DACTYLOSCOPY (SCIENCE OF FINGERPRINTS)

(from the book “Dactyloscopy: A Textbook on Personal Identification” by Dr. Jezreel Vicente)

Name of Student :
Schedule/Room :
College Instructor :

PERSONALITIES & HISTORY

Emperor Te’in Shi (BC 246-210)

The first Chinese ruler who devised a seal carved from white jade.
Hua Chi = fingerprint.
Lo = arches and whorls
Ki = Loops.

For the Chinese, loops are look upon as presages of good luck.

Aztecs
The tribe in Mexico that has tradition of printing their palm in mud to be placed in
their tombs.

David Hepburn (1895)

a. Published a paper entitled:
b. “The papillary ridges on the hands and feet of monkeys and men” when he
was connected with the University of Edinburgh in Scotland.

Murder in the Tea Garden of Eden (India)

a. A man was killed with his throat cut in the Tea Garden of Eden in 1897.

b. The suspect was the ex-servant of the deceased.

Police Officer Edward Richard Henry

a. He eventually found a book with two bloodstain prints which were preserved and
examined led to his conviction (Vinluan & Mendoza, 2006 p. 7).

Dr. Nehemiah Grew (1641-1712)

a. Published a report on Ridges and Pores before the Royal Society of London
in 1684.
b. Published a thesis entitled “Philosophical Transaction” that examined ridges
and pores found on epidermal skin.

Govard (Govert) Bidloo (1685)

a. He described the arrangement of skin ridges, pores on thumbs. His
thesis was entitled “Anatomia Humani Corporis” (Anatomy of Humane
Bodies).

Hintze (1751)
A German who made several writings about Ridge Formations.

Bernhardus Albinus (1764)

a. Another German Physician who made study similar with those conducted
by Hintze.
b. His study was on ridge formations and characteristics of pores.
 Dr. Marcello Malpighi (1628-1694)
a. An Italian professor who studied his observations on skin, pores and ridges
in 1856.
b. The “Grandfather of fingerprints.”
c. Published a book entitled “De Externo Tactus Organo.”
d. He gave the terms “loops and spirals”.
e. He named a skin layer “Malpighian Layer.”

The Londonderry Agreement (1691)

This traditional law created in 1691 in London, England.

a. It requires both party to impress their thumb prints on a document

that contains the agreement and conditions.

Thomas Bewick (1753-1828)

a. A Finest engraver who made fingerprints stamps in England.

b. An author of books. Two of his books contain the phrase- “Thomas

Bewick, His Mark” with his fingerprints engraved.

Dr. J.C.A. Mayer (1788)

a. A German who authored a book entitled “Anatomische Kupfertafein
Nebst Dazu Gehorigen.”

b. Strengthened the “Principle of Individuality”

c. He said “There are no two fingerprints of different individuals that are

exactly the same.”
Herman Welcker
a. He recorded his palm print in 1856.
b. He again recorded again his palm print in 1897.
c. Then he made observation on the two prints (41 yrs apart)
d. He strengthened the “Principle of Permanency”

Johannes Evangelista Purkinje (1787-1869)

a. A Czechoslovakian professor of the University of Breslau, Germany, known
as the Father of Dactyloscopy

b. The title of thesis was Commentatio de examine physiologico organi visus

et systematis cutanei” (A commentary of the physiological examination of the
organs of visions and the cutaneous system). Published on December 22, 1823.

c. In this thesis, he named 9 fingerprint patterns and laid down classification rules.

William James Herschel (1833-1917)

a. The Chief Administrator - Hoogly District of Bengal, India.

b. He required the laborers (mostly Indians) to be fingerprinted/palmprinted

inorder to prevent impersonations.

c. In 1916, he published his 41-page book entitled “The Origin of Fingerprinting.”

Dr. Henry Faulds (1843-1930)

a. A Surgeon-Superintendent of Tsukiji Hospital in Tokyo, Japan.

b. He made series of writings about fingerprints in 1877. One of his articles was
“On the skin furrows of the hand.”

Edward Foster (1863-1956)

c. A Canadian constable of the Dominion Police who attended the World’s Fair
to guard a display of gold.

d. He suggested that fingerprint system would be more effective than

Bertillon System.
FIRST CONVICTION IN U.S.A.

People vs Jennings

a. In 1911 the Illinois Police Department arrested a man named Thomas

Jennings for murder.

b. The evidence against Jennings was slim except for fingerprint evidence.

c. The prosecution wanted to ensure the fingerprint evidence would be

admitted before the Illinois Supreme Court.

