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Maximum Speed Misconceptions of Sprinting.7
Maximum Speed Misconceptions of Sprinting.7
Misconceptions of
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Sprinting
Todd D. Brown, BS1 and Jason D. Vescovi, PhD2
1
Extra Innings Baseball, Sarasota, Florida; and 2School of Kinesiology and Health Science, York University,
Toronto, Ontario
Copyright Ó National Strength and Conditioning Association Strength and Conditioning Journal | www.nsca-lift.org 37
Maximum Speed: Training With Science
elite track and field athletes train demonstrated that female soccer and for field sport athletes is at best mis-
specifically to reach top speed during lacrosse players do indeed reach top guided. Characteristics of linear sprint
the later portion of a race. This is speed somewhere between 20 and speed between these sports do indeed
not to say that a 100-m sprinter is 30 m, as evidenced by a lack of change differ, and it is these differences that
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consciously moving at submaximal in individual 9.1 m times after 27 m. must guide program prescription. This
speeds during the acceleration phase This is supportive of data that maximal is not to say that fundamental mechan-
(i.e., 0–30 m), but by examining when sprint speed occurred at 36 m in a group ics of sprinting should be ignored, but
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maximal speed occurs during various of college physical education students rather they should be included and can
racing distances, it is clear that highly (11). In addition, Coleman and Dupler be adapted to other sports as part of
successful individuals such as World (10) illustrated that half of the sprints proper motor development involving
and Olympic Champions, Maurice from home plate to first base over the acceleration, maximum speed, and
Greene and Asafa Powell, have com- course of a baseball season (approxi- multidirectional movement skills. For
pleted 50- to 60-m races faster than mately 1,300 sprints/season) were per- example, strength and conditioning
the 50- to 60-m splits in their formed at greater than 90% of maximal coaches working with field sport ath-
respective 100-m world record races sprint speed, highlighting the ability to letes should include sprints of varying
(World Open Indoor Track & Field reach near-maximum speed over 27 m. distances ranging between 15 and 35 m
Records, www.usatf.org/statistics/ Remarkably, even with this evidence, that mimic typical distances covered in
records/view.asp?division=world &; the authors concluded that baseball games and allow for the attainment of
location=indoor%20track%20%26% players should not apply common near-maximum or maximum speed,
20field&age=open&sport=TF). Ad- principles of speed development be- thereby providing a sufficient stimulus
ditionally, athletes reaching top speed cause players do not sprint 50–60 m in to improve linear sprint ability.
sooner, in a 100-m race, are less games, and therefore, top speed is rarely
successful in competition as a result of achieved (10). MISCONCEPTION 2: ANKLE
an inability to maintain those speeds Another distinction between athletics ACTIVITY CAUSES HORIZONTAL
over longer distances. Therefore, it is PROPULSION IN SPRINTING
and field sports is that sprinters begin
important for track and field sprinters to Sprinting requires coordination, stabil-
races from a static 4-point stance in the
build toward maximum sprint speed ity, and muscular power to successfully
blocks. In contrast, field sport athletes
later in the race (12). accomplish the cyclic motion of the
often initiate a sprint from a moving
legs to achieve maximum horizontal
On the other hand, field sport athletes start (e.g., walking or jogging). For
speed. The muscles responsible for hip,
sprint shorter distances (e.g., 10–30 m) instance, nearly 85% of sprints in high
knee, and ankle movements play
during practice and in competition, so school and college-age soccer begin
a specific role during the support phase
training specificity is drastically differ- while already moving, and the average
to efficiently propel the body forward.
ent compared with track and field distance covered is approximately
Unfortunately, key concepts have been
athletes and may alter the ability of 18–20 m (2). Delecluse et al. (11,12)
mistakenly reported to be involved
reaching higher speeds more quickly. reported that maximal speed from
with aiding in horizontal propulsion
Indeed, it is often stated that field sport a static start was reached at 36 m. It
and thus maximal sprint speed. For
athletes must rely more heavily on would therefore be logical to conclude
example, the gastrocnemius-soleus-
acceleration compared with top speed. that if the same individual was evalu-
achilles complex (GSAC) is considered
To the authors’ knowledge, no study ated over the same distance, then
to be a prime player in horizontal
has examined or compared the ability he/she would cover that distance in
propulsion by storing elastic energy to
to accelerate between track and field a shorter period through the achieve-
help project the body forward more
athletes and field sport athletes. In light ment of a higher speed sooner when
quickly while sprinting (25). It has also
of the lack of evidence, caution is beginning the sprint with a flying start.
