Materials and Structures (2023) 56:59

https://doi.org/10.1617/s11527-023-02142-8 (0123456789().,-volV)
( 01234567
89().,-volV)

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Hemp fiber reinforced lightweight concrete (HRLWC)

with coarse pumice aggregate and mitigation of degradation
H. Merve Tuncer . Z. Canan Girgin

Received: 28 September 2022 / Accepted: 27 February 2023 / Published online: 24 March 2023
 The Author(s), under exclusive licence to RILEM 2023

Abstract Concrete with cellulosic fibers should
preserve the microstructural and functional properties
with less degradation and without micro-organisms for
several years. This study focuses on the usability of
hemp fibers in a mixture combined with lightweight
aggregates (LWA) and cementitious materials. Unlike
mostly mortar based current literature, this study
addresses the hemp fiber reinforced lightweight con-
crete (HRLWC) in which coarse aggregates are also
used, and these aggregates are volcanic pumice
aggregates (VPA). In order to mitigate fiber degrada-
tion induced by alkali attack, supplementary cemen-
titious materials (SCM) e.g. metakaolin, blast furnace
slag and fly ash were used. Total binding materials and
water to binder ratio were taken constant, and the
hemp fiber ratio was chosen as Vf = 1.0%. In this
scope, compressive strength, flexural behavior, energy
absorption, crack width, density, and water absorption
were experimentally investigated. Herein, two impor-
tant exposures on samples are under consideration,
one is the natural moisture curing due to LWAs which
resemble water reservoir gradually releasing water,
the first time for cellulosic fibers in the current
literature. The second one is the accelerated aging
test to provoke alkali release by immersing in hot
water for 10 days. The findings from test results and
H. Merve Tuncer  Z. Canan Girgin (&)
Building Science and Technology Division, Architecture
Faculty, Yildiz Technical University, Istanbul, Türkiye
e-mail: zcgirgin@yildiz.edu.tr
micro photographs reveal that the pumice aggregates
combined with proper SCMs are suitable to contribute
sustainable HRLWC design.
Keywords Hemp  Cellulosic fibers  Pumice 
LWA  SCM  HRLWC
1 Introduction
Low carbon footprint necessitates the further usage of
natural ingredients in buildings. Eco-friendly and cost-
effective cellulosic based natural fibers [1] and
volcanic natural pumice aggregates [2] may be proper
choices for sustainable design as well as to reduce the
carbon footprint and contribute to more comfort-
able environments [3].
The structure of cellulosic fibers has three main
components; cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin [4].
Cellulose has strong OH bonding and stable structure,
however, especially weak OH bonding of hemicellu-
lose induces the hydrophilic nature and precipitation
with hydration products. Ca(OH)2, namely CH, leads
to degrade the cell wall (mineralization) due to that
weak OH bonding. There are two ways to improve
interfacial bonding and to prevent embrittlement: fiber
modification [5] and matrix modification [6].
The research studies on fiber modification initiated
through the impregnation of cellulosic fibers by
59 Page 2 of 16
blocking agents in the early 1980s [7], and directed
toward fiber treatment about a decade ago, a signif-
icant part of these studies addressed the alkali
solutions [8–10] to remove hemicellulose and lignin
components before mixing process. Among them, the
most known NaOH is used to roughen the surface as
well as remove waxy substances for strong bonding;
and essentially emerged to enhance the adherence for
the polymer-composites in past decades [11]. How-
ever, as for cementitious composites, chemical treat-
ments before mixing may lead to adverse effects, e.g.
lignin and hemicellulose can be dissolved to a certain
extent [12] in practice, even if the flexural strength
may increase the deflection at peak load may reduce
[9], slightly increase in energy absorption [13], critical
decision to proper quantity of treatment [14], the
fibrillation and drop in flexural strength by broken
pectin bonds among fibrils [15–17] are under consid-
eration. Besides, the chemical approach for cementi-
tious composites necessitates time and cost
consumption as well.
Cost and time-effective matrix modification
through SCM, namely pozzolanic materials such as
fly ash (FA), blast furnace slag (S), metakaolin (MK)
and silica fume (SF), are promising for cellulosic
fibers. Since the early 1980s [18], the durability issue
has been especially focused to enhance alkali resis-
tance through several aging protocols [19] so far. For
kraft pulp fibers [6], toughness of mixtures with 30%
MK or 30%, 50% SF were not influenced negatively
from wet/dry cycles, however 10% and 70% C type
FA or S lower than 90% could not prevent degrada-
tion. Likewise, sisal fiber-samples with 40% S [20]
exhibited negative performance toward embrittle-
ment, % 30 MK considerably decreased the degrada-
tion compared with reference [21]. CH peaks in