FIRST CONVICTION IN CANADA

People vs. Caracath & Parachique

a. It was Edward Foster who gave expert opinion to the first conviction in
Canada based on fingerprint evidence which took place in 1914.

b. The fingerprints from the scene matched with suspects: Peter Caracath
and Gregory Parachique who broke into the CPR Station in Petawawa,
Ontario.

c. They left fingerprints on glass at the point of entry that was used for
their identification.

THOMAS TAYLOR (1877)

a. Is a Microscopist of the Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC.

b. He made a formal letter to the Washington Police Department and

suggested that crime can be resolved with the latent prints from the crime
scene.

Isaiah West Taber (1880)

a. A photographer in San Francisco.

b. He suggested that fingerprinting should be adopted for the registration

of Chinese immigrant laborers in Northern America.

Alphonse Bertillon (1882)

a. A French Criminologist and Clerk of Prefecture of Police at Paris, France.

b. The Father of Personal Identification.

c. He founded Bertillon System (1879), also known as

 Anthropometry,
 Antropoligical Signalment,
 Bertlillonage, or
 Signalement Antropometrique

d. Historically, the Bertillon System was questioned due to the famous “West Case”.
e. This is all about two persons - Will West (committed a crime) and William
West (jailed).
f. These identical twins have the same face, height, body built and color of skin
that a mistake of identity was committed using the Bertillon System.
Belper Committee (1900)
 a. Created by Lord Belper to investigate Bertillon System’s mistakes in
identifying suspects (West Case).

b. Decided to adopt Henry System.

Edward Richard Henry

a. He was appointed by the committee as Assistant Commissioner of London
Metropolitan Police.

Gilbert Thompson (1882)

a. A Geologist of United States Geologic Survey Camp.

b. Beginning in 1882, he used his Thumbprints to attest the genuiness of the

camp orders issued by him for the expeditions to New Mexico and states of US.

c. He also put his thumbprint on receipts issued by him. The first receipt which
was marked with his thumbprints was in the amount of 75 dollars.

Arthur Kollman (1883)

a. One of the first researchers to address the formation of friction ridges in embryos.

Francis Galton (1822-1911)

a. A British Anthropologist who was engaged in biological studies with the aid of
the works of William J. Herschel.

b. In 1892, wrote his first book entitled “Fingerprints.”

c. Named groups of patterns: Arches; Whorls & Loops

Juan Vucetich (1891-1892)

a. An Argentine Fingerprint Pioneer and a police officer of Argentina who
devised the Vucetich System.

b. Vucetich System is mostly used at the Spanish – speaking countries of

Central and South America.

Samuel L. Clemens (a.k.a Mark Twain,1894)

 An American author and lecturer, who wrote the:

1. Pudd’n Head Wilson – in this novel story, bloody fingerprint was found in the
murder weapon in the crime scene. In order to identify the suspect, the
Defense attorney let the whole town fingerprinted.

2. Life on the Mississippi – fingerprint was used in the resolution of a

murder case.

Edward Richard Henry (1859-1931)

a. The successor of Sir Herschel and Galton.

b. In 1900 he published his book entitled “Classification and Uses of Fingerprint”.

c. Because of his contributions to police service and his persistence in devising a

workable system of classification, he became the Father of Modern
Fingerprint.

Khan Bahadur Azizul Haque & Rai Hem Chandra Bose (1897)
 a. The Indian fingerprint experts who helped ERH in coming up with Henry System.

b. The system became a success with the assistance of Certain

Mathematics Professor at Presidency College in Calcutta, India.

c. June 12, 1897 – India adopted Henry System for identification of Suspects
and criminals as well as classification of prints.

Dr. Henry P. DeForrest (1902)

a. Chief, New York Civil Service Commission (NY-CSC)

b. Installed a fingerprint system in the Civil Service Commission.

c. Note: Later adopted by the Philippine CSC in the 20th Century to

stop impersonation of taking CSC Examinations.

Capt. James I. Parke (1903)

a. He installed a fingerprint system in the New York State Prison (Albany,
New York).

Sgt. John Kenneth Perrier (1904)

a. A Scotland Yard Police who was assigned to guard the British Crown Jewels
during the World Fair Exposition/Exhibit. He was a student of Henry and later
became Instructor at St. Louis Police Department (Missouri, USA).

Maj. R. Mccloughry (1904)

a. He was the Warden of the Federal Penitentiary of Leavenworth when the
Office of the Attorney General of the US granted permission to establish a
Fingerprint Bureau on Nov. 2, 1904.

Inez Whipple (1871-1929)

He published a paper “The vential surface of the mammalian chiridium with
special reference to the conditions found in man.”

Frederick A. Brayle (1910)

One of the earliest authors of First American books on fingerprints published in
Boston by the Worcester Press, Inc. in 1910.

