and Buddhism. Sanskrit inscriptions appear as early as the fourth
or fifth century.[48] The Kingdom of Langkasuka arose around the second century in the northern area
of the Malay Peninsula, lasting until about the 15th century.[37] Between the 7th and 13th centuries,
much of the southern Malay Peninsula was part of the maritime Srivijayan empire. By the 13th and
the 14th century, the Majapahit empire had successfully wrested control over most of the peninsula
and the Malay Archipelago from Srivijaya.[49] In the early 15th century, Parameswara, a runaway king
of the former Kingdom of Singapura linked to the old Srivijayan court, founded the Malacca
Sultanate.[50] The spread of Islam increased following Parameswara's conversion to that religion.
Malacca was an important commercial centre during this time, attracting trade from around the
region.[51]

The Dutch fleet battling with the Portuguese armada as part of

the Dutch–Portuguese War in 1606 to gain control of Malacca
In 1511, Malacca was conquered by Portugal,[51] after which it was taken by the Dutch in 1641. In
1786, the British Empire established a presence in Malaya, when the Sultan of Kedah
leased Penang Island to the British East India Company. The British obtained the town of Singapore
in 1819,[52] and in 1824 took control of Malacca following the Anglo-Dutch Treaty. By 1826, the British
directly controlled Penang, Malacca, Singapore, and the island of Labuan, which they established as
the crown colony of the Straits Settlements. By the 20th century, the states
of Pahang, Selangor, Perak, and Negeri Sembilan, known together as the Federated Malay States,
had British residents appointed to advise the Malay rulers, to whom the rulers were bound to defer
by treaty.[53] The remaining five states on the peninsula, known as the Unfederated Malay States,
while not directly under British rule, also accepted British advisers around the turn of the 20th
century. Development on the peninsula and Borneo were generally separate until the 19th century.
Under British rule the immigration of Chinese and Indians to serve as labourers was encouraged.
[54]
The area that is now Sabah came under British control as North Borneo when both the Sultan of
Brunei and the Sultan of Sulu transferred their respective territorial rights of ownership, between
1877 and 1878.[55] In 1842, Sarawak was ceded by the Sultan of Brunei to James Brooke, whose
successors ruled as the White Rajahs over an independent kingdom until 1946, when it became
a crown colony.[56]
In the Second World War, the Japanese Army invaded and occupied Malaya, North Borneo,
Sarawak, and Singapore for over three years. During this time, ethnic tensions were raised and
nationalism grew.[57] Popular support for independence increased after Malaya was reconquered by
Allied forces.[58] Post-war British plans to unite the administration of Malaya under a single crown
colony called the "Malayan Union" met with strong opposition from the Malays, who opposed the
weakening of the Malay rulers and the granting of citizenship to the ethnic Chinese. The Malayan
Union, established in 1946, and consisting of all the British possessions in the Malay Peninsula with
the exception of Singapore, was quickly dissolved and replaced on 1 February 1948 by
the Federation of Malaya, which restored the autonomy of the rulers of the Malay states under
British protection.[59]
Leader of the Malayan Communist Party Lee Meng holding a rifle during the Malayan Emergency, 1951
During this time, the mostly ethnically Chinese rebels under the leadership of the Malayan
Communist Party launched guerrilla operations designed to force the British out of Malaya.
The Malayan Emergency (1948–1960) involved a long anti-insurgency campaign
by Commonwealth troops in Malaya.[60] On 31 August 1957, Malaya became an independent
member of the Commonwealth of Nations.[61] Subsequently, a comprehensive plan was devised to
unite Malaya with the crown colonies of North Borneo (known as Sabah upon joining), Sarawak,
and Singapore. The envisioned federation was originally intended to take place on 31 August 1963,
to coincide with the commemoration of Malayan independence. However, due to the necessity of
conducting a survey on the level of support for the federation in Sabah and Sarawak by the United
Nations, as requested by opponents of the federation such as Indonesia's Sukarno and the Sarawak
United Peoples' Party, the date of the federation was postponed until 16 September 1963. This delay
allowed sufficient time for the completion of the aforementioned survey.[62][63]
The federation brought heightened tensions including a conflict with Indonesia as well as continual
conflicts against the Communists in Borneo and the Malayan Peninsula, which escalated to
the Sarawak Communist Insurgency and Second Malayan Emergency together with several other
issues such as the cross-border attacks into North Borneo by Moro pirates from the southern islands
of the Philippines, Singapore being expelled from the Federation in 1965,[64][65] and racial strife. This
strife culminated in the 13 May race riots in 1969.[66] After the riots, the controversial New Economic
Policy was launched by Prime Minister Tun Abdul Razak, trying to increase the share of the
economy held by the bumiputera.[67] Under Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad there was a period of
rapid economic growth and urbanization beginning in the 1980s. The economy shifted from being
agriculturally based to one based on manufacturing and industry. Numerous mega-projects were
completed, such as the Petronas Towers, the North–South Expressway, the Multimedia Super
Corridor, and the new federal administrative capital of Putrajaya.[39]
In the late 1990s, the Asian financial crisis impacted the country, nearly causing their currency,
stock, and property markets to crash; however, they later recovered.[68] The 1MDB scandal was a
major global corruption scandal that implicated then-Prime Minister Najib Razak in 2015.[69] The
scandal contributed to the first change in the ruling political party since independence in the 2018
general election.[70] In the 2020s, the country was gripped by a political crisis that coincided with
health and economic crises caused by the COVID-19 pandemic.[71] This was then followed by an
earlier general election in November 2022, which resulted in the first hung parliament in the nation's
history.[72] On 24 November 2022, Anwar Ibrahim was sworn in as the 10th Prime Minister of
Malaysia, leading a grand coalition government.[73]