90-day samples diminish with 50% MK [22], or 40%
MK ? 20% limestone almost consumes CH until
7 days [23].
In the design of cellulosic fiber reinforced cemen-
titious composites, most studies are essentially mortar
based. For a realistic concrete design, not only fine
aggregates but also coarse aggregates should be used
in the mixtures. In this study, volcanic based natural
pumice aggregates were used as coarse aggregate, and
there is no study incorporating coarse LWA according
to authors’ knowledge so far. Pumice aggregates,
which are soaked in water, act as water reservoir for
natural curing by keeping the environment in damp
Materials and Structures (2023) 56:59
conditions. These conditions are also important to
observe the possible degradation of hygroscopic
natural fibers which are also sensitive to fungal
growth. Meanwhile, as the natural fiber, hemp
(Cannabis Sativa L.), is well known as one of the
oldest textile fibers, nowadays hemp aggregates (shiv)
are often used in heat [24] and sound insulation [25]
issues disregarding strength concern. As for this study,
hemp was used as fiber similar to the other cellulosic
ones such as sisal or jute, not as bio-aggregate,
combined with cement and SCMs in different ratios.
The aim is to mitigate the degradation induced by
alkali attack to hemp fiber in HRLWC by paying
attention to the negative effect on the compressive
strength of LWA as well. Thus, it is focused to
improve the main signs identifying decay in fibers, i.e.
loss in flexural deformations, toughness, and crack
width. The aging tests in hot water (10 days in 50 C
water) were accompanied to provoke CH release and
mineralization of fibers. The findings from this study
affirm that hemp fibers and pumice aggregates may
contribute to resist the shrinkage cracks in lightweight
design of steel/timber composite decks as well as the
possible usage in semi-structural wall panels, plaster,
alum etc.
2 Materials and methods
2.1 Materials and mix proportions
Cement and three types of SCM were used in the
mixture designs. Cement type is CEM II/A-S 42.5R
(EN 197–1 [26]), MK has SiO2 ? Al2O3 ? Fe2O3
content higher than 90% in accordance with ASTM C
618–22 [27]. All the binding materials are presented
with chemical compositions in Table 1, and the
particle size fractions are given in Fig. 1.
As coarse LWA, volcanic based pumice aggregates
(VPA) from Nevsehir region in Turkiye were used.
Pumice stone is essentially a crumbly pyroclastic rock,
and has acidic chemical composition. Pumice reserves
in Nevsehir region contain 65–72% SiO2 and
12.7–17.1% Al2O3 and other minor oxides [28]. Those
aggregates, to be crushed and screened to 4–9 mm size
range, were provided in accordance to ASTM C330-
17a [29]. The water absorption ratios of pumice
(Table 2) were determined after physical tests (ASTM
C127-15) [30] in the laboratory. They were soaked in
Materials and Structures (2023) 56:59
Fig. 1 Particle size distribution of binding materials
Fig. 2 Sieve analysis of aggregates and combined grading
water min. 24 h. [29] prior to the experiments, and
were added into the mixture in surface dry conditions.
It should be noted although the water absorption
capacity of VPA is often in the range of 30%–50%,
qualified VPA in this study is under this range.
Fine aggregates are natural silica sand (0.125 to
2 mm) and crushed limestone (max. 4 mm). The
volumetric ratios of coarse VPA, silica sand, and
crushed limestone were chosen as 50%, 30%, 20%,
respectively. Grading curves for all the aggregates and
combined grading compared with Fuller curve are
presented in Fig. 2.
A hemp bundle consists of 10–40 fibers and density
is 1.5 g/cm3 [31], modulus of elasticity is in the range
of 23.5–90 GPa, tensile strength is 270 MPa to
900 MPa, and elongation capacity at break is
1–3.5% [32]. Hemp fibers are composed of cellulose
(55–90%), pectin (0.9%), hemicellulose (12–20%),
and lignin (3.5–12.9%) by weight [33]. The typical
Page 3 of 16 59
appearance of hemp fibers in this study and the close
view through an optical microscope are given in
Fig. 3. Hemp fibers were cut to a length of 54 mm and
any chemical treatment was not applied.
Mixture proportions of HRLWC were optimized
with the target about 20 MPa and over as 28-day cubic
compressive strength, so the binding materials and
water to binder ratio (w/b) were taken constantly as
350 kg/m3 and 0.45. VPA to cement ratio is in the
range of 1.21–1.28 by weight. The target slump was
kept in the range of 10–13 cm to achieve sufficient
workability, powder type polycarboxylate-based
HRWR was used as 0.5–1%w of total binder. Light-
weight (first letter, L) twelve series were prepared
(Table 3), half of those samples is fibrous (Vf = 1.0%),
and the other half is not. The symbols of binding
materials are cement (C), metakaolin (M), fly ash (F),
slag (S). SCMs were replaced with cement in different
ratios, LCM1 and LCM2 series respectively consist of
59 Page 4 of 16 Materials and Structures (2023) 56:59