Dr. Edmond Locard (1912)

The Father of Poroscopy. He gave the terms Loops and Spirals who examined
pores in detail.
Sgt. David R. Ashbaugh (1993)
a. 1,611 = on smaller fingers
b. 2,658 = on the larger fingers

Robert D. Oslen Sr. (1978)

a. Papillary skin contains an average of
b. 2,700 = Pores per Square Inch.

Insp. Harry H. Caldwell (1915)

Member of California Police Department, Bureau of Identification.
He wrote request letters to the "Criminal Identification Operators" in August 1915,
to form an organization of detectives and to further the Identification profession.
Institute of Applied Science (June 16, 1916)
One of the pioneer schools in USA that offers Dactyloscopy. Located in Illinois.
Fingerprint and Identification Magazine (1919)
a. is a monthly published magazine in United States that is devoted exclusively
for fingerprint science that started in 1919.

Harry J. Myers II (1925)

Installed a fingerprint system at Jewish Maternity Hospital (Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania, USA).
Mary K. Holland
She was recognized as the First American Instructor in Dactyloscopy.

Salil Kumar Chatterjee (1963)

a. A fingerprint scientist of Calcutta, India who devised his own
fingerprint system.

b. His published work was a result of his study of the edge and shapes of ridges.

Harris Hawthorne Wilder

An American scientist who discovered that ridges first emerge in the fetus.

Harold Cummins (1893-1976)

a. A professor of Anatomy of the School of Medicine at Tulane
University, Luisiana who studied Dermatoglyphics.

b. Co-authored a book with Charles Midloo entitled “Fingerprint, Palms

and Soles: An Introduction to Dermatoglyphics”

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF FINGERPRINT IN THE PHILIPPINES

Year 1900
The use of fingerprints in the Philippines started in the country by the Americans.

Mr. Garry Jones

An American who became the first instructor of fingerprints in the Philippines in
1900.

Generoso Reyes
The first Filipino fingerprint technician employed by the PC, now PNP.

Isabela Bernales
The first Filipina Fingerprint Technician.

Republic Act No. 409

Created the Criminal Records and Identification Division (CRID) under the Manila
Police Department (MPD) (now WPD) in 1900.

Commonwealth Act No. 181

Created the Division of Investigation (D.I.) that authorized the use of the
Fingerprint Identification System on Nov. 13, 1936.

Lt. Asa N. Darby

The OIC of the Fingerprint Section of D.I. during the pre-occupation of the
Americans in the Philippines.
Republic Act No. 157
a. This law abolished the D.I. on June 19, 1947
b. At the same time, it created B.I.

Executive Order No. 94

This law renamed B.I. to NBI on Oct. 4, 1947.

Thus, the Evolution of NBI is summarized as:

a. Division of Investigation
b. Bureau of Investigation
c. National Bureau of Investigation

Capt. Thomas Dugan (of NYPD) and Flaviano C. Guererro (Filipino member of FBI)
They have helped the NBI establish their fingerprint files, conducted trainings
among NBI personnel and assisted in its first operations.

Reorganization Act No. 1407

Created the Bureau of Prisons (now BuCor) on Nov. 1, 1905. At that time, the
Bertillon System of identification was in use.

Year 1910 – the Bureau of Prisons started the use of the Fingerprint System.

Lt. George M. Wolfe

a. First Director, Bureau of Prisons (1909-1910).
b. He taught fingerprints to Generoso La Torre.

Generoso La Torre
a. The first Chief of the Identification Section (CIS) of the Bureau of Prisons
from 1905 to 1920.
b. He started the use of fingerprint system.
c. In 1915, he went to I.A.S. for schooling on fingerprinting, there he met T.
Dickerson Cooke.

T. Dickerson Cooke
He is a fingerprint expert who founded the Institute of Applied Science in 1916, a
correspondence school that specialized in the study of fingerprints.

Plaridel Educational Institution (now, Philippine College of Criminology (PCCr)

The first criminology school owned by Bautista Family to offer BSCrim and teach
fingerprint in the Philippines in 1954.

Other schools that opened B.S.Crim. in 1960s:

1. University of Baguio (1967)
2. University of Mindanao
3. University of Cebu
4. Abad Santos College
 Early and Modern Methods of Personal Identification

A. Defining identification

Identification is defined as “the act of identifying, the state of being identified [or]
something that identifies one”. Founded in Europe the word identity became noticeable in
the English-speaking world around 1915 through Freud.

The preferred definition for identity is the “condition, character, or distinguishing

features of person or things effective as a means of identification”

B. Early identification techniques

Before the introduction of computer technology the various means of external

identification were greatly limited. The most commonly used method was relying on
one’s memory to identify the distinguishing features and characteristics of other
humans, such as their outward appearance or the sound of their voice. However,
relying solely on one’s memory had many pitfalls and thus other methods of identification
were introduced.