Government and politics

Main articles: Politics of Malaysia and Government of Malaysia

The Parliament of Malaysia, the building that houses the members

of the Dewan Rakyat
Malaysia is a federal constitutional elective monarchy; the only federal country in Southeast Asia.
[74]
The system of government is closely modelled on the Westminster parliamentary system, a legacy
of British rule.[75] The head of state is the King, whose official title is the Yang di-Pertuan Agong. The
King is elected to a five-year term by and from among the nine hereditary rulers of the Malay states.
The other four states, which have titular Governors, do not participate in the selection. By informal
agreement the position is rotated among the nine,[75] and has been held by Abdullah of Pahang since
31 January 2019.[76] The King's role has been largely ceremonial since changes to
the constitution in 1994, picking ministers and members of the upper house.[77]
Legislative power is divided between federal and state legislatures. The bicameral
federal parliament consists of the lower house, the House of Representatives and the upper house,
the Senate.[78] The 222-member House of Representatives is elected for a maximum term of five
years from single-member constituencies. All 70 senators sit for three-year terms; 26 are elected by
the 13 state assemblies, and the remaining 44 are appointed by the King upon the Prime Minister's
recommendation.[51] The parliament follows a multi-party system and the government is elected
through a first-past-the-post system.[51][79] Parliamentary elections are held at least once every five
years,[51] the most recent of which took place in May 2018.[70] Before 2018, registered voters aged 21
and above could vote for the members of the House of Representatives and, in most of the states,
for the state legislative chamber. Voting is not mandatory.[80] In July 2019, a bill to lower the voting
age to 18 years old was officially passed.[81]

The Perdana Putra houses the office of Malaysia's Prime Minister.

Executive power is vested in the Cabinet, led by the Prime Minister. The prime minister must be a
member of the House of Representatives, who in the opinion of His Majesty the King, commands the
support of a majority of members. The Cabinet is chosen from members of both houses of
Parliament.[51] The Prime Minister is both the head of cabinet and the head of government.[77] As a
result of the 2018 general election Malaysia was governed by the Pakatan Harapan (PH) political
alliance,[70] although Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad resigned amid a political crisis in 2020. In
March 2020, the Perikatan Nasional (PN) coalition formed under Prime Minister Muhyiddin Yassin,
[82]
before Muhyiddin lost majority support and was replaced by deputy Prime Minister Ismail Sabri
Yaakob, a veteran politician from the United Malays National Organisation (UMNO), in August 2021.
[83][84]
As a result of the 2022 Malaysian general election, a hung parliament was elected. Anwar
Ibrahim of the PH coalition was appointed as the new Prime Minister to lead the coalition
government of PH, Barisan Nasional, Gabungan Parti Sarawak, Gabungan Rakyat Sabah and
several other political parties and independents. Meanwhile, PN, the only political coalition not in the
coalition government became the Opposition. Malaysia's legal system is based on common law.
[51]
Although the judiciary is theoretically independent, its independence has been called into question
and the appointment of judges lacks accountability and transparency.[85] The highest court in the
judicial system is the Federal Court, followed by the Court of Appeal and two high courts, one for
Peninsular Malaysia and one for East Malaysia. Malaysia also has a special court to hear cases
brought by or against royalty.[86]
Race is a significant force in politics.[51] Affirmative actions such as the New Economic Policy[67] and
the National Development Policy which superseded it, were implemented to advance the standing of
the bumiputera, consisting of Malays and the indigenous tribes who are considered the original
inhabitants of Malaysia, over non-bumiputera such as Malaysian Chinese and Malaysian Indians.
[87]
These policies provide preferential treatment to bumiputera in employment, education,
scholarships, business, and access to cheaper housing and assisted savings. However, it has
generated greater interethnic resentment.[88] There is ongoing debate over whether the laws and
society of Malaysia should reflect Islamism or secularism.[89] Islamic criminal laws passed by the Pan-
Malaysian Islamic Party with the support of UMNO state assemblymen in the state legislative
assembly of Kelantan have been blocked by the federal government on the basis that criminal laws
are the responsibility of the federal government.[90][91][92]
After UMNO lost power at the 2018 Malaysian general election, Malaysia's ranking increased by 9
places in the 2019 Democracy Index to 43rd compared to the previous year and is classified as a
'flawed democracy'.[93] Malaysia's ranking in the 2020 Press Freedom Index increased by 22 places
to 101st compared to the previous year, making it one of two countries in Southeast Asia without a
'Difficult situation' or 'Very Serious situation' with regards to press freedom.[94] However, it fell 18
places the following year due to the policies of the PN government.[95]
Malaysia is marked at 48th and 62nd place according to the 2021 Corruption Perceptions Index,
indicating above average levels of corruption. Freedom House noted Malaysia as "partly free" in its
2018 survey.[96] A lawsuit filed by the Department of Justice alleged that at least $3.5 billion involving
former prime minister Najib Razak had been stolen from Malaysia's 1MDB state-owned fund, known
as the 1Malaysia Development Berhad scandal.[97][98][99]