Fig. 3 Dry hemp fibers and micro view to a thin hemp fiber

Fig. 4 7-, 28-day compressive strengths and relative strengths for a non-fibrous series b fibrous series

80%C ? 20%MK and 60%C ? 40%MK; blended

series are LCMS (40%C ? 30%MK ? %30S),
LCMF1 (40%C ? 30%MK ? %30F), and LCMF2
(30%C ? 30%MK ? %40F).

2.2 Preparation of specimens and test setup

Before starting the mixtures hemp fibers, due to the

high water absorption capacity, were first soaked in
water for one hour to remove some impurities. After
taking out from water, their surfaces were wiped with
a towel, similar process with [7], thus the fibers were
prepared for the mixture in saturated surface dry
condition. Herein, the main reason is to prevent them
from absorbing binder slurry, provide workability
without extra slump loss, and produce a practical
solution for real applications.
Fine aggregates and coarse VPA were put to a
conventional pan mixer, and mixed for one minute.
Then cement, SCM, hemp fibers, and powder HRWR
Fig. 5 Bending test set-up and typical load–deflection diagram
were combined and mixed by adding water in a
controlled manner until achieving uniform fiber dis-
persion and target slump. After pouring to cube and
prism molds, the fresh samples were vibrated on a
conventional table according to ACI 544.2R.
For each one of twelve series (Table 3), eight cubic
specimens of size 100 9 100 9 100 mm were
Materials and Structures (2023) 56:59 Page 5 of 16 59

Table 1 Chemical Binding Materials and symbols CaO SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 MgO SO3 Blaine fineness
composition (in wt.%) of % m2/kg
cement and pozzolanic
materials in mixtures Cement 60.66 21.50 5.07 3.53 2.43 2.42 434.7
Metakaolin 0.19 56.10 40.23 0.85 0.16 – 14,600
Fly Ash (F type) 1.46 58.75 25.24 5.76 2.22 0.08 562.8
Slag 36.56 40.80 12.16 1.29 5.65 0.18 1194.2

Table 2 Physical and mechanical characteristics of coarse VP aggregates

Aggregate type Bulk density* Specific gravity* Water absorp. Coarse VPA and close view
(kg/m3) (% by dry
weight)

Pumice (Nevsehir ASTM C29 ASTM C127

Region) 650 (Loose) 990 13.1% (10 min.)
680 (Rodded) 13.6% (1 h)
19.9% (24 h)

*Oven dry basis

prepared, total six specimens for 7- and 28-day
compressive strength tests (EN 196–1 [34]), and two
specimens for water absorption tests (EN 12,390–7
[35]). For three-point bending tests, seven 40 mm 9
40 mm 9 160 mm prisms were cast for each curing
period (7, 28 days, and after aging). After demolding
one day later, all the specimens were cured in a
climate-controlled room at 20 ± 2 C and 50%RH
until test period; the coarse pumice aggregates slowly
supply the water required for hydration allowing
natural curing. Bending tests were performed in a
deformation-controlled testing machine (MTS Crite-
rion Model 43) at a crosshead rate of 0.3 mm/min (EN
12,390–5 [36]), load–deflection (P-D) curves were
recorded, and the test automatically stops upon the
detection of fiber breaking.
The response of HRLWC to alkaline environment
was observed via accelerated aging tests, prismatic
specimens after 28 days were immersed in a hot water
tank with a constant temperature of (50 ± 2) C
during 10 days (ASTM C1560-03 [37]). Hot water
accelerates portlandite formation and alkali attack,
and the well-known test procedure [38] for GRC
composites was applied to cellulosic fiber reinforced
composites herein. After aging period, the prisms were
removed from hot water and subjected to three-point
bending test after 24 h.
3 Test results and evaluations
3.1 Compressive strength tests
For non-fibrous six series and fibrous six series
(Vf = 1%), 7- and 28-day averaged compressive
strengths (fc), standard deviations, and 28-day relative
strengths are shown in Fig. 4. It is noted that all the
relative strengths were given in proportion to the
reference 28-day LC samples. In non-fibrous series,
the least increase in strengths from 7 to 28 days was
observed in LC (18%) and LCMF1 (25%) samples.
The greatest increase occurred in LCMF2 (46%), the
main reason is attributed to delaying hydration due to
F type fly ash (40%) and low-quantity cement (30%C).
Undoubtedly, the compressive strengths lower than
20 MPa in 28-day LCMF2 can be easily tolerated with
lower water to binder ratio. The variation coefficients
of compressive strengths are in the range of 2.1–2.8%
and 3.3–4.5% for non-fibrous ad fibrous series,
respectively.
59 Page 6 of 16 Materials and Structures (2023) 56:59

