ka ra ja a n su n da

The Sunda Kingdom (Sundanese: ᮊᮛᮏᮃᮔ᮪ ᮞᮥᮔ᮪ᮓ, romanized: Karajaan Sunda, Indonesian
pronunciation: [sunˈda]) was a Sundanese Hindu kingdom located in the western portion of the island
of Java from 669 to around 1579, covering the area of present-day Banten, Jakarta, West Java, and
the western part of Central Java. The capital of the Sunda Kingdom moved several times during its
history, shifting between the Galuh (Kawali) area in the east and Pakuan Pajajaran in the west.[1]: 379
The Sunda Kingdom reached its peak during the reign of King Sri Baduga Maharaja, whose reign
from 1482 to 1521 is traditionally remembered as an age of peace and prosperity among Sundanese
people.
According to primary historical records such as the Bujangga Manik manuscript, the eastern border
of the kingdom was the Pamali River (Ci Pamali, the present-day Brebes River) and the Serayu
River (Ci Sarayu) in Central Java. Most accounts of the Sunda Kingdom come from primary
historical records from the 16th century. The kingdom's inhabitants were primarily the eponymous
ethnic Sundanese, while the majority religion was Hinduism.

Etymology[edit]

The word Sunda written in Sundanese script

The name Sunda derives from the Sanskrit prefix su- which means "goodness" or "possessing good
quality". The example is suvarna (lit: "good color") used to describe gold. Sunda is also another
name for Hindu God Vishnu. In Sanskrit, the term Sundara (masculine) or Sundari (feminine) means
"beautiful" or "excellence".[2][3] According to Reinout Willem van Bemmelen, a Dutch geologist, the
name Sunda was derived from Sanskrit term Shuddha,[4] which means "white" and "pure".[5] The
term Sunda also means bright, light, purity, cleanness and white.[6]
The name Sunda is also known in Hindu mythology of Sunda and Upasunda, as one of the
powerful Asura brothers that received the boon of invulnerability from Brahma. It is not clear,
however, whether the eponymous Sunda was derived from this Hindu myth.
It seems that by the 10th century, the name Sunda was used by foreigners, possibly by early Indian
explorers, Malay Srivijayan traders and colonizer, as well as Javanese neighbours, as a toponym to
identify the Western parts of Java. The Juru Pangambat inscription, dated from 854 Saka (932 CE),
confirmes this. The name is similarly used by the Javanese to identify their western neighbour, also
rival and enemy, as mentioned in Horren inscription (c. 11th century) from Kediri.
An early 13th-century Chinese account reported the pepper port of Sin-t'o (Sunda), which probably
referred to the port of Banten or Sunda Kalapa. By the 15th to 16th century, after the consolidation of
the kingdom by Sri Baduga Maharaja, the name Sunda had shifted from a toponym, into a name that
identified a kingdom and its people. The Sunda Strait is named after the Sunda Kingdom, the latter
having once ruled the area on both coasts of the strait.[7]
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Knowledge of the kingdom among Sundanese people has been kept alive through
Sundanese Pantun oral tradition, the chant of poetic verses about the golden age of Sunda
Pajajaran, and the legend of Prabu Siliwangi, the most popular king of Sunda.[8][9]
Several stone inscriptions mention the kingdom, such as Juru Pangambat, Jayabupati, Kawali,
and Batutulis. Most account and records of the Sunda Kingdom are derived from manuscripts dated
from a later period circa 15th to 16th century, such as Bujangga Manik, Sanghyang Siksakanda ng
Karesian, Carita Parahyangan and Kidung Sunda.

Local account[edit]
Batutulis inscription (dated 1533), in Bogor, commemorate the great King of Sunda Sri Baduga
Maharaja (rule 1482–1521).
The earliest reference to the name "Sunda" being used to identify a kingdom is the Kebon Kopi II
inscription dated 854 Saka (932 CE). This inscription is in the Kawi script, but the language used
is Old Malay. It translates as follows:
This memorial stone is to remark the saying of Rakryan Juru Pangambat (Royal Hunter), in 854
Saka, that the order of government is returned to the power of the king of Sunda.
Another reference to the kingdom is the Jayabupati inscription which consists of 40 lines written on
four pieces of stone, found on the Cicatih river bank in Cibadak, Sukabumi. This inscription is again
written in Kawi script, and mentions the establishment of a protected sacred area called Sanghyang
Tapak by the King Jayabhupati of Sunda. The inscription is dated to 1030 CE.
Copperplate letters dating to the 15th century, including royal instructions, also support the existence
of the Sunda Kingdom. The copperplate inscription of Kebantenan I (Jayagiri) reads that Raja
Rahyang Niskala Wastu Kancana sent an order through Hyang Ningrat Kancana to the Susuhunan
of Pakuan Pajajaran to take care of dayohan in Jayagiri and Sunda Sembawa, banning the
collection of collecting taxes from the residents, because they would be knowledgeable about the
Hindu religion and worshipped the gods.
The Kebantenan II (or Sunda Sembawa I) copperplate inscription announces Sri Baduga
Maharaja (1482–1521), the king in Pakuan, approved an already delineated sacred estate (tanah
devasasana) put at the disposal of the wiku (priests), which must not be split as it houses facilities
for worship, which belong to the king. The Kebantenan III (Sunda Sembawa II) copperplate
inscription announces the king of Sunda's sanctions of holy construction in Sunda Sembawa. The
Kebantenan IV inscription details that Sri Baduga Maharaja, who ruled in Pakuan, sanctioned a
similar sacred estate at Gunung Samya (Mount Rancamaya).
The Bujangga Manik manuscript is the primary source on the daily life of the Sunda Kingdom in the
late 15th to early 16th century. Detailing place names, culture and customs, in great detail, it is
considered one of the important specimens of Old Sundanese literature. The manuscript tells the
story of Jaya Pakuan alias Bujangga Manik, though a prince at the court of Pakuan Pajajaran,
preferred to live a solitary life as a devout Hindu. As a hermit traveller, the book details two journeys
from Pakuan Pajajaran to central and eastern Java and back, the second journey including a visit
to Bali. It is concluded that Jaya Pakuan practised asceticism on a mountain in western Java until his
death.[10] As manuscript dates from the pre-Islamic Sunda era, it is written in an older form of
Sundanese. It does not contain any words traceable to Arabic. Islamic influence is absent from the
content of the story as well. The specific mention of Majapahit, Malacca and Demak, allow us to date
the writing of the story in the 15th century, probably the latter part of this century, or the early 16th
century at the latest.[11]