Administrative divisions
Main articles: States and federal territories of Malaysia, Divisions of Malaysia, and Districts of
Malaysia
 Perlis

Kedah

Penang

Kelantan

Terengganu

Perak

Selangor

Negeri Sembilan

Malacca

Johor

Pahang

Sarawak

Sabah

Labuan

Kuala Lumpur

Putrajaya

West Malaysia

East Malaysia

(Blue) States
 (Red) Federal Territories

South China Sea

Strait
of
Malacca

Gulf of Thailand

Sulu Sea

Celebes Sea

Brunei

Indonesia

Indonesia

Indonesia

Philippines

Singapore

Thailand

Malaysia is a federation of 13 states and three federal territories.[100] These are divided between two
regions, with 11 states and two federal territories on Peninsular Malaysia and the other two states
and one federal territory in East Malaysia. Each state is divided into districts, which are then divided
into mukim. In Sabah and Sarawak districts are grouped into divisions.[101]
Governance of the states is divided between the federal and the state governments, with different
powers reserved for each, and the Federal government has direct administration of the federal
territories.[102] Each state has a unicameral State Legislative Assembly whose members are elected
from single-member constituencies. State governments are led by Chief Ministers,[51] who are state
assembly members from the majority party in the assembly. In each of the states with a hereditary
ruler, the Chief Minister is normally required to be a Malay, appointed by the ruler upon the
recommendation of the Prime Minister.[103] Except for state elections in Sarawak, by convention state
elections are held concurrently with the federal election.[77]
Lower-level administration is carried out by local authorities, which include city councils, district
councils, and municipal councils, although autonomous statutory bodies can be created by the
federal and state governments to deal with certain tasks.[104] The federal constitution puts local
authorities outside of the federal territories under the exclusive jurisdictions of the state government,
[105]
although in practice the federal government has intervened in the affairs of state local
governments.[106] There are 154 local authorities, consisting of 14 city councils, 38 municipal councils
and 97 district councils.
The 13 states are based on historical Malay kingdoms, and 9 of the 11 Peninsular states, known as
the Malay states, retain their royal families. The King is elected by and from the nine rulers to serve
a five-year term.[51] This King appoints governors serving a four-year term for the states without
monarchies, after consultations with the chief minister of that state. Each state has its own written
constitution.[107] Sabah and Sarawak have considerably more autonomy than the other states, most
notably having separate immigration policies and controls, and a unique residency status.[108][109]
[110]
Federal intervention in state affairs, lack of development, and disputes over oil royalties have
occasionally led to statements about secession from leaders in several states such
as Penang, Johor, Kelantan, Sabah and Sarawak, although these have not been followed up and no
serious independence movements exist.[111][112][113][114]
States
A list of thirteen states and each state capital (in parentheses):

1. Johor (Johor Bahru)

2. Kedah (Alor Setar)
3. Kelantan (Kota Bharu)
4. Malacca (Malacca City)
5. Negeri Sembilan (Seremban)
6. Pahang (Kuantan)
7. Penang (George Town)
8. Perak (Ipoh)
9. Perlis (Kangar)
10. Selangor (Shah Alam)
11. Sabah (Kota Kinabalu)
12. Sarawak (Kuching)
13. Terengganu (Kuala Terengganu)
Federal territories

1. Federal Territory of Kuala Lumpur

2. Federal Territory of Labuan
3. Federal Territory of Putrajaya
Foreign relations and military
Main articles: Foreign relations of Malaysia and Malaysian Armed Forces

Former Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad meeting with US

Secretary of State Mike Pompeo at the Prime Minister's Office in Putrajaya, 2018
A founding member of ASEAN[115] and OIC,[116] the country participates in many international
organisations such as the United Nations (U.N.),[117] APEC,[118] the D-8 Organization for Economic
Cooperation,[119] and NAM.[120] It has chaired ASEAN, OIC, and NAM in the past.[51] A former British
colony, it is also a member of the Commonwealth.[121] Kuala Lumpur was the site of the first EAS in
2005.[122]
Malaysia's foreign policy is officially based on the principle of neutrality and maintaining peaceful
relations with all countries, regardless of their political system.[123] The government attaches a high
priority to the security and stability of Southeast Asia,[122] and seeks to further develop relations with
other countries in the region. Historically the government has tried to portray Malaysia as a
progressive Islamic nation[123] while strengthening relations with other Islamic states.[122] A strong tenet
of Malaysia's policy is national sovereignty and the right of a country to control its domestic affairs.
[77]
Malaysia signed the U.N. treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons.[124][125]
The Spratly Islands are disputed by many states in the area, and a large portion of the South China
Sea is claimed by China. Unlike its neighbours of Vietnam and the Philippines, Malaysia historically
avoided conflicts with China.[126] However, after the encroachment of Chinese ships in Malaysian
territorial waters,[127] and breach of airspace by their military aircraft, Malaysia has become active in
condemning China.[128][129] Brunei and Malaysia in 2009 announced an end to claims of each other's
land, and committed to resolve issues related to their maritime borders.[130] The Philippines has
a dormant claim to the eastern part of Sabah.[131] Singapore's land reclamation has caused tensions,
[132]
and minor maritime and land border disputes exist with Indonesia.[131][133]

