• It is the removal of waste

products of metabolism and

substances which aren’t
needed by the body.
• It includes; 1) the waste
products of its chemical
reactions,2) Excess water and
ions taken in diet and 3)
unable to use hormones.
• Excretion also includes
removal of drugs or other
foreign substances taken into alimentary canal & absorbed by the blood.
• Various chemical reactions have products which are harmful and must be
removed from the body. For e.g.; the breakdown of glucose during
respiration produces carbon dioxide. It is carried away from the blood
and removed from the lungs.
• Excess amino acids are deaminated in the liver to form glycogen and
urea. The urea is removed from the tissues by blood and expelled in the
kidneys.
• Urea and uric acid are made from the breakdown of proteins, which
contain nitrogen. They’re also called nitrogenous waste products.
• The hormones build up in endocrine glands, affect various body systems.
• For e.g.; Adrenaline speeds up the heartbeat.
• When hormones have done their jobs, they are changed in the liver and
excreted in the kidneys.
• The nitrogenous waste products, excess ions and spent hormones are
excreted from the kidneys as a watery solution named urine.
 • Supply oxygen to the body
• Excretory organs as they get rid of carbon dioxide
• They lose a lot of water vapor; the loss is
unavoidable.

• Remove urea and other

nitrogenous waste
• They also excrete excess
water, ions, hormones and
drugs.

• Breaks down excess amino

acids and produces urea
A waste product which is produced by the liver in humans. Too much urea in
blood is toxic and is needed to be removed from the blood by the kidneys. The
kidneys also remove excess water and excess ions and produce urine.
The urine flows down the ureters and into the bladder where it is stored. When
the sphincter muscle at the entrance to the urethra relaxes, urine flows out
of the body through the urethra.

Urea is a waste product produced in the liver by the breakdown of excess

amino acids, Whereas Urine is a solution of urea and other waste material
from the kidneys and the bladder.

1) Protein in food is taken into the alimentary canal.

2) The protein molecules break down into amino acids during digestion
3) The amino acids are absorbed and taken into the blood and taken to
the liver through the hepatic portal vein.
4) Amino acids that are needed are made into proteins in the liver or
released into the blood to be assimilated by the body cells.
5) Amino acids which are not needed are deaminated to carbohydrate and
a nitrogen containing compound.
6) The carbohydrates are stored or used in the liver
7) The nitrogen containing compound is converted to urea.
 • 2 main parts; the cortex and
the medulla.
• The cortex is the tissue making
up the outer layer in a kidney
• The medulla is the tissue
making up the inner layers in a
kidney
• The kidney tissue is made up of
many capillaries called renal tubes.
• When the ureter joins the
kidney, the space is called the
pelvis.
• The renal artery divides into
many arterioles and capillaries,
mostly in the cortex. Each
arteriole leads to a glomerulus.
• Each glomerulus is surrounded
by cup shaped organ called a
A nephron renal capsule, which leads to a
coiled renal tube. This tubule, after a
series of coils and loops passes through
the medulla to open into the pelvis.
• A nephron is a single glomerulus with
its renal capsule, renal tubule and blood
capillaries.
• Kidneys are made up of thousands
of tiny tubes called nephrons. Each
nephron begins in the cortex, loops down
in the medulla then in to the cortex and
then the medulla again. The nephrons join
up with the ureter.
 • Filtration
The blood pressure in a glomerulus
causes part of the blood plasma to
leak through the capillary walls. The
blood cells and plasma proteins are
too big to pass out the capillary so
only plasma fluid does. The fluid
contains water, glucose, ions and
urea which is filtered out.
1. arterioles branch off the renal
artery and lead to each nephron,
where they form a knot of
capillaries (the glomerulus) sitting
inside the cup-shaped Bowman’s
capsule
2. The capillaries get narrower as
they get further into the glomerulus
which increases the pressure on the
blood moving through them (which is
already at high pressure because it
is coming directly from the renal
artery which is connected to the
aorta)
3. This eventually causes the
smaller molecules being carried in
the blood to be forced out of the capillaries and into the Bowman’s
capsule, where they form what is known as the filtrate
This process is known as ultrafiltration
The substances forced out of the capillaries are: glucose, water, urea,
salts
Some of these are useful and will be reabsorbed back into the blood
further down the nephron
 • Reabsorption
• BOWMAN’S CAPSULE/RENAL CAPSULE HAS
THE FILTRATE FROM THE GLOMERULUS AND IT
PASSES DOWN TO THE RENAL TUBULE/ LOOP OF
HENLE.
• glomerular filtrate enters the
Bowman’s Capsule, glucose is the first
substance to be reabsorbed at the
proximal (first) convoluted tubule
• This takes place by active transport
• The nephron is adapted for this by having many mitochondria to
provide energy for the active
transport of glucose
molecules
• Reabsorption of glucose
cannot take place anywhere
else in the nephron as the
gates that facilitate the
active transport of glucose
are only found in the
proximal convoluted tubule
• filtrate drips through the
Loop of Henle necessary salts
are reabsorbed back into the
blood by diffusion
• As salts are reabsorbed
back into the blood, water
follows by osmosis
• Water is also reabsorbed
from the collecting duct in
different amounts depending
on how much water the body
needs at that time
 o Urine formation
Ions not needed by the body are left to pass on down the kidney tubule,
with urea and uric acid. The nitrogenous waste products, excess ions and
water continue down the renal tube into the pelvis of the kidney.
From here, the fluid is now called urine and is passed down the ureter to
the bladder.
The urine cannot escape from the bladder as a band of circular muscle’
sphincter’ is contracted. This shut of the exit. When it relaxes, the
muscular walls of the bladder expel the urine through the walls of the
urethra.
Adults can control this sphincter muscle, while babies relax this muscle by
reflex action.
o People with diabetes cannot control their blood glucose levels and they are
often very high, meaning that not all of the glucose filtered out can be
reabsorbed into the blood in the proximal convoluted tubule
As there is nowhere else for the glucose to be reabsorbed, it continues in
the filtrate and ends up in urine
This is why one of the first tests a doctor may do to check if someone
is diabetic is to test their urine for the presence of glucose