Chinese account[edit]

The Sundanese royal party sailed to Majapahit by Jong sasanga

wangunan ring Tatarnagari tiniru, a type of junk, which also incorporates Chinese techniques, such as
using iron nails alongside wooden dowels, the construction of watertight bulkhead, and addition of
central rudder.Sundanese traditional house with Julang Ngapak roof in Garut circa 1920s. It was built on
poles and having a thatched roof, as described in a 12th-century Chinese source.
According to F. Hirt and W. W. Rockhill, there are Chinese sources concerning the Sunda Kingdom.
At the time of the Southern Sung Dynasty, the inspector of trade with foreign countries, Chau Ju-
kua, collected reports from sailors and merchants who had visited foreign countries. His report on far
countries, Chu-fan-chi, written from 1178 to 1225 AD, mentions the deepwater harbour of Sin-t’o
(Sunda). Chu-fan-chi reported that:
All along the shores, people are dwelling. The people are working in agriculture, their houses are on
poles and the roofs are thatched with the bark of the leaves of palm trees and the walls were made
with wooden boards tied together with rattan. Both men and women wrap around their loins a piece
of cotton, and in cutting their hair they only leave it half an inch long. The pepper grown on the hills
(of this country) is small-grained but heavy and superior to that of Ta-pan (Tuban in eastern Java).
The country produces pumpkins, sugar cane, bottle gourd, beans and egg plants. As, however,
there is no regular government in this country, the people are given to brigandage, on which account
foreign traders rarely go there.
According to this source, the kingdom of Sunda produced high-quality black pepper. The kingdom
located in the western parts of Java near Sunda Strait, corresponds to today Banten, Jakarta and
the west part of West Java province. According to this source, the port of Sunda was
under Srivijaya mandala domination. This Port of Sunda was highly possible to refer to Old
Banten instead of Kalapa (present-day North Jakarta). Its capital is located 10 kilometres inland
southward in Banten Girang near Mount Pulosari.
The Chinese book “Shun-Feng Hsiang-Sung" from around 1430 AD relates:
In this voyage eastward from Sunda, along the north coast of Java, ships steered 97 1/2 degrees for
three watches to make Kalapa; they then followed the coast (past Tanjung Indramayu), finally
steering 187 1/2 degrees for four watches to reach Cirebon. Ships from Banten proceeded eastward
along the north coast of Java, past Kalapa, past Indramayu head, past Cirebon.
According to this source, the port of Sunda was located west of Kalapa and later identified as
the port of Old Banten.

European account[edit]

Old map of Java still thought that land of Sunda in the

west is separated from the rest of Java island. Here the capital of Sunda is called Daio which refer to
Dayeuh Pakuan Pajajaran
European explorers, mainly Portuguese based in Malacca, also reported the existence of the Sunda
Kingdom. Tomé Pires (1513) mentioned a Western Java kingdom that had established trade relation
with them as Regño de Çumda, which means "Kingdom of Sunda". Also the report of Antonio
Pigafetta (1522) that mentioned Sunda as a pepper producing region.[1]: 381
Tomé Pires from Portugal wrote in his report Suma Oriental (1513–1515):
Some people affirm that the Sunda kingdom takes up half of the whole island of Java; others, to
whom more authority is attributed, say that the Sunda kingdom must be a third part of the island and
an eight more. It ends at the river chi Manuk. The river intersects the whole island from sea to sea in
such a way that when the people of Java describe their own country, they say that it is bounded to
the west by the island of Sunda. The people hold that whoever passes this strait (the river Cimanuk)
into the South Sea is carried off by violent currents and unable to return.[12]
The Portuguese report is dated from a later period of the kingdom, shortly before its fall to forces of
the Sultanate of Banten.

History[edit]
Main article: History of Sunda Kingdom

The ruin of Bojongmenje Hindu temple in Priangan highlands,

estimated was built in the 7th century.
The history of the Sunda Kingdom spanned for almost a millennium, between the 7th to 16th
century. One of the few remnants is the 7th century Bojongmenje Hindu temple near Bandung. It
was one of the earliest temple structures in Java, older than temples of Dieng in Central Java, and
linked to the Sunda Kingdom.
The earlier period is unclear, much owed to only two manuscripts dated from a much later period,
the Carita Parahyangan. Its relations to Tarumanagara, a previous kingdom in western Java is
unknown. The history of later period, however, after the late 14th century, is clearer especially
following the reign of King Wastu Kancana and Sri Baduga Maharaja. This is contributed mainly to
the availability of historical sources, including numbers of foreign reports, especially
Portuguese's Suma Oriental, several stone inscriptions (prasasti) especially Batutulis, and native
primary historical manuscripts of Bujangga Manik and Sanghyang Siksakanda ng Karesian.