Clockwise from top: Su-30MKM fighter aircraft; Scorpène-class submarine; PT-91M MBT tank; and Malaysian
Army paratrooper with M4

The Malaysian Armed Forces have three branches: the Malaysian Army, Royal Malaysian Navy and
the Royal Malaysian Air Force. There is no conscription, and the required age for voluntary military
service is 18. The military uses 1.5% of the country's GDP, and employs 1.23% of Malaysia's
manpower.[134] Malaysian peacekeeping forces have contributed to many U.N. peacekeeping
missions, such as in Congo, Iran–Iraq, Namibia, Cambodia, Bosnia and
Herzegovina, Somalia, Kosovo, East Timor and Lebanon.[51][135]
The Five Power Defence Arrangements is a regional security initiative which has been in place for
almost 40 years. It involves joint military exercises held among Malaysia, Singapore, Australia, New
Zealand, and the United Kingdom.[136] Joint exercises and war games have also been held with
Brunei,[137] China,[138] India,[139] Indonesia,[140] Japan,[141] and the United States.[142] Malaysia, Philippines,
Thailand, and Vietnam have agreed to host joint security force exercises to secure their maritime
border and tackle issues such as illegal immigration, piracy, and smuggling.[143][144][145] Previously there
were fears that extremist militants activities in the Muslim areas of the southern Philippines[citation
needed]
and southern Thailand[146] would spill over into Malaysia. Because of this, Malaysia began to
increase its border security.[citation needed]

Human rights
See also: Human rights in Malaysia and LGBT rights in Malaysia

Homosexuality is illegal in Malaysia,[147][148] and authorities have imposed punishments such

as caning and imprisonment.[149][150] Human trafficking and sex trafficking in Malaysia are significant
problems.[151][152] There have also been cases of vigilante executions and beatings against LGBT
individuals in Malaysia.[153][154] The illegality of homosexuality in Malaysia has also been the forefront
of Anwar Ibrahim's sodomy trials, which Anwar has called politically motivated, a characterization
supported by the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention, along with Amnesty International and
the Human Rights Watch.[155][156][157]
The death penalty is in use for serious crimes such as murder, terrorism, drug trafficking,
and kidnapping,[158][159] but in June 2022, Malaysian law minister Wan Junaidi pledged to abolish
capital punishment and replace it with other punishments at the discretion of the court.[160]
In July 2023, The 1975 lead singer Matty Healy slammed the country's anti-LGBTQ laws by kissing a
bandmate on stage at a music festival in Kuala Lumpur causing the Ministry of Communications and
Digital to cancel the 3 day event.[161]

Geography
Main article: Geography of Malaysia

Topographic map of Malaysia; Mount

Kinabalu is the highest summit in the country.
Malaysia is the 66th largest country by total land area, with a total area of
330,803 km2 (127,724 sq mi).[8] It has land borders with Thailand in West Malaysia,
and Indonesia and Brunei in East Malaysia.[162] It is linked to Singapore by a narrow causeway and
a bridge. The country also has maritime boundaries with Vietnam[163] and the Philippines.[164] The land
borders are defined in large part by geological features such as the Perlis River, the Golok River and
the Pagalayan Canal, whilst some of the maritime boundaries are the subject of ongoing contention.
[162]
Brunei forms what is almost an enclave in Malaysia,[165] with the state of Sarawak dividing it into
two parts. Malaysia is the only country with territory on both the Asian mainland and the Malay
archipelago.[166] The Strait of Malacca, lying between Sumatra and Peninsular Malaysia, is one of the
most important thoroughfares in global commerce, carrying 40 per cent of the world's trade.[167]
The two parts of Malaysia, separated from each other by the South China Sea, share a largely
similar landscape in that both Peninsular and East Malaysia feature coastal plains rising to hills and
mountains.[162] Peninsular Malaysia, containing 40 per cent of Malaysia's land area,[166] extends
740 km (460 mi) from north to south, and its maximum width is 322 km (200 mi).[168] It is divided
between its east and west coasts by the Titiwangsa Mountains,[169] rising to a peak elevation of 2,183
metres (7,162 ft) at Mount Korbu,[170] part of a series of mountain ranges running down the centre of
the peninsula.[166] These mountains are heavily forested,[citation needed] and mainly composed of granite and
other igneous rocks. Much of it has been eroded, creating a karst landscape.[166] The range is the
origin of some of Peninsular Malaysia's river systems.[citation needed] The coastal plains surrounding the
peninsula reach a maximum width of 50 kilometres (31 mi), and the peninsula's coastline is nearly
1,931 km (1,200 mi) long, although harbours are only available on the western side.[168]
East Malaysia, on the island of Borneo, has a coastline of 2,607 km (1,620 mi).[162] It is divided
between coastal regions, hills and valleys, and a mountainous interior.[166] The Crocker
Range extends northwards from Sarawak,[166] dividing the state of Sabah. It is the location of the
4,095 m (13,435 ft) high Mount Kinabalu,[171][172] the tallest mountain in Malaysia. Mount Kinabalu is
located in the Kinabalu National Park, which is protected as one of the four UNESCO World Heritage
Sites in Malaysia.[173] The highest mountain ranges form the border between Malaysia and Indonesia.
Sarawak contains the Mulu Caves, the largest cave system in the world, in the Gunung Mulu
National Park which is also a World Heritage Site.[166] The largest river in Malaysia is the Rajang.
Around these two halves of Malaysia are numerous islands, the largest of which is Banggi.[174] The
local climate is equatorial and characterised by the annual southwest (April to October) and
northeast (October to February) monsoons.[168] The temperature is moderated by the presence of the
surrounding oceans.[166] Humidity is usually high, and the average annual rainfall is 250 cm (98 in).
[168]
The climates of the Peninsula and the East differ, as the climate on the peninsula is directly
affected by wind from the mainland, as opposed to the more maritime weather of the East. Local
climates can be divided into three regions, highland, lowland, and coastal.[166] Climate change will
cause sea level rise and increased rainfall, increasing flood risks and leading to droughts.[175]