often been recommended that athletes
warranted with the conclusion that Indeed, data from male rugby players actively dorsiflex (i.e., ‘‘toe up’’ posi-
acceleration supersedes maximum and female soccer players illustrate that tion) before ground contact and ac-
speed training for field sport athletes top speeds are achieved sooner (13) tively plantarflex later in the support
when no data are available to either and speeds from consecutive 9.1-m phase to help maximize horizontal
support or refute this claim. splits over 36.6 m increase by approx- propulsion (7,8). These statements
The second misconception is that imately 30% when using a flying start may lead to erroneous conclusions
participation in a field sport requires compared with a static start (31). that the stretch shortening cycle of
performing only short sprints, and Taken together, these findings indicate the ankle joint during the early support
therefore, top speed cannot be attained that applying the dynamics of acceler- phase, in addition to active plantar-
because an athlete needs greater dis- ation and achievement of maximal flexion during the late support phase,
tances (i.e., 50–60 m) to reach maxi- sprint speed from track and field contributes considerably to horizontal
mum speed (24). Vescovi et al. (31) sprinters to develop a training regimen propulsion during linear sprinting.
the contribution of the GSAC during the early support phase is primarily 2 segments: the flight phase and the
sprinting; which is to help minimize responsible for preventing negative support phase. The support phase is
vertical displacement of the center of vertical displacement of the center of when the foot is in contact with the
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mass and provide joint stiffness, which mass. A sprinter with greater negative ground, whereas the flight phase
assists in power transfer from hip vertical displacement will remain on occurs from toe off to the beginning
extension into the ground. the ground longer and require more of the following support phase of the
effort to reverse the position, thus contralateral leg. It is important to
Mann and Sprague (19) examined the
resulting in a decrement in perfor- generate substantial horizontal power
muscle actions of the hip, knee, and
mance. Second, and more importantly, during the support phase and recover
ankle joints of highly skilled sprinters.
concentric activity of the GSAC is the leg quickly during the flight phase;
They observed that posterior muscle
balanced, negligible, or nonexistent thus, both phases are important for
dominance of the ankle joint was
during the later portion of the support maximal linear sprint speed. It is
highlighted by eccentric action early
phase (9,18,19), and if GSAC activity beyond the scope of this article to
and fading concentric action late
was increased, it would be safe to provide a detailed discussion of sprint
during the support phase. Corrobora-
tion for these findings has been pro- conclude that greater vertical displace- mechanics and the influence on sprint
vided by several other groups of ment, not horizontal propulsion, would speed. Instead the intent of this section
researchers who reported that as the be elicited. Greater vertical displace- is to focus on describing the evidence
support phase progresses, the muscle ment would in turn negatively alter the surrounding what makes one individ-
activity of the gastrocnemius begins to sinusoidal path of the body or poten- ual sprint faster than another when
subside and may even cease before tially initiate a longer flight phase. The specifically concerned with the contri-
toe-off (9,17). It has also been revealed additional elapsed time would appear bution of the 2 cycle phases.
that hip extensor (gluteus and ham- to be disadvantageous for maximal One side of the debate favors leg
strings) dominance continues through sprinting speed (35). Therefore, Mann recovery as the essential element to
initial ground contact and into the mid (21) has repeatedly concluded that faster sprinting ability. This concept is
support phase to minimize braking horizontal propulsion from the GSAC believed to allow an individual to
but acts primarily to pull the body does not truly exist and has been position himself/herself more quickly
forward—findings that were subse- overstated in the literature (20). for the next stride. In other words, by
quently supported (35). It is important to keep in mind that the increasing the speed of the leg move-
Ensuing work by Mann et al. (21) fundamental objective of sprint training ment during the flight phase, the rate of
compared muscle activation patterns is to achieve reflexive ground contact, overall horizontal displacement is
among jogging, running, and sprint- with a period of brief force application improved because the next ground
ing. Again, there was a rapid eccentric early during the ground support while contact can occur sooner. Although
action of the posterior muscles of the limiting the range of motion at the ankle. this hypothesis has been developed
ankle followed by plantarflexion dur- There does not seem to be conflicting over many years by accumulating
ing the support phase; however, views in the scientific data regarding the anecdotal coaching experience with
the amount of plantarflexion that contribution of the GSAC to sprinting, elite sprinters, studies providing sup-
occurred during the time of gastroc- but the available evidence often contrasts portive evidence that an increase in
nemius activity was only 6° out of 33° with what has become popularized in stride frequency results in greater
of motion. Considering that the push- some speed development programs, sprinting ability have been limited to
off during ground support lasts only such as the emphasis on active plantar- animal models (14–16). It has also been
0.06 seconds (4,18), there is little time flexion as the hips pass over the foot to shown that the duration of the flight
for such a small amount of muscle push the body forward (8). Instead, phase in humans remains consistent
activity over such a small range of strength and conditioning coaches across a wide range of speeds (20,33,36)
motion to contribute substantially to teaching sprint technique should not and is reliant upon the duration of
horizontal propulsion during linear overemphasize the ankle activity for vertical displacement of the center of
sprinting. On the other hand, the horizontal propulsion but direct the mass. Indeed, repositioning the limbs
hamstrings are well suited, because of focus on the ability of the ankle to more quickly results in the reduction of
the favorable lever arm with regard to quickly absorb vertical forces. This can the impulse during the support phase,
the hip joint, to generate high levels of be accomplished by including vertical which is required to maximize sprint
force during this phase of the sprint jumping exercises that require rapid speeds, ultimately having an adverse
cycle (5). ground contact (e.g., skipping rope). effect on the overall performance (32).