Rakryan Juru Pangambat[edit]

According to Kebon Kopi II inscription, dated from 932, discovered near Bogor, a skilled hunter
named Rakryan Juru Pangambat, declared that the authority is restored to the king of Sunda.[1]:
381
This inscription was written in Kawi alphabet, however curiously the language being used is Old
Malay. Archaeologist F.D.K. Bosch proposed that this suggests Srivijayan influence over western
Java. French historian, Claude Guillot proposed that this was a declaration of independence of the
Sunda Kingdom, possibly from Srivijaya.

Jayabupati[edit]
 Sanghyang Tapak inscription
According to Sanghyang Tapak inscription, dated from 1030 found in Cibadak near Sukabumi, a
king, Maharaja Sri Jayabupati, has established a sacred sanctuary of Sanghyang Tapak.
Curiously, the style of the inscriptions reveal an East Javanese script, language, and style, akin
to Dharmawangsa's court of Mataram. This has led to suggestions that the Sunda Kingdom at this
time probably was under the influence of Mataram, or probably Jayabupati subscribed to Javanese
culture.
Sri Jayabupati in Carita Parahyangan is mentioned as Prabu Detya Maharaja. The 11th
century Horren inscription found in southern Kediri, reported that çatru Sunda ("enemy from Sunda")
had invaded and menacing villages in East Java.[1]: 388
After Sri Jayabupati, there is no stone inscription discovered mentioning the next ruler. There is no
tangible evidence discovered from the period between the 11th to the 14th century. Most of our
current knowledge about this period came from Carita Parahyangan.
The Song Chinese source, Chu-fan-chi circa 1200, mentioned that Srivijaya still ruled Sumatra, the
Malay peninsula, and Sin-to (Sunda). The source describes the port of Sunda as strategic and
thriving, pepper from Sunda being among the best in quality. The people worked in agriculture and
their houses were built on wooden poles (rumah panggung). However, robbers and thieves plagued
the country.[13] The port of Sunda referred by Chou Ju-kua probably referred to Old Banten, instead
of Sunda Kelapa. It seems that by the early 13th century, the maritime trade was still dominated by
Srivijayan mandala based in Sumatra.

Golden age[edit]
The name Sunda appeared in Javanese source, the Pararaton, reported that in 1336, during the
inauguration of his newly appointed position as Prime Minister, Gajah Mada declared the Palapa
oath, which stated his foreign policy to unify the archipelago under Majapahit domination.
[14]
Pararaton recorded what Gajah Mada had said:
"Sira Gajah Madapatih Amangkubhumi tan ayun amuktia palapa, sira Gajah Mada: Lamun huwus
kalah nusantara isun amukti palapa, lamun kalah ring Gurun, ring Seran, Tañjung Pura, ring Haru,
ring Pahang, Dompo, ring Bali, Sunda, Palembang, Tumasik, samana isun amukti palapa."
Translation:
"He, Gajah Mada the Patih Amangkubumi, does not wish to cease his fasting. Gajah Mada: "If (I
succeed) in defeating (conquering) Nusantara, (then) I will break my fast. If Gurun, Seram, Tanjung
Pura, Haru, Pahang, Dompo, Bali, Sunda, Palembang, Temasek, are all defeated, (then) I will break
my fast."
Sunda was mentioned as one of the kingdoms targeted by Mada's overseas campaign. It seems by
the early 14th century, the Kingdom of Sunda has grown quite prosperous and took part in
international maritime trade.
Prabu Maharaja[edit]
Further information: Battle of Bubat

"Prabu Maharaja" written in both lontar Carita Parahiyangan (15 C AD) & Pararaton (19 C AD).
The Carita Parahyangan and Pararaton named him as Prěbu Maharaja, while the pseudohistorical
Wangsakerta give a detailed name of Prabu Maharaja Lingga Buana. He ruled from Kawali Galuh,
and died in the Battle of Bubat in 1357, fell victim to a stratagem crafted by the Majapahit prime
minister, Gajah Mada.[15]
Hayam Wuruk, the king of Majapahit, intended to marry Princess Dyah Pitaloka, the daughter of
Prabu Maharaja. Delighted, the Sunda king and his royal family came to Majapahit, to marry off his
daughter to Hayam Wuruk. The Sunda party erected the encampment on Bubat square in the
northern part of Trowulan and awaited the proper wedding ceremony. Gajah Mada however, saw
this event as an opportunity to demand Sunda's submission to Majapahit overlordship and insisted
that the princess was to be presented as a token of submission.
Angered and humiliated, the Sunda king decided to cancel the wedding and to return home,
resulting in a skirmish between the Sunda royal family and the Majapahit army. Outnumbered,
almost the entire Sundanese party, including the princess, perished in this tragedy. The tradition
says Princess Dyah Pitaloka committed suicide to defend the honour of her country. After his death,
Prabu Maharaja was revered as Prabu Wangi (lit. 'King with pleasant fragrance') for the heroic
defence of his honour. Thus his successors, the later kings of Sunda, were later called Siliwangi (lit.
successor of Wangi). The story is the main theme of the book Kidung Sunda, another source
reporting this incident found in Bali.
Niskala Wastu Kancana[edit]
Main article: Niskala Wastu Kancana