Biodiversity and conservation

Main articles: Wildlife of Malaysia, Environmental issues in Malaysia, and List of national parks in
Malaysia
Native species in Malaysia, clockwise from top: Malayan tiger; oriental pied hornbills; hawksbill sea turtle;
and proboscis monkey

Malaysia signed the Rio Convention on Biological Diversity on 12 June 1993, and became a party to
the convention on 24 June 1994.[176] It has subsequently produced a National Biodiversity Strategy
and Action Plan, which was received by the convention on 16 April 1998.[177] The country
is megadiverse with a high number of species and high levels of endemism.[178] It is estimated to
contain 20 per cent of the world's animal species.[179] High levels of endemism are found on the
diverse forests of Borneo's mountains, as species are isolated from each other by lowland forest.[166]
There are about 210 mammal species in the country.[171] Over 620 species of birds have been
recorded in Peninsular Malaysia,[179] with many endemic to the mountains there. A high number of
endemic bird species are also found in Malaysian Borneo.[166] 250 reptile species have been recorded
in the country, with about 150 species of snakes[180] and 80 species of lizards.[171] There are about 150
species of frogs,[171] and thousands of insect species.[171] The Exclusive economic zone of Malaysia is
334,671 km2 (129,217 sq mi) and 1.5 times larger than its land area. It is mainly in the South China
Sea.[181][182] Some of its waters are in the Coral Triangle, a biodiversity hotspot.[183] The waters
around Sipadan island are the most biodiverse in the world.[179] Bordering East Malaysia, the Sulu
Sea is a biodiversity hotspot, with around 600 coral species and 1200 fish species.[184] The unique
biodiversity of Malaysian Caves always attracts lovers of ecotourism from all over the world.[185]
Nearly 4,000 species of fungi, including lichen-forming species have been recorded from Malaysia.
Of the two fungal groups with the largest number of species in Malaysia, the Ascomycota and their
asexual states have been surveyed in some habitats (decaying wood, marine and freshwater
ecosystems, as parasites of some plants, and as agents of biodegradation), but have not been or
have been only poorly surveyed in other habitats (as endobionts, in soils, on dung, as human and
animal pathogens); the Basidiomycota are only partly surveyed: bracket fungi, and mushrooms
and toadstools have been studied, but Malaysian rust and smut fungi remain very poorly known.
Without doubt, many more fungal species in Malaysia are yet to be recorded, and it is likely that
many of those, when found, will be new to science.[186]

Some species of Rafflesia can grow up to 1 m (3 ft 3 in) in diameter,

making them the largest flowers in the world.
About two thirds of Malaysia was covered in forest as of 2007,[168] with some forests believed to be
130 million years old.[171] The forests are dominated by dipterocarps.[187] Lowland forest covers areas
below 760 m (2,490 ft),[168] and formerly East Malaysia was covered in such rainforest,[187] which is
supported by its hot wet climate.[166] There are around 14,500 species of flowering plants and trees.
[171]
Besides rainforests, there are over 1,425 km2 (550 sq mi) of mangroves in Malaysia,[168] and a
large amount of peat forest. At higher altitudes, oaks, chestnuts, and rhododendrons replace
dipterocarps.[166] There are an estimated 8,500 species of vascular plants in Peninsular Malaysia, with
another 15,000 in the East.[188] The forests of East Malaysia are estimated to be the habitat of around
2,000 tree species, and are one of the most biodiverse areas in the world, with 240 different species
of trees every hectare.[166] These forests host many members of the Rafflesia genus, the largest
flowers in the world,[187] with a maximum diameter of 1 m (3 ft 3 in).[189]
Logging, along with cultivation practices has devastated tree cover, causing severe environmental
degradation in the country. Over 80 per cent of Sarawak's rainforest has been logged.[166] Floods in
East Malaysia have been worsened by the loss of trees, and over 60 per cent of the Peninsula's
forest have been cleared.[189] With current rates of deforestation, mainly for the palm oil industry, the
forests are predicted to be extinct by 2020.[166][190] Deforestation is a major problem for animals, fungi
and plants, having caused species such as Begonia eiromischa to go extinct.[191] Most remaining
forest is found inside reserves and national parks.[189] Habitat destruction has proved a threat for
marine life.[184] Illegal fishing is another major threat,[184] with fishing methods such as dynamite
fishing and poisoning depleting marine ecosystems.[192] Leatherback turtle numbers have dropped
98 per cent since the 1950s.[180] Hunting has also been an issue for some animals,
[189]
with overconsumption and the use of animal parts for profit endangering many animals, from
marine life[184] to tigers.[191] Marine life is also detrimentally affected by uncontrolled tourism.[193]
The Malaysian government aims to balance economic growth with environmental protection, but has
been accused of favouring big business over the environment.[189] Some state governments are now
trying to counter the environmental impact and pollution created by deforestation;[187] and the federal
government is trying to cut logging by 10 per cent each year. A total of 28 national parks have been
established, 23 in East Malaysia and five in the Peninsula.[189] Tourism has been limited in biodiverse
areas such as Sipadan island.[193] Wildlife trafficking is a large issue, and the Malaysian government
has held talks with the governments of Brunei and Indonesia to standardise anti-trafficking laws.[194]