Table 3 Mixture Characteristics

Mixture Cement Metakaolin Fly Ash Slag Pumice (4–9 mm) Silica Sand Crushed limestone Hemp fiber
kg/m3 Vf,%

LC 350 – – – 450 557 374 0

LC-H 350 – – – 441 560 367 1
LCM1 280 70 – – 456 557 374 0
LCM1-H 280 70 – – 441 540 367 1
LCM2 210 140 – – 450 544 374 0
LCM2-H 210 140 – – 441 535 367 1
LCMS 140 105 – 105 436 540 363 0
LCMS-H 140 105 – 105 434 560 360 1
LCMF1 140 105 105 – 437 541 360 0
LCMF1-H 140 105 105 – 428 529 356 1
LCMF2 105 105 140 – 434 538 361 0
LCMF2-H 105 105 140 – 425 527 354 1

The reaction rate of a strong pozzolanic ingredient
such as metakaolin is rather rapid. The compressive
strengths were enhanced in the mix designs of LCM1-
H and LCMF2-H with the inclusion of metakaolin. On
the other hand, slag or F type fly ash substitutes, which
are expected to be effective in later curing periods,
lead to a drop in strength, e.g. rather slow reaction rate
and latent hydraulic characteristics of slag [39] can be
pointed out.
The compressive strengths of fibrous series are
observed to be somewhat lower than non-fibrous ones.
30–60% reduction [8] is expected due to the degra-
dation in natural fibers, irrespective of fiber type and
medium of exposure compared to dry conditions.
Coarse LWAs which are first used in this study enable
moist curing (internal curing), and this condition may
make easier the natural degradation of fibers. The
strength reduction in LC-H may be attributed to the
voids due to the corrosion of hemp fibers and to the air
carried by hemp fiber during mixing as air pockets
which may form many weak cavities inside the FRC
[33, 40].
3.2 Bending test results
In this study, two different trends in P-D curves were
perceived for the flexural behavior of HRLWC. The
first stage in P-D curve is largely governed by the
matrix up to the peak load (Pp), and corresponding
mid-span deflection is Dp (Fig. 5). After an abrupt
drop in Pp, the fibers strongly start to crack bridging,
thus the adherence between fiber and matrix as well as
the amount and the orientation of fibers govern the
next phase. Herein, either P-D curve may abruptly
drop with or without a little slip as the sign of the
brittleness (Type I), or the prism may continue to carry
load possibly starting from DP lower load level and to
absorb energy via pull-out mechanism (Type II). The
main parameters in this stage are the ultimate deflec-
tion (Du), crack width (w), and energy dissipation
capacity (Eu) with their decisive roles in deformation
capability. Higher capacity of Eu than the energy
capacity (Ep) at first crack initiation is expected for a
ductile behavior. Those main characteristics in 7,
28 days and after aging were depicted in Table 4 with
averaged values and standard deviations, and shown in
Figs. 6 and 7. The flexural behavior of six HRLWC
series, crack formation in failure and optical micro-
scope images taken inside the crack on the bottom face
are presented in Table 5. In addition, further charac-
terization was accomplished with scanning electron
microscopy (SEM) images (Fig. 8) for LC-H, LCM2-
H, LCMF1-H, LCMF2-H. The experimental findings
from the Tables 4, 5 and Figs. 6, 7 and 8 are evaluated
below.
In reference specimens (LC, 100% cement, Vf-
= 0%) (Table 4), the load increment in Pp is 20%
from 7 to 28 days. That increment is only 9% for
fibrous reference specimen (LC-H, Vf = 1%), 17%
drop was observed after aging, and there is no flexural
Materials and Structures (2023) 56:59 Page 7 of 16 59