One of Kawali inscriptions

The next king of Sunda was Niskala Wastu Kancana, who was the youngest son of Prabu
Maharaja and younger brother to Princess Dyah Pitaloka, who both perished in Bubat Incident. In
1371, Prince Wastu ascended to the throne, stylized as Prabu Raja Wastu Kancana. According to
one of Astana Gede inscriptions, approximately dated from the second half of the 14th century, the
king ordered the construction of defensive structures, walls and moats surrounding Kawali city, and
renovated Surawisesa palace.[16] The construction of moats and other defensive measures, was
probably as a response to a perceived foreign threat. Especially since the relations between Sunda
and its powerful eastern neighbour Majapahit empire badly deteriorated following the Bubat incident.
[15]
Niskala Wastu then resided in Kawali palace of Galuh.[1]: 392 His reign is remembered as a long era
of peace and prosperity.
The copperplate inscription of Kebantenan I reads that Raja Rahyang Niskala Wastu Kancana sent
an order through Hyang Ningrat Kancana to the Susuhunan of Pakuan Pajajaran to take care
of dayohan in Jayagiri and Sunda Sembawa, banning the collection of taxes from the residents
because they were knowledgeable about the Hindu religion and worshipped the gods.
According to Batutulis inscription, Rahyang Niskala Wastu Kancana was buried in Nusalarang, and
supported by Carita Parahyangan manuscript that mentioned "Prebu Niskala Wastu Kancana surup
di Nusalarang ring giri Wanakusumah". At this point, the capital was still located in Galuh, more
precisely in Kawali city.[1]: 391
Ningrat Kancana[edit]
Niskala Wastu Kancana's son, named as Tohaan di Galuh (Lord of Galuh) in Carita Parahyangan,
succeeded him as the king. He was mentioned in Kebantenan I inscription as Hyang Ningrat
Kancana and in Batutulis inscription as Rahyang Dewa Niskala.
The new king, however, reigned for only seven years and subsequently demoted. Carita
Parahyangan tells that "... kena salah twa(h) bogo(h) ka estri larangan ti kaluaran ..," which translate
as "because (his) wrongdoing, fell in love with a forbidden outsider woman."[1]: 393 Although it was
unclear as to what the line mean, it was possible that the forbidden outsider woman was a muslim,
signifying the presence of Islam in western Java.
According to the Batutulis inscription, Rahyang Dewa Niskala was later buried in Gunatiga. This
information is supported by Carita Parahyangan which mentioned that Tohaan di Galuh was nu
surup di Gunung Tilu' died or buried in Gunung Tilu (Tilu means three), which corresponds to
Gunung Tilu mountain range located east of the town of Kuningan.[17]
Sri Baduga Maharaja[edit]
Main article: Sri Baduga Maharaja

Statue of a Hindu god from Talaga near Kuningan, West Java, dated from the Sunda Kingdom.
Sang Ratu Jayadewata (reigned 1482 to 1521) or also known as Sri Baduga Maharaja, is a
grandson of Prabu Wastu Kancana. Jayadewata is often linked with a popular character Prabu
Siliwangi in the Sundanese oral tradition of pantun.
King Jayadewata moved the government seat from Kawali back to Pakuan in 1482. It is not clear,
however, the reason behind the transfer of capital westward; it might be a geopolitical move to
secure the capital away from the eastern threat from the rising Muslim power of Demak in Central
Java. By 1482, according to Purwaka Caruban Nagari, a Cirebon chronicle, Cirebon declared its
independence from Sunda and no longer sent tribute to the Sunda court. Based on the Kebantenan
copperplate inscription, he established a tanah devasasana sacred estate at Mount Samya or
Rancamaya. He also announced the construction of a sacred compound in Sunda Sembawa,
stipulated as the resident of the priests.
According to Batutulis inscription, Sri Baduga Maharaja built defensive moats surrounding Pakuan
Pajajaran; he built gugunungan (sacred mounds), established huts and sacred Samya forest,
reserves for wood destined for offerings, and the artificial lake Talaga Rena Mahawijaya (which
apparently served as a reservoir).[18] Certainly, there was a good road to Sunda Kalapa (present-day
Jakarta), the most important harbour of the Sunda kingdom. At the time of Tome Pirés's visit to
Pakuan, Sri Baduga Maharaja reigned over the Sunda kingdom.
The reign of King Jayadewata was hailed as the golden age of the Sundanese people. The kingdom
consolidated its rule and exercised power throughout the western part of Java. It also marked the
era of great prosperity resulting from efficient agriculture management and the thriving pepper trade
in the region. This era of great wealth also marked the beginning of the Sunda kingdom's decline.

Decline[edit]
During the reign of King Jayadewata, there was already a group of Sunda inhabitants that had
converted to Islam, as testified by Portuguese account. Tomé Pires in 1513 reported, there was a
significant number of Muslims residing in the port of Cimanuk (today Indramayu), the easternmost
port of Sunda Kingdom. According to a Portuguese report, the port of Cirebon which is located just
east of Cimanuk is already a Muslim port by that time, ruled by Javanese.
These new converts most probably were the people referred to in Carita Parahyangan as "those who
felt no peace because of having strayed from Sanghyang Siksa". Nevertheless, during this time,
Islamic influence had not yet penetrated inland into the capital. As mentioned in Carita Parahyangan
that "mana mo kadatangan ku musuh ganal, musu(h) alit", which means the capital is "safe from
rough/coarse enemy, (as well as) soft/subtle enemy". The term "coarse enemy" refers to an actual
invading foreign army, while "subtle enemy" refers to the propagation of a new faith or new religion
that might upset the established spiritual order of the kingdom.[1]: 394
The kingdom anxiously watched the growing influence of the expansive Islamic Sultanate of
Demak that finally succeeded in destroying Daha, the remnant of the Hindu Majapahit court in 1527.
As a result of this event, only Blambangan in the eastern edge of Java, and Sunda in the western
part remained Hindu kingdoms in Java. Meanwhile, in the land of Sunda, Muslim influences started
to penetrate the kingdom.
Rise of Muslim Cirebon and Banten[edit]