Economy
Main article: Economy of Malaysia

Development of real GDP per capita, 1820 to 2018

Malaysia is a relatively open state-oriented and newly industrialised market economy.[195] It has the
world's 36th-largest economy by nominal GDP and the 31st-largest by PPP. In 2017, the
large service sector contributed to 53.6% of total GDP, the industrial sector 37.6%, and the small
agricultural sector roughly 8.8%.[196] Malaysia has a low official unemployment rate of 3.9%.[197] Its
foreign exchange reserves are the world's 24th-largest.[198] It has a labour force of about 15 million,
which is the world's 34th-largest.[199] Malaysia's large automotive industry ranks as the world's 22nd-
largest by production.[200]
Malaysia is the world's 23rd-largest exporter and 25th-largest importer.[201][202] However, economic
inequalities exist between different ethnic groups.[203] The Chinese make up about one-quarter of the
population, but account for 70 per cent of the country's market capitalisation.[204] Chinese businesses
in Malaysia are part of the larger bamboo network, a network of overseas Chinese businesses in the
Southeast Asian market sharing common family and cultural ties.[205]
International trade, facilitated by the shipping route in adjacent Strait of Malacca, and manufacturing
are the key sectors.[206][207][208] Malaysia is an exporter of natural and agricultural resources, and
petroleum is a major export.[51] Malaysia has once been the largest producer of tin,
[209]
rubber and palm oil in the world. Manufacturing has a large influence in the country's economy,
[210]
although Malaysia's economic structure has been moving away from it.[211] Malaysia remains one
of the world's largest producers of palm oil.[212]
Tourism is the third-largest contributor to Malaysia's GDP, after the manufacturing and commodities
sectors.[213] In 2019, the sector contributed about 15.9 per cent to the total GDP. According to
the World Tourism Organization, Malaysia was the fourteenth-most visited country in the world, and
the fourth-most visited country in Asia in 2019, with over 26.1 million visits.[214] Malaysia was ranked
38th in the Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Report 2019.[215] Its international tourism receipts in
2019 amounted to $19.8 billion.[214]
The country has developed into a centre of Islamic banking, and has the highest numbers of female
workers in that industry.[216] Knowledge-based services are also expanding.[211] In 2020, Malaysian
exported high-tech products worth $92.1 billion, the second-highest in the ASEAN, after Singapore.
[217]
Malaysia was ranked 36th in the Global Innovation Index in 2021, and 32nd in the Global
Competitiveness Report in 2022.[218][219]

Infrastructure
See also: Transport in Malaysia

North–South Expressway

Kuala Lumpur International Airport

Railway transport in Malaysia is state-run, and spans some 2,783 kilometres (1,729 mi).[220] As of
2016, Malaysia has the world's 26th-largest road network, with some 238,823 kilometres
(148,398 mi) of roads. Malaysia's inland waterways are the world's 22nd-longest, and total 7,200 km
(4,474 mi).[221] Among Malaysia's 114 airports,[222] among which the busiest is Kuala Lumpur
International Airport located south of Kuala Lumpur in Sepang District, which is also the twelfth-
busiest airport in Asia. Among the 7 federal ports, the major one is Port Klang,[223] which is
the thirteenth-busiest container port.[224] Malaysia's flag carrier is Malaysia Airlines, providing
international and domestic air services.[225]
Malaysia's telecommunications network is second only to Singapore's in Southeast Asia, with
4.7 million fixed-line subscribers and more than 30 million cellular subscribers.[226][227] There are
200 industrial parks along with specialised parks such as Technology Park Malaysia and Kulim Hi-
Tech Park.[228] Fresh water is available to over 95% of the population, with ground water accounting
for 90% of the freshwater resources.[229][230] Although rural areas have been the focus of great
development, they still lag behind areas such as the West Coast of Peninsular Malaysia.[231] The
telecommunication network, although strong in urban areas, is less available to the rural population.
[226]

Malaysia's energy infrastructure sector is largely dominated by Tenaga Nasional, the largest electric
utility company in Southeast Asia. Customers are connected to electricity through the National Grid.
[232]
The other two electric utility companies in the country are Sarawak Energy and Sabah Electricity.
[233]
In 2013, Malaysia's total power generation capacity was over 29,728 megawatts. Total electricity
generation was 140,985.01 GWh and total electricity consumption was 116,087.51 GWh.[234] Energy
production in Malaysia is largely based on oil and natural gas, owing to Malaysia's oil reserves and
natural gas reserves, which is the fourth largest in Asia-Pacific region.[235]