3000 LC 3000 LC-H

7d 7d
2500 2500 28d
28d Aging

Load (N)
2000 2000
Load (N)

1500 1500
1000 1000
500 500
0 0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
Deflection (mm) Deflection (mm)

3000 LCM1-H
7d
3000 LCM2-H
2500 28d 2500 7d
Aging 28d
2000 2000 Aging
Load (N)

Load (N)
1500 1500

1000 1000

500 500

0 0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
Deflection (mm) Deflection (mm)

3000 LCMF1-H 3000 LCMF2-H

7d 7d
2500 28d 2500 28d
Aging Aging
2000
Load (N)
Load (N)

2000
1500 1500

1000 1000
500 500
0 0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
Deflection (mm) Deflection (mm)

3000 LCMS-H
7d
2500 28d
Aging
2000
Load (N)

1500

1000

500

0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
Deflection (mm)

Fig. 6 Comparisons of load–deflection diagrams in 7, 28 days and after aging for the reference mixture and fibrous mixtures

performance after Pp (Du =Dp, Eu=Ep, no DP) similar to
LC series. In the same series (LC-H) although Du
increased 32% from 7 to 28 days, decreased to 40%
lower level after aging with 28% drop in Eu. This poor
performance can be correlated with the mineralization
of fibers and more voids due to CH attack. The brittle
behavior is evident from almost invisible cracks even
in 28 days (Table 5), and hydration deposits around
fiber as well as the disintegrated structure in SEM
image (Fig. 8c) after aging.
59 Page 8 of 16
In LCM-H series, replacement with MK by 20%
(LCM1-H) and 40% (LCM2-H), Pp is 30% and 11%
higher than LC-H samples in 28 days, respectively. In
spite of the fact that there is some improvement in
mechanical characteristics, Du and Eu values after
aging indicate 20%MK (LCM1-H) not to be sufficient
to mitigate the degradation in hemp fibers, the crack
width still is small (0.51 mm), there is no DP and no
sign of pull-out. Whereas, the samples with 40%MK
(LCM2-H) in 28 days significantly altered first stage
with sharp debonding drops. This substitute mostly
consuming CH dominates the pull-out performance
after aging by the highest increment in Du (5.6 times)
and Eu (9 times) compared with LC-H. That significant
improvement is also obvious from crack widening
(Tables 4, 5 and Fig. 7), 45 times (5.01 mm) in
28 days and 700 times (7.1 mm) after aging in LCM2-
H, intact fibers of 28-day and aged were given in
Fig. 8d, e.
In the current literature, the positive results on
degradation resistance of kraft pulp fibers are available
Fig. 7 a Ultimate deflections, Du b Ultimate energy absorption in curing periods, Eu c Decline from peak load, DP d Crack width in
mid-span, w
Materials and Structures (2023) 56:59
Fig. 8 VPA aggregates and hemp fibers in aged HRLWC c
samples
at the high ratios (90%) of slag (S) [6], not less. In this
study, the combined replacement of 30%S ? 30%MK
in LCMS-H series did not significantly represent
positive flexural performance, so this combination
seems not to be effective enough. Pp is smaller than
LC-H in 7, 28 days and after aging. w, Eu and Du
values in 28 days and after aging are quite similar to
LC-H, and the failure mode after aging is brittle
without noteworthy change in Du and Eu. Amorphous
silica and alumina for 30%S are lower than those of
metakaolin, and slag may react with portlandite in
later curing periods [41]. The rapid degradation
(micro-photo in Table 5) of hemp fibers due to CH
may not be prevented due to lower MK ratio and slow
reaction rate of slag. Meanwhile, no SEM images were
taken for LCMS-H as well as LCM1-H not having
proper metakaolin content.
Materials and Structures (2023) 56:59 Page 9 of 16 59

(a) Voids in pumice aggregates (left) and interface with CSH after fracture (right)