Keraton Kasepuhan of Cirebon. By 1482, the Sunda kingdom lost its

important eastern port of Cirebon.
Bujangga Manik manuscript, written circa the second half of the 15th century reported that the
eastern boundary of Sunda Kingdom realm was the Cipamali river in present-day Brebes. However,
the Portuguese Suma Oriental in 1513 reported that the eastern border of Sunda Kingdom is located
in the port of Chemano (Cimanuk), the estuarine of Manuk River. This means between 1450 and
1513 the kingdom has lost control of the area surrounding Cirebon, between Brebes and Indramayu
on the northeastern part of the kingdom. This signifies the coastal Muslim Javanese push westward
into once a traditional Sundanese territory, as Demak Sultanate was responsible as the patron for
the rise of Cirebon.
The detail of the Sunda Kingdom and its relations with the rise of Cirebon Sultanate, mostly were
taken from the account of Purwaka Caruban Nagari, a manuscript of Cirebon chronicle which
claimed Cirebon as the rightful successor of Sunda Kingdom.
According to Purwaka Caruban Nagari, a Sunda king Prabu Siliwangi married Nyai Subang Larang,
daughter of Ki Gedeng Tapa, port master of Muara Jati (today Cirebon). They had three children:
Prince Walangsungsang, Princess Rara Santang, and Prince Kian Santang.[19] Although Prince
Walangsungsang was the first-born son of the King, the prince did not earn the right as a crown
prince of Sunda Kingdom. This was because his mother, Nyai Subang Larang was not the queen
consort. Another reason was because of his conversion to Islam, probably influenced by his mother
as she is a Muslim. In the 16th century western Java, the prevalent faith practiced was
Hinduism, Sundanese ancestral religion, and Buddhism. It was his half brother, Prabuwisesa, the
king's son from his third wife Nyai Cantring Manikmayang, who was chosen as the crown prince.
Walangsungsang later moved to a settlement called Dukuh Alang-alang on 1445. After Ki Gedeng
Alang-Alang's death in 1447, Walangsungsang appointed as the ruler of the town and established a
court and assumed a new title as Prince Cakrabuana. King Siliwangi sent his envoy Tumenggung
Jagabaya and Raja Sengara, to bestow Prince Carkrabuana with the title Tumenggung Sri
Mangana. The settlement, now called Cirebon grew into a thriving port, yet Cakrabuana was still
loyal to his father and sent tribute to the main court of Sunda. At that time Cirebon was still a
principality within the Sunda Kingdom.
In 1479, Cakrabuana was succeeded by his nephew, Sharif Hidayatullah, the son of his sister Nyai
Rara Santang. He married his cousin, Nyi Mas Pakungwati daughter of Cakrabuana. He is popularly
known with his posthumously name Sunan Gunungjati. On 2 April 1482, Sunan Gunungjati stated
that Cirebon will no longer send tribute to Pajajaran, which marked the proclamation that
the Sultanate of Cirebon is independent from Sunda Pajajaran.[19]
The character described in Purwaka Caruban Nagari, as Prabu Siliwangi, matched the historic
character of Dewa Niskala or Ningrat Kancana, referred as Lord of Galuh in Carita Parahyangan.
Tohaan di Galuh was the son and heir of Niskala Wastu Kancana.
The pressure from coastal Javan Islamic states drove the king of Sunda, Sri Baduga Maharaja, to
seek assistance from the Portuguese at Malacca. In 1512 and again in 1521, he sent his son, the
crown prince Surawisesa also known as Ratu Sang Hyang (Samian) to Malacca to request the
Portuguese to sign an alliance treaty, to trade in pepper and to build a fort at his main port of Sunda
Kalapa. Sunan Gunung Jati's son later also established the Sultanate of Banten, which later become
a menace for the Hindu Sunda Kingdom.
Surawisesa and Sunda–Portuguese Treaty 1522 [edit]
Main article: Luso-Sundanese padrão

After Sri Baduga Maharaja's death in 1521, the succeeding kings, Prabu Surawisesa Jayaperkosa,
also known as Ratu Sang Hyang whom the Portuguese called Ratu Samian, faced the menace
of Cirebon and Demak. Under this threat, Surawisesa, who reigned from 1521 to 1535, concluded
the treaty with Portuguese from Malacca to establish a warehouse and fortress at Sunda Kelapa in
return for protection against the menace of these Islamic Sultanates.
By 1522, the Portuguese were ready to form a coalition with the King of Sunda to get access to his
lucrative pepper trade. The commander of Malacca, Jorge de Albuquerque, sent a ship, the São
Sebastião, under Captain Henrique Leme, to Sunda Kalapa with valuable gifts for the king of Sunda.
Two written sources describe the concluding of the treaty in detail, the original Portuguese document
of 1522 with the text of the treaty and the signatories of the witnesses, and a report on that event
by João de Barros in his book Da Ásia, printed after 1777/78.
The king welcomed them warmly upon their arrival. The crown prince had succeeded his father and
was now King Prabu Surawisesa, although Barros called him King Samião. This Sunda ruler agreed
to an arrangement of friendship with the King of Portugal and granted a fortress at the mouth of the
Ciliwung River where the Portuguese could load as many peppers as they wished. In addition, he
pledged, dating from the start of construction on the fortress, each year he would donate one
thousand sacks of pepper to the Portuguese king. The contract document was drafted into two
copies and signed. On the said day in 1522, Henrique Leme of Portuguese and his entourage
together with deputies of the King of Sunda erected a commemoration stone at the mouth of
the Ciliwung River.
The fall of Sunda Kelapa[edit]