Catabolism is the subcategory of metabolism, which breakdowns large or

complex molecules such as proteins, polysaccharides, and fats into small
molecules like amino acids, monosaccharides, and fatty acids. It is a
destructive state of metabolism.
Catabolic hormones
Adrenaline
Adrenaline is produced in the adrenal gland. It helps in acceleration of heart
rate and acts as the main element of the “fight-or-flight” response. It is also
known as epinephrine
Cortisol
Cortisol is also produced in the adrenal gland. This hormone is released during
anxiety, nervousness, etc. It increases blood sugar levels, blood pressure. It is
also known as the stress hormone.
Glucagon
Glucagon is produced in the pancreas. It helps in the breakdown of glycogen
into glucose. It is stored in the liver and stimulates the liver to release
glycogen when the body needs more energy for activities like fighting, exercise,
high level of stress.
Cytokines
Cytokines are produced and broken down in the body when amino acids are
reused for other functions in the body. It is a small protein that helps in the
communications between cells.

Anabolism is another subcategory of metabolism, which helps in the

construction of molecules from smaller units. It is the chemical process in
which nutrients are used in the formation of comparatively complex molecules
in the living cells with moderately simpler structures. This process includes
making components of cells such as proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, which
require energy in the form of ATP.
Anabolism is a buildup feature, whereas catabolism is a breakdown feature of
metabolism. It is also known as biosynthesis. Anabolism helps in the building of
macromolecules like proteins, nucleic acids, polysaccharides.
Anabolic Hormones
Testosterone
Testosterone is produced in the testes. It is present in males as well as
females. Due to the regulation of testosterone some male sexual
characteristics like facial hair, building muscle mass, voice, increase in bone
strength takes place.
Estrogen
Estrogen is produced in the ovaries. It is present in females as well as males.
Due to the regulation of estrogen some female sexual characteristics like
breast enhancement, growth of hips, increase in bone strength, the menstrual
cycle takes place.
Growth Hormones
Growth hormones are produced in pituitary glands. It regulates growth and
stimulates during the early stage of life. In a mature human it helps in
regulation of bone repair.
Insulin
Insulin is produced in the pancreas. it helps in the regulation of glucose and
the blood level. When a body fails in the production of insulin, this leads to
diabetes. If there is no insulin, the body cannot use glucose.