Hence, the authors are not aware of any In a study by Weyand et al. (33), the revisited and revised, reflecting what is
evidence supporting the notion that swing time (duration of time between scientifically proven rather than anec-
a quick swing phase will result in faster toe-off and touch-down of the same dotally presented as absolute truth.
sprint time or that the swing phase can foot) and ground reaction forces were Current concepts regarding maximum
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be improved with training. measured while sprinting at maximal speed and subsequent methods for
Another concept thought to aid in speed on a level treadmill. Maximal training now require an altered view
faster leg recovery is the triple flexion sprint speed for the participants ranged of prevailing practices and should
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mechanism. This mechanism is a spinal between 6.2 to 11.1 m/s. It was strive to reflect available evidence
reflex consisting of flexion at the hip, reported that the faster individuals that demonstrate that (a) field sport
knee, and ankle in response to a painful were able to apply greater forces athletes can achieve maximum sprint
stimulation of the sole of the foot (i.e., during a shorter support phase, speed between 20 and 30 m, (b) the
an individual stepping on a nail) and is whereas the slower individuals applied GSAC provides a way to minimize the
a necessary component for gait reed- smaller ground forces with a longer vertical displacement rather than con-
ucation in patients who experience support phase (33). Interestingly, the tribute substantially to horizontal pro-
slowest subject in that study (top speed pulsion, and (c) increased forces
severe neurological damage such as
of 6.2 m/s) was able to reposition her generated during the support phase,
spinal trauma or cerebral palsy
leg as rapidly as the fastest 100-m male not quicker swing phase, is the un-
(3,23,30,34). Thus, its role in sprinting
sprinter in the world, although sprint- derlying mechanism for faster sprint
appears questionable. In fact, in a search
ing at only half the speed. So although ability. We encourage others to con-
of the literature, the authors found no
faster sprinters should possess a greater tinue searching the literature for addi-
published research that links the triple
ability to reposition their limbs more tional knowledge on this topic because
flexion mechanism to maximal linear
quickly compared with an average the views expressed here might also
sprinting, nor that it plays any role in
sprinter, this notion is currently not need to be revised one day.
athletics, suggesting that extreme skep-
supported in the scientific literature
ticism is warranted about its applica-
and should be viewed with caution. Todd D. Brown
bility to sport. In addition, the
considerable latency (tenths of a sec- Because of the constraints of swing is the director of
ond) in conjunction with the habitua- duration and support duration, Weyand Sports Science,
tion of the reflex, if repeated more than et al. (33) concluded that sprint speed is Extra Innings.
once every 10 seconds (26,27), indi- principally governed by the ability to
cates the unlikelihood of this reflex create greater muscular force to the
being able to enhance sprinting ability, ground and to minimize ground contact
nevertheless function as a trainable time, better using the stretch shortening
phenomenon. cycle during the transference of power
down and back up the kinetic chain.
Several studies have illustrated that
Therefore, to improve speed, athletes
faster individuals take considerably
should focus on training the ability to Jason D.
longer strides compared with slower
produce a high power output during Vescovi is
individuals (1,6). Similarly, the same
a short ground contact phase rather a research asso-
individual running at increasingly faster
than emphasizing a fast leg recovery ciate in the
speeds will show increasingly greater
during the flight phase. Strength and School of Kinesi-
stride lengths (36), yet in both circum-
conditioning coaches could include ology and Health
stances, the duration of the support
depth jumps (during appropriate peri- Science at the
phase is drastically reduced (;45–
ods of the training cycle) and use York University, an applied sport scientist
50%) (20). Therefore, propelling the
a contact mat to ensure that ground at the Canadian Sport Centre Ontario,
body over a greater distance while
time is minimized (e.g., 0.1–0.2 seconds) and the physiologist for the Canadian
spending less time on the ground while directing athletes to maximize Women’s National Field Hockey team.
would suggest that greater horizontal jump height.
force/power is generated during the
120–200 milliseconds of the support CONCLUSION REFERENCES
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the duration of the flight phase. This alike continually seek best practices 2. Balsom P. Evaluation of Physical
suggests that the alteration in stride to help them improve the performance Performance in Football (Soccer). London,
rate is mostly attributable to the of their athletes. Over time, sufficient United Kingdom: Blackwell Scientific,
change in support phase duration. proof allows for prevailing dogma to be 44–49, 1994.
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