The port of Sunda Kelapa, the cradle of Jakarta. For centuries it was
the royal port of Sunda Kingdom serving the capital Dayeuh Pakuan Pajajaran 60 kilometres inland to
the south until it fell to Demak and Cirebon forces in 1527.
This trade and defence treaty was fallen apart tremendously due to Portuguese failure to deliver
their promise to construct the fortress in Kalapa. The delay was caused by troubles in Goa. To make
things worse, in 1527 Fatahillah, a military commander sent from Demak, managed to capture
the Sunda Kalapa harbour just before the Portuguese returned.
The army of Fatahillah, comprising around Cirebon-Demak troops, conquered Sunda Kalapa. The
Sunda authority stationed in the port were fallen. The harbour chief and his family, the royal minister,
and all of the people working in the harbour were slaughtered. The port city was completely
destroyed and razed, as the Sundanese reinforcements sent from Pakuan was too weak and
retreated. The Sunda Kingdom has lost its most important port, thus subsequently Sunda Kalapa
was renamed Jayakarta by its Muslim conqueror.
Thirty Portuguese sailors, shipwrecked by storms, swam to the beach at Kalapa only to be killed by
Fatahillah's men. The Portuguese recognised the political leadership had changed when they were
not allowed to set foot on the land. As they were too weak for a battle, they set sail back to Malacca.
The next year, a second attempt failed because of striking sailors angry at not having been paid.
The failure to rely on Portuguese assistance has led Sunda to fend for their own survival by
themselves. Carita Parahyangan mentioned that during his 14 years of reign (1521–1535), King
Sang Hyang (Surawisesa) has fought in 15 battles. Unbeatable, all in which he managed to repel the
series of invading Muslim forces from Cirebon and Demak. He fought in Kalapa, Tanjung, Ancol
Kiji, Wahanten Girang, Simpang, Gunung Batu, Saung Agung, Rumbut, Gunung, Gunung Banjar,
Padang, Panggoakan, Muntur, Hanum, Pagerwesi, and Medangkahyangan.[1]: 398
The war between Cirebon-Demak forces and the Sunda kingdom lasted for almost five years. The
king lost thousands of his men. During this war, after Sunda Kalapa, Sunda Kingdom also lost
the Port of Banten. Sunan Gunungjati of Cirebon later crowned his son, Hasanuddin, as the king of
Banten under the auspices of the Sultan of Demak who, in turn, offered Hasanudin his sister's hand
in marriage. Banten was established as the capital of this new sultanate, held as a vassal
under Sultanate of Cirebon.[20] Finally, in 1531, a peace treaty was concluded between King
Surawisesa of Sunda and Syarif Hidayatullah of Cirebon.
In an apparent sorrow after the tremendous defeat and the loss of his two most important ports,
Prabu Surawisesa established the Batutulis inscription in 1533 to commemorate his late father.
[21]
This action was probably an attempt to spiritually appeal for ancestral guidance and protection
against the powerful Muslim enemy that now loomed by the gates. Because of ongoing battles, he
often could not stay in his palace in Pakuan Pajajaran.
Jaya Dewata[edit]
Prabu Ratu Dewata also known as Sang Ratu Jaya Dewata, was the successor of Prabu
Surawisesa. He was, however, not his son. The reign of Prabu Ratu Dewata between 1535 and
1543 was known as a chaotic and difficult one full of hardship, as Islamic forces from Cirebon and
Banten tried multiple times to capture the Dayeuh Pakuan capital.
During Ratu Dewata reign, the Carita Parahyangan reported several calamities befell the kingdom;
there was a sudden attack, a lot of enemies razed the city[which?], thus mass combat erupted in the
grand yard (alun-alun).[1]: 398 In this battle, the noble princes were killed. The chaos has widespread
across the kingdom, the attack also occurred in Ciranjang and Sumedang. Another terror was the
assassination of the rishis, hermits and Hindu priests that resides in the hermitage sanctuaries. It
was reported that the Hindu priests and hermits of mandala Jayagiri, were captured and drowned in
the sea.[1]: 400 It is highly possible that the attack was launched by Muslim states of Banten or Cirebon.
[1]: 395
This was a devastating attack straight to the spiritual core of the Sundanese Hindu community.
Unable to control the kingdom, instead of fulfilling his duty by maintaining the law and order, Prabu
Ratu Dewata retreated himself to become a Raja Pandita (priestly king), submitted himself deeply
into religious rituals as an apparently desperate appeal for gods' salvation.[1]: 396 By this time, Sunda
Kingdom were already isolated and confined to the inland.
Last kings and the fall of Sunda kingdom [edit]

The Port of Banten in the 16th century. The Islamic Sultanate of

Banten was responsible for the demise of Hindu Sunda Kingdom, and supplant it as the dominant polity
in western parts of Java in the following centuries.
Series of last Sunda kings were notoriously known as incompetent rulers. The successor of Ratu
Dewata, King Ratu Sakti reigned from 1543 to 1551, was known as a ruthless king, who indulges
himself with sensual pleasure.[1]: 396
The next successor that ruled from 1551 to 1567, King Nilakendra, also known as Tohaan di
Majaya, is also an incompetent ruler. Instead of fulfilling his duty as a king, he renovates and
beautifies the palace. Squander kingdom's fortune by indulging himself in pleasures and luxury.[1]: 396
Because of ongoing battles, ironically Tohaan di Majaya could not stay in his newly renovated
palace. The last kings of Sunda could no longer reside in Pakuan Pajajaran, since in the
1550s Hasanuddin, the sultan of Banten has launched a successful attack on Dayeuh Pakuan,
captured and razed the capital.
The surviving Sunda royalties, nobles and common people fled the fallen city, heading to the
mountainous wilderness. After the fall of Pakuan Pajajaran, the royal regalia of Sunda Kingdom was
evacuated to the eastern principality of Sumedang Larang. Among these regalias are Makuta
Binokasih Sanghyang Paké, the royal crown of Sunda. Thus the member of the Sunda dynasty
established a surviving minor regional kingdom of Sumedang Larang where Sundanese aristocracy
would survive for a few more centuries to come until conquered by Mataram Sultanate in the 17th
century.
From 1567 to 1579, under the last king Raja Mulya, also known as Prabu Surya Kencana, the
kingdom declined substantially. In Carita Parahyangan, his name is Nusiya Mulya. He ruled further
inland in Pulasari, near Pandeglang, at the slope of Mount Palasari. The kingdom has fallen apart,
particularly after 1576 due to constant pressure from Banten, and finally collapsed completely in
1579. Thereafter, the Sultanate of Banten took over most of the former Sunda Kingdom's territory,
thus ultimately put an end to a millennium of Hindu-Buddhist Dharmic civilization of West Java.[1]:
 By this time, Java has turned more and more Islamic. Only the kingdom of Blambangan on the
396