Demographics
Main article: Demographics of Malaysia

Population density (person per km ) in 2010

2

The percentage distribution of Malaysian

population by ethnic group based on 2010 census
According to the Malaysian Department of Statistics, the country's population was 32,447,385 in
2020,[236] making it the 42nd most populated country. According to a 2012 estimate, the population is
increasing by 1.54 per cent per year. Malaysia has an average population density of 96 people per
km2, ranking it 116th in the world for population density. People within the 15–64 age
group constitute 69.5 per cent of the total population; the 0–14 age group corresponds to 24.5 per
cent; while senior citizens aged 65 years or older make up 6.0 per cent. In 1960, when the first
official census was recorded in Malaysia, the population was 8.11 million. 91.8 per cent of the
population are Malaysian citizens.[237]
Malaysian citizens are divided along local ethnic lines, with 69.7 per cent considered bumiputera.
[238]
The largest group of bumiputera are Malays, who are defined in the constitution as Muslims who
practise Malay customs and culture. They play a dominant role politically.[239] Bumiputera status is
also accorded to the non-Malay indigenous groups of Sabah and Sarawak: which
includes Dayaks (Iban, Bidayuh, Orang Ulu), Kadazan-Dusun, Melanau, Bajau and others. Non-
Malay bumiputeras make up more than half of Sarawak's population and over two thirds of Sabah's
population.[240][241] There are also indigenous or aboriginal groups in much smaller numbers on the
peninsular, where they are collectively known as the Orang Asli.[242] Laws over who gets bumiputera
status vary between states.[243]
There are also two other non-Bumiputera local ethnic groups. 22.8 per cent of the population
are Malaysian Chinese, while 6.8 per cent are Malaysian Indian.[238] The local Chinese have
historically been more dominant in the business community. Local Indians are mostly
of Tamil descent.[244][245] Malaysian citizenship is not automatically granted to those born in Malaysia,
but is granted to a child born of two Malaysian parents outside Malaysia. Dual citizenship is not
permitted.[246] Citizenship in the states of Sabah and Sarawak in Malaysian Borneo are distinct from
citizenship in Peninsular Malaysia for immigration purposes. Every citizen is issued a biometric
smart chip identity card known as MyKad at the age of 12, and must carry the card at all times.[247]
The population is concentrated on Peninsular Malaysia,[248] where 20 million out of approximately
28 million Malaysians live.[51] 70 per cent of the population is urban.[162] Due to the rise in labour-
intensive industries,[249] the country is estimated to have over 3 million migrant workers; about 10 per
cent of the population.[250] Sabah-based NGOs estimate that out of the 3 million that make up the
population of Sabah, 2 million are illegal immigrants.[251] Malaysia hosts a population of refugees and
asylum seekers numbering approximately 171,500. Of this population, approximately 79,000 are
from Burma, 72,400 from the Philippines, and 17,700 from Indonesia. Malaysian officials are
reported to have turned deportees directly over to human smugglers in 2007, and Malaysia
employs RELA, a volunteer militia with a history of controversies, to enforce its immigration law.[252]

 v
 t
 e
Largest cities and municipalities in Malaysia

Department of Statistics, Malaysia (2020) [1]

Rank Name State Pop. Rank Name State

1 Kuala Lumpur Federal Territory 1,982,112 11 Ipoh Perak

2 Kajang Selangor 1,047,356 12 Seremban Negeri Sembilan

3 Seberang Perai Penang 946,092 13 Iskandar Puteri Johor

4 Subang Jaya Selangor 902,086 14 Kuantan Pahang

5 Klang Selangor 902,025 15 Sungai Petani Kedah

Kuala Lumpur
6 Johor Bahru Johor 858,118 16 Ampang Jaya Selangor

7 Shah Alam Selangor 812,327 17 Kota Kinabalu Sabah

8 George Town Penang 794,313 18 Malacca City Malacca

Kajang
9 Petaling Jaya Selangor 771,687 19 Sandakan Sabah

10 Selayang Selangor 764,327 20 Alor Setar Kedah

Religion
Main article: Religion in Malaysia

Dominant religious confessions in Malaysia according to 2020

census.[253]