(b) LC-H (100%C) 28-day (c) LC-H (100%C) -aged

(d) LCM2-H (60%C+40%MK) 28-day (e) LCM2-H (60%C+40%MK) -aged

(f) LCMF1-H (40%C+30%MK+30%F)-aged (g) LCMF2-H (30%C+30%MK+40%F)-aged

59 Page 10 of 16
In LCMF1-H and LCMF2-H, F type fly ash was
also partially replaced with cement, 30%MK ? 30%
F, and 30%MK ? 40%F, respectively. With these
combinations, Eu increased 5.76 times (LCMF1-H)
and 3.1 times (LCMF2-H) of LC-H in 28 days. After
aging, similar ratios are 3.94 times (LCMF1-H) and
2.55 times (LCMF2-H) compared with LC-H. The
drops in Du are about 43% and 60% after aging,
respectively. LCMF1-H has better performance than
LCMF2-H considering Eu and Du. Even if the crack
appearances in LCMF1-H and LCMF2-H are greatly
indifferent (Table 5), a slight disintegration of hemp
fiber is observed in SEM image of LCMF2-H
(Fig. 8g).
3.3 Density and water absorption results
Prior to mixing process, the coarse pumice aggregates
are saturated with water, those aggregates are known
slowly to release the water inside the concrete during
the hydration process [42]. The water in the voids of
coarse LWA and the density of concrete gradually
decrease by evaporation of excess water. The density
and quantity of SCMs, and reactions in continuing
C-S–H gel formation as well as evaporating water
from concrete are other parameters affecting density.
Herein, only non-fibrous ones were considered due to
the negligible difference with the densities of the
fibrous specimens. 28-day air-dry densities, according
Fig. 9 Fresh and 28-day air-dry densities of non-fibrous samples and comparison with density of normal aggregate concrete
Materials and Structures (2023) 56:59
to EN 12,390–7 [35], are up to about 140 kg/m3 lower
than the fresh densities, they are 25–30% lighter than
normal-weight concrete (Fig. 9) with coarse limestone
aggregate (2400–2500 kg/m3) on 28-day basis. The
variation coefficients of densities are in the range of
2–2.9%.
Herein, it should be mentioned that the selection of
all the coarse LWA as natural VPA is often with the
aim of heat and sound insulation, and generally low
strengths (B 20 MPa) are under consideration.
Whereas, in this study, the compressive strengths
about 35 MPa (Vf = 0%) for 0.45 w/b ratio and total
cementitious materials of 350 kg/m3 are a result of
qualified VPA usage.
The water absorption measurements were carried
out in 28-day cubic fibrous (Vf = 1%) and non-fibrous
(Vf = 0%) samples. Two cubes for each series were
immersed in water, and dried in oven 24 h later (EN
12,390–7), and water absorption by weight were
presented in Fig. 10a. A linear variation (Eq. 1)
between the compressive strength and water absorp-
tion was achieved with high correlation (Fig. 10b) for
the same w/b ratio (0.45)
y ¼ 0:227x þ 12:07; R ¼ 0:966 ð1Þ
It is evident from Fig. 10 that the water absorption
is correlated not only with mixture design but also with
compressive strength level. In reality, the quantities of
cementitious materials and 0.45 ratio correspond to the
Materials and Structures (2023) 56:59
Fig. 10 a Water absorption ratios by weight according to SCMs and hemp content, b water absorption versus compressive strength
relationship for 28-day cubic samples
water absorption ratio of 2–2.5% in normal-weight
concrete. In this study, all the coarse aggregates are
LWA and about one-third cubic compressive strengths
compared with normal-weight concrete increased the
water absorption of reference samples (Vf = 0%)
about two times, but not much more. It is noted that
this issue is associated with the strong adherence
between LWA and cementitious materials depending
on continuing hydration with releasing water. On the
other hand, it is known from the current literature that
the fiber addition causes to higher water absorption
[43], herein, the lower compressive strengths than
reference ones also increased water absorption. It is
noteworthy that there is a lower difference in LCM2-
H, LCMF1-H and LCMF2-H series compared with the
reference samples (Vf = 0%). For two samples in each
series, the variation in water absorption is in the range
of 0.3–0.7%.
4 Concluding remarks
In this study, the physical, mechanical characteristics
and durability of HRLWC, in which coarse pumice
aggregates were incorporated, were investigated
experimentally. With the aim to mitigate the fiber
degradation, which is mostly observed in reference
samples (100%C), the most effective mixture design
through SCM ingredients was addressed. The follow-
ing conclusions are drawn from this study:
• First time in the current literature, the usability of
coarse LWA in cellulosic fiber reinforced concrete
was investigated. In this study, the compressive
Page 11 of 16 59
strengths up to about 35 MPa (Vf = 0%) and
30 MPa (Vf = 1%) regarding the total cementitious
materials of 350 kg/m3 and 0.45 w/b ratio are
actually a result of qualified VPA usage as well as
the well-known strong LWA aggregate-matrix
interface due to the natural internal curing.
• The drastic conditions of the humid environment
due to the gradual water release of LWA did not
lead a negative impact on HRLWC; 39% (LCM2-
H) and 133% (LCMF1-H) increment in Eu, 27%
(LCM2-H) and 44% increase (LCMF1-H) in Du
were observed from 7 to 28 days.
• The surface of the hemp fibers is observed to
maintain its intact form after hot-water aging test
which provokes the emergence of CH formation.
When the load–deflection curves under flexure,
SEM images, and crack formations are evaluated
together, the best performance was attained in
LCM2-H (60%C ? 40%MK), and the second one
was achieved in LCMF1-H (40%C ? 30%MK ?
30%F). Even if LCMF2-H (30%C ? 30%MK ?
40%F) has the minimum strength levels due to
decreasing cement quantity, a brittle behavior was
not observed.
• 30%S ? 30%MK substitute in LCMS-H nega-
tively affected the load–deflection curve, tough-
ness, and crack formations. The rapid degradation
of hemp fibers in alkaline environment could not
be prevented due to lower MK ratio and slow
reaction rate of slag. The accumulation of hydra-
tion products around hemp fiber leading to brittle
behavior was observed in optical microscope
images.
 59