eastern edge was the last surviving Hindu kingdom in Java, well until its demise in the early 18th
century.

Capital[edit]
Throughout Sunda's history, the centre of cultural and political power often oscillated between the
Western Priangan region; initially identified as "Sunda", and Eastern Priangan region; traditionally
identified as "Galuh". The two traditional sites are located in and around modern Bogor city and the
town of Ciamis. The two most important capitals are Pakuan Pajajaran, the capital of Sunda;
and Kawali, the capital of Galuh.

Kawali[edit]
Main article: Kawali

Hindu Brahmin's ritual objects, including bronze bell and holy water container from Kawali, the historic
capital of Galuh Kingdom.
The capital of the Galuh Kingdom of the eastern Priangan region, has moved several times. In the
older period, the capital was located around the Karang Kamulyan site by the banks
of Citanduy river. By the early 14th century, the capital was moved further northwest upstream, in
the area now known as Astana Gede, near the current town of Kawali, Ciamis Regency. The city
was located on the eastern slope of Mount Sawal near the source of the Citanduy river. A Kawali
inscription was discovered here. According to tradition, the keraton in Kawali is called Surawisesa,
expanded and renovated by King Niskala Wastu Kancana. Kawali served as the capital of the
kingdom for several generations until Sri Baduga Maharaja moved the government back to Pakuan
in 1482.

Pakuan Pajajaran[edit]
Main article: Pakuan Pajajaran

Location of Pakuan Pajajaran copied from book "Kabudayaan Sunda

Zaman Pajajaran" Part 2", 2005
After the fall of Tarumanagara in the 7th century, King Tarusbawa built a new capital city inland near
the source of the Cipakancilan river in present-day Bogor. According to Carita Parahyangan, a
manuscript from the 15th or 16th century, King Tarusbawa was only mentioned
as Tohaan (Lord/King) of Sunda. He was the ancestor of a series of Sunda kings that reigned until
723. Pakuan served as the capital of Sunda during the reign of several kings, and the court shifted to
Kawali until Sri Baduga Maharaja moved the court from Kawali back to Pakuan in 1482.
The city was permanently settled since at least the 10th century, but not gaining major political
importance until King Jayadewata established it as the royal capital of the Sunda kingdom in the
15th century. In 1513, the city was visited by its first European visitor, Tomé Pires, the Portuguese
envoy.[22]: 40 According to his report, the city of Daio (Dayeuh is a Sundanese term for "capital city")
was great city, with population around 50,000 inhabitants.[1]: 404
The tradition hailed that King Jayadewata ruled justly from his beautiful Kadatwan (palace) called Sri
Bima Punta Narayana Madura Suradipati at Pakuan Pajajaran, and his reign is celebrated as the
golden age for Sundanese people.[1]: 393
After the reign of King Jayadewata (Sri Baduga Maharaja), Pakuan Pajajaran served as the royal
capital for several generations. Dayeuh Pakuan Pajajaran served as the capital of the Sunda
Kingdom for almost a hundred years (1482 – 1579), until it was razed and destroyed by
the Sultanate of Banten in 1579.
Because Pakuan, the capital city of the Sunda kingdom laid between two parallel rivers, Ciliwung
and Cisadane, it was called Pajajaran (lit. place laid between two parallel things) or Pakuan
Pajajaran. Although primary local and European historical records referred to the kingdom in the
western part of Java island as the Sunda Kingdom, the Sundanese, especially after the
establishment of the Sultanate of Banten and Cirebon, referred to the kingdom (minus the coastal
sultanates) as "Pakuan Pajajaran" Kingdom, or simply as the Pakuan Kingdom or the Pajajaran
Kingdom. The later name – Pajajaran – is more familiar for people residing in West Java and
the Javanese of Mataram region (current Yogyakarta and Solo).

Government and economy[edit]

Administration[edit]

Makuta Binokasih Sanghyang Paké, the royal crown of Sunda kingdom.