Dark green: Muslim majority > 50%

Light green: Muslim plurality < 50%
Blue: Christian majority > 50%
The constitution grants freedom of religion, while establishing Islam as the "religion of the
Federation".[254][255] According to the Population and Housing Census 2020 figures, ethnicity and
religious beliefs correlate highly. Approximately 63.5% of the population practise Islam, 18.7%
practise Buddhism, 9.1% Christianity, 6.1% Hinduism and 1.3% practise Confucianism, Taoism and
other traditional Chinese religions. 2.7% declared no religion or practised other religions or did not
provide any information.[236] The states of Sarawak, Penang and the federal territory of Kuala
Lumpur have non-Muslim majorities.[256][257]
Sunni Islam of Shafi'i school of jurisprudence is the dominant branch of Islam in Malaysia,[258][259] while
18% are nondenominational Muslims.[260] The Malaysian constitution strictly defines what makes a
"Malay", considering Malays those who are Muslim, speak Malay regularly, practise Malay customs,
and lived in or have ancestors from Brunei, Malaysia and Singapore.[166] Statistics from the 2010
Census indicate that 83.6% of the Chinese population identify as Buddhist, with significant numbers
of adherents following Taoism (3.4%) and Christianity (11.1%), along with small Muslim populations
in areas like Penang. The majority of the Indian population follow Hinduism (86.2%), with a
significant minority identifying as Christians (6.0%) or Muslims (4.1%). Christianity is the
predominant religion of the non-Malay bumiputera community (46.5%) with an additional 40.4%
identifying as Muslims.[236]
Muslims are obliged to follow the decisions of Syariah Courts (i.e. Shariah courts) in matters
concerning their religion. The Islamic judges are expected to follow the Shafi'i legal school of Islam,
which is the main madh'hab of Malaysia.[258] The jurisdiction of Syariah courts is limited to Muslims in
matters such as marriage, inheritance, divorce, apostasy, religious conversion, and custody among
others. No other criminal or civil offences are under the jurisdiction of the Syariah courts, which have
a similar hierarchy to the Civil Courts. The Civil Courts do not hear matters related to Islamic
practices.[261]

Languages
Main article: Languages of Malaysia

The distribution of language families of Malaysia shown by colours:

 Malayic

Bornean

Aslian

Land Dayak

Sama–Bajaw

Philippine

Chinese

Areas with multiple languages

The official and national language of Malaysia is Malaysian Malay,[162] a standardised form of
the Malay language.[262] The previous official terminology was Bahasa Malaysia (lit. 'Malaysian
language')[263][264][265] but now government policy uses "Bahasa Melayu" (Malay language) to refer the
official language[266] and both terms remain in use.[267][268] The National Language Act 1967 specifies
the Latin (Rumi) script as the official script of the national language, but does not prohibit the use of
the traditional Jawi script.[269]
English remains an active second language, with its use allowed for some official purposes under
the National Language Act of 1967.[269] In Sarawak, English is an official state language alongside
Malaysian.[270][271][272] Historically, English was the de facto administrative language; Malay became
predominant after the 1969 race riots (13 May incident).[273] Malaysian English, also known as
Malaysian Standard English, is a form of English derived from British English. Malaysian English is
widely used in business, along with Manglish, which is a colloquial form of English with heavy Malay,
Chinese, and Tamil influences. The government discourages the use of non-standard Malay but has
no power to issue compounds or fines to those who use what is perceived as improper Malay on
their advertisements.[274][275]
Many other languages are used in Malaysia, which contains speakers of 137 living languages.
[276]
Peninsular Malaysia contains speakers of 41 of these languages.[277] The native tribes of East
Malaysia have their own languages which are related to, but easily distinguishable from,
Malay. Iban is the main tribal language in Sarawak while Dusunic and Kadazan languages are
spoken by the natives in Sabah.[278] Chinese Malaysians predominantly speak Chinese dialects from
the southern part of China. The more common Chinese varieties in the country
are Mandarin, Cantonese, Hokkien, and so on.[279] The Tamil language is used predominantly by the
majority of Malaysian Indians.[280] A small number of Malaysians have European ancestry and
speak creole languages, such as the Portuguese-based Malaccan Creoles,[281] and the Spanish-
based Chavacano language.[282]

Health
Main article: Health in Malaysia

Malaysia operates an efficient and widespread two-tier healthcare system, consisting of a universal
healthcare system and a co-existing private healthcare system; provided by highly subsidized
healthcare through its extensive network of public hospitals and clinics.[283] The Ministry of Health is
the main provider of healthcare services to the country's population.[284] Malaysia's healthcare system
is considered to be among the most developed in Asia, which contributes to its thriving medical
tourism industry.[285]
Malaysia spent 3.83% of its GDP on healthcare in 2019.[286] In 2020, the overall life expectancy in
Malaysia at birth was 76 years (74 years for males and 78 years for females),[287] and it had an infant
mortality rate of 7 deaths per 1000 births.[288] Malaysia had a total fertility rate of 2.0 in 2020, which is
just below the replacement level of 2.1.[289] In 2020, the country's crude birth rate was 16 per 1000
people, and the crude death rate was 5 per 1000 people.[290][291]
In 2021, the principal cause of death among Malaysian adults was coronary artery disease,
representing 17% of the medically certified deaths in 2020—being followed by pneumonia; which
accounted for 11% of the deaths.[292] Transport accidents are considered a major health hazard, as
Malaysia, relative to its population, has one of the highest traffic fatality rates in the world.
[293]
Smoking is also considered a major health issue across the country.[294]

Education
Main article: Education in Malaysia

Ministry of Education, Putrajaya

The education system of Malaysia features a non-compulsory kindergarten education followed by six
years of compulsory primary education, and five years of optional secondary education.[295] Schools in
the primary education system are divided into two categories: national primary schools, which teach
in Malay, and vernacular schools, which teach in Chinese or Tamil.[296] Secondary education is
conducted for five years. In the final year of secondary education, students sit for the Malaysian
Certificate of Education examination.[297] Since the introduction of the matriculation programme in
1999, students who completed the 12-month programme in matriculation colleges can enroll in local
universities. However, in the matriculation system, only 10 per cent of places are open to non-
bumiputera[jargon] students.[298]