Table 4 Flexural characteristics of non-fibrous and fibrous mixtures

Days LC LCM1 LCM2 LCMS LCMF1 LCMF2 LC LCM1 LCM2 LCMS LCMF1 LCMF2

Non-fibrous mixtures (Vf = 0%)

Page 12 of 16

Pp (N) 7 2352.2 2916.5 2095.9 1688.1 1657.2 1692.2 Dp, Du 0.33 0.25 0.20 0.26 0.47 0.29
(149) (321) (70) (75) (25) (60) (mm) (0.03) (0.02) (0.01) (0.03) (0.06) (0.05)
28 2814.1 3446.9 1914.9 2234.3 1996.8 2119.8 0.40 0.28 0.42 0.23 0.48 0.41
(134) (44) (176) (195) (201) (242) (0.05) (0.04) (0.05) (0.01) (0.06) (0.05)
rp 7 6.62 8.20 5.89 4.75 4.66 4.76 Ep, Eu 295.5 286.7 206.7 190.7 175.4 190.1
(MPa)* 28 7.91 9.69 5.38 6.28 5.62 5.96 (N.mm) 509.6 372.5 434.5 243.5 321.2 307.4
Days LC-H LCM1-H LCM2-H LCMS-H LCMF1- LCMF2- LC-H LCM1- LCM2- LCMS-H LCMF1- LCMF2-
H H H H H H

Fibrous mixtures (Vf = 1%)

Pp (N) 7 2099.9 1962.2 2027.8 1658.2 1482.4 1444.7 Dp (mm) 0.53 0.76 0.82 0.39 0.41 0.53
(150) (170) (280) (154) (157) (52) (0.07) (0.10) (0.12) (0.04) (0.05) (0.06)
28 2291.9 2982.0 2556.1 2255.9 2064.9 1680.9 0.70 1.15 1.04 0.47 0.26 0.43
(245) (119) (116) (96) (239) (145) (0.05) (0.15) (0.12) (0.06) (0.03) (0.06)
Aged 1915.8 2032.7 2486.3 1797.9 2100.2 1877.31 0.42 0.57 0.61 0.26 0.48 0.46
(220) (230) (249) (124) (116) (95) (0.04) (0.06) (0.07) (0.01) (0.05) (0.04)
rp (MPa) 7 5.91 5.52 5.70 4.66 4.17 4.07 Du (mm) 0.53 0.76 0.82 0.39 1.24 0.53
(0.07) (0.10) (0.12) (0.04) (0.14) (0.06)
28 6.45 8.39 7.19 6.34 5.81 4.73 0.70 1.15 1.04 0.63 1.79 1.80
(0.05) (0.15) (0.12) (0.07) (0.23) (0.21)
Aged 5.39 5.72 6.99 5.06 5.91 5.28 0.42 0.57 2.38 0.66 1.03 0.75
(0.04) (0.06) (0.3) (0.07) (0.12) (0.08)
Ep 7 372.1 541.5 758.7 267.5 270.9 289.6 Eu 372.1 541.5 758.7 267.5 1013.4 289.6
(N.mm) 28 410.4 1130.8 1055.5 324.9 246.6 220.5 (N.mm) 410.4 1130.8 1055.5 527.3 2364.7 1286.3
Aged 238.5 351.2 594.8 235.7 337.6 317.7 238.5 351.2 2159.7 642.1 940.1 609.3
DP (N) 28 – – – – 854.6 (82) 990.2 (54) w (mm) 0.11 0.42 5.01 0.13 4.02 2.04
(0.01) (0.05) (0.48) (0.001) (0.42) (0.23)
Aged – – 1396.5 841.9 (81) 1017.1 934.8 (49) 0.01 0.51 7.10 0.07 1.41 2.01
(114) (95) (0.001) (0.04) (0.43) (0.007) (0.16) (0.19)