After the fall of Pajajaran to Banten, the crown was evacuated to Sumedang Larang and become their
regalia.
In many historical sources, including manuscripts, inscriptions, as well as foreign historical accounts
from China and Portuguese reports, all refer to "Sunda" as a kingdom. On the other hand, the term
"Pakuan" and "Pajajaran" or "Dayeuh" refer to its capital which corresponds to the modern city of
Bogor. The tangible evidence on the existence of a kingdom as an administrative social structure,
was found in Sanghyang Tapak inscription dated 952 Saka (1030 CE), that mentioned Prahajyan
Suṇḍa (Sunda Kingdom), with Sri Jayabhupati claimed as haji ri Suṇḍa (the king of Sunda).[1]: 402
Through the study on the 14th century inscriptions in Astana Gede site in Kawali, historian suggests
that the political model of Sunda Kingdom adhered the concept of Tri Tangtu di Buana, which
administrative power was distributed in triad among three elements; Prebu (king), Rama (village
chief or regional elder) and Resi (rishi priestly class of religious authority).[23]
According to Tomé Pires (1513), the Sunda kingdom is ruled by a paramount raja (king or monarch),
and the right of the throne inheritance descended from a father to his son. However, in the case
when a king did not produce a male heir, the successor is elected from the lesser kings, the rulers of
regional towns or provinces.[1]: 403 These lesser kings are called Tohaan (lord) that acts as local
governor, and most are related to the king, which means they belong in the same dynasty.
Much of our current knowledge on detailed social order and the bureaucracy structure of the
kingdom, is owed to the Sundanese manuscript of Sanghyang siksakanda ng karesian, compiled
around 1518.
...nihan sinangguh dasa prebakti ngaranya. Anak bakti di bapa, ewe bakti di laki, hulun bakti di
pacandaan, sisya bakti di guru, wong tani bakti di wado, wado bakti di mantri, mantri bakti di nu
nangganan, nu nangganan bakti di mangkubumi, mangkubumi bakti di ratu, ratu bakti di dewata,
dewata bakti di hyang ...
This is a reminder which is called "Ten bhakti (devotion)": sons (children) devoted to (their) father,
wife devoted to husband, the common people (servants or slaves) devoted to (their) master or
employer (pacandaan = place to lean on), students devoted to (their) guru (teacher), farmers
devoted to wado (lesser employee), wado devoted to mantri (government official), mantri devoted
to nu nangganan (lit. "handler", which refer to managerial position in bureaucracy), nu
nagganan devoted to mangkubumi (lord or governor), mangkubumi devoted to ratu (king or
monarch), the king devoted to dewata (gods), dewata devoted to hyang (higher spirit).

— Sanghyang siksakanda ng karesian[1]: 403

According to Carita Parahyangan, all regional ruler (governor), rama (village chief), government
officials, and rishi (Hindu priests), are required to make a formal annual visit to the capital; paying
homage, tax or tribute to the court. As mentioned in some fragments of this manuscript:
"..., ti Kandangwesi pamwat siya ka Pakwan..." ("... from Kandangwesi the tribute was sent to
Pakuan"),
"..., anaking sang Prebu Rama, Resi samadaya sarerea siya marek ka Pakwan unggal tahun..." ("...
my son the chief of the village, the rishis together all paid a visit to Pakuan every years").[1]: 405

Economy[edit]

A Sundanese woman retrieving rice from a leuit, Sundanese economy

mainly rely on rice agriculture
The economy of the Sunda kingdom relied on agriculture, especially rice cultivation; this is reflected
in Sundanese culture and the annual ceremonies of crop seeding and Seren Taun rice harvest
festival. The harvest ceremony also allowed the king's official to collect tax in the form of rice that
can be stored in the state's Leuit (rice barn).
According to Siksakanda ng Karesian, Sundanese farmers during the era of the Sunda Kingdom did
recognize sawah or the wet-field rice cultivation. However, the widespread rice cultivation system
applied in the kingdom seems to be the ladang or the dry-field rice which is a much simpler form of
cultivation that doesn't require an elaborate social structure to support it. This corresponds with the
geography and topography of West Java which dominated by the central Parahyangan Plateau, in
contrast with Central and East Java that consists of river valleys between volcanoes. As the result,
compared to Central and East Java, West Java at that time was more sparsely populated, consists
of settlements, villages or hamlet quite isolated deep within highland valleys, which render direct
administrative control from the kingdom's central government rather difficult.
The kingdom was also well known as the world's main producer of high quality pepper. The kingdom
participated in a spice trade network in the archipelago. The ports of Sunda participated in
international trades in the region.
In Suma Oriental, written in 1512-1515, Tomé Pires, a Portuguese explorer report about the ports of
Sunda:
First the king of Çumda (Sunda) with his great city of Dayo, the town and lands and port of Bantam,
the port of Pomdam (Pontang), the port of Cheguide (Cigede), the port of Tamgaram (Tangerang),
the port of Calapa (Kelapa), and the port of Chemano (Chi Manuk or Cimanuk), this is Sunda,
because the river of Chi Manuk is the limit of both kingdoms.[24]
Another Portuguese explorer, Diogo do Couto, wrote that the Sunda kingdom is thriving and
abundant; it lies between Java and Sumatra, separated from the latter by the Sunda Strait. Many
islands lie along the coast of this kingdom within the strait, for nearly the space of forty leagues[vague];
the strait's widest point is about twenty-five and narrowest point only twelve leagues[vague] broad.
Bantam is about the midpoint. All the islands are well timbered but have little water. A small one
called Macar, at the entrance of Sunda Strait, is said to have much gold.
He also noted that the principal ports of the Sunda kingdom were Banten, Ache, Chacatara
(Jakarta), which annually receive twenty sommas, ships from Chienheo, China, to ship the eight
thousand bahars, which are equal to 3,000,000 kg of pepper the kingdom produced.
Bantam is situated at 6° south latitude, in the middle of a bay, three leagues from point to point. The
town is eight hundred and fifty fathoms[vague] in length, and the seaport extends about 400. A river
capable of admitting junks and galleys flows through the middle of the town: a small branch of this
river admits boats and small craft.
There is a brick fort, the walls of which are seven palms thick[vague], with wooden bulwarks, armed with
two tiers of artillery. The anchorage is good, with a muddy or sandy bottom and a depth from two to
six fathoms.