*Peak stress rp ¼ 3Pp L=2bd 2 ; L = 120 mm, b = d = 40 mm

The values in parentheses are the standard deviations.
Materials and Structures (2023) 56:59
Materials and Structures (2023) 56:59 Page 13 of 16 59

Table 5 Crack patterns (front view) and optical microscope images (from the bottom) in failure, and load–deflection diagrams for
the fibrous mixtures

3000
LC-H 2700
28-day

2400

100% C 2100

Load (N)
1800
1500
1200 28d
900 Aging

600
300
Aging

0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
Deflection (mm)
28-day

3000
2700
2400
2100
LCM1-H 1800

Load (N)
1500
80% C, 1200 28d
Aging
20% MK 900
600
Aging

300
0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
Deflection (mm)

3000
28-day

2700
2400
2100
LCM2-H 1800
Load (N)

28d
1500
Aging
60% C, 1200

40% MK 900
600
Aging

300
0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
Deflection (mm)
28-day

2400
28d
2000 Aging

LCMS-H 1600
Load (N)

1200
40% C,
30% MK, 800

30% S 400
Aging

0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
Deflection (mm)
59 Page 14 of 16 Materials and Structures (2023) 56:59

Table 5 continued

28-day
2400
28d
2000 Aging

1600
LCMF1-H

Load (N)
1200
40% C, 800
30% MK,
30% F 400
Aging

0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
Deflection (mm)

2400
28-day

28d
2000
Aging

Load (N)
1600
LCMF2-H
1200
30% C,
800
30% MK,
40% F 400
Aging

0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
Deflection (mm)

• 40%MK (LCM2-H) or 30%MK ? 30%F alternative to petroleum-based fibers resisting to

(LCMF1-H) substitute may be the practical solu-
tions instead of chemical treatments or expensive
solutions such as silica fume.
• Water absorption of LC (100%C) with VPA
increased only about two times (4.3%) compared
with normal-aggregate concrete. The water
absorption levels of LCM2-H, LCMF1-H, and
LCMF2-H are different only 0.2–0.5% from non-
fibrous ones. Natural LWA usage, namely coarse
pumice, in HRLWC may play an important role for
sustainable design as well. 25–30% lesser densities
may also provide a positive impact on sound and
heat insulation.
• The HRLWC design with hemp fibers and pumice
aggregates may contribute to resist the shrinkage
cracks and to the lightweight design of steel/timber
composite decks as well as the possible usage in
semi-structural wall panels, plaster, alum, etc.
Hemp fibers may have the potential to be an
shrinkage cracks. It is noticed that the hemp fibers
have higher modulus of elasticity than synthetic
fibers, and the strain capacity similar to basalt and
glass fibers.
• As future research, to study different binder
materials with different ratios and to optimize
those ingredients are considered for higher tough-
ness levels. To investigate the curing periods
beyond 28 days and the effects on the durability
of other aging conditions are planned. Another
issue is also to investigate sound insulation char-
acteristics, especially concerning the composite
decks in steel or timber structures.
Acknowledgements The experiments in this study were
carried out in R&D Dept. of NUH Beton Inc. Material,
employer and equipment support of the firm to this
experimental research are greatly appreciated. The authors
would like to thank to Soylu Group providing pumice aggregate
and Kaolin EAD providing metakaolin as well.
Materials and Structures (2023) 56:59
Declarations
Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no
conflict of interest.
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