These included:

1. Marks, stamps, brands, cuts or imprints engraved directly onto the skin,
which were to be later collectively referred to as tattooing (Branding).

A tattoo is defined as “...permanent marks or designs made on the body by the

introduction of pigment through ruptures in the skin...”

Tattooing is considered by some to be the human’s first form of expression in

written form.

2. Anthropometry (Bertillonage) Introduced in France in 1883 by Alphonse

Bertillon. (Greek άνθρωπος, man, and μέτρον, measure, literally meaning measurement
of humans), in physical anthropology, refers to the measurement of the human individual
for the purposes of understanding human physical variation.

A chart from Bertillon's Identification anthropométrique (1893), demonstrating how to take

measurements for his identification system.
There were ten measurements:

1. Height
2. Stretch: Length of body from left shoulder to right middle finger when arm is raised
3. Bust: Length of torso from head to seat, taken when seated
4. Length of head: Crown to forehead
5. Width of head: Temple to temple
6. Length of right ear
7. Length of left foot
8. Length of left middle finger
9. Length of left cubit: Elbow to tip of middle finger
10. Width of cheeks

Anthropometrics was first used in the 19th and early 20th century in criminalistics, in
identifying criminals by facial characteristics.

C. Modern identification systems

Biometric identification systems can be grouped based on the main physical

characteristic that lends itself to biometric identification:

1. Fingerprint identification

Fingerprint ridges are formed in the womb; you have fingerprints by the fourth month
of fetal development. Once formed, fingerprint ridges are like a picture on the surface of a
balloon. As the person ages, the fingers get do get larger. However, the relationship
between the ridges stays the same.

2. Hand Geometry

Hand geometry is the measurement and comparison of the different physical

characteristics of the hand. Although hand geometry does not have the same degree of
permanence or individuality as some other characteristics, it is still a popular means of
biometric authentication.

3. Palm Vein Authentication

This system uses an infrared beam to penetrate the users hand as it is waved over
the system; the veins within the palm of the user are returned as black lines.

Palm vein authentication has a high level of authentication accuracy due to the
complexity of vein patterns of the palm. Because the palm vein patterns are internal to the
body, this would be a difficult system to counterfeit. Also, the system is contactless and
therefore hygienic for use in public areas.
4. Retina scan

A retina scan provides an analysis of the capillary blood vessels located in the back
of the eye; the pattern remains the same throughout life. A scan uses a low-intensity light to
take an image of the pattern formed by the blood vessels. Retina scans were first
suggested in the 1930's.

5. Iris scan

An iris scan provides an analysis of the rings, furrows and freckles in the colored
ring that surrounds the pupil of the eye. More than 200 points are used for comparison. Iris
scans were proposed in 1936, but it was not until the early 1990's that algorithms for iris
recognition were created (and patented). All current iris recognition systems use these
basic patents, held by Iridian Technologies.

6. Face recognition

Facial characteristics (the size and shape of facial characteristics, and their
relationship to each other). Although this method is the one that human beings have
always used with each other, it is not easy to automate it. Typically, this method uses
relative distances between common landmarks on the face to generate a unique
"faceprint. “

7. Signature

Although the way you sign your name does change over time, and can be
consciously changed to some extent, it provides a basic means of identification.

8. Voice analysis

The analysis of the pitch, tone, cadence and frequency of a person's voice.

9. ID system

Use of identification cards.

10. Forensic Serology

Serology – term used to describe a broad range of laboratory tests using reactions of
blood serum and body fluid. Serology is also defined as the study of blood serum, along
with saliva, semen and other bodily fluids. Forensic serology studies in relation to crimes
and other legal matters.

11. Forensic Odontology/Orthodontology (Dentistry)

 Forensic odontology is a branch of forensic medicine and, in the interests of

justice, deals with the proper examination, handling and presentation of dental
evidence in a court of law.

Forensic odontology is the study of dental applications in legal proceedings

12. DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid - the substance that gives the human chromosome its
shape.

DNA Fingerprinting, also known as Genetic Fingerprinting has recently come into
vogue as a means of establishing personal identification. DNA is the blueprint of the
body of every human being. It is used to establish personal identification in criminal
matters and court paternity suits.

DNA fingerprinting dates back to 1985 when it was first developed in England by Sir
Alec Jeffreys, and it has been considered the greatest achievement in forensic science
since the development of fingerprinting as a means of personal identification more than
one hundred years ago.
 DACTYLOSCOPY (SCIENCE OF FINGERPRINTS)

DEFINITION OF TERMS

1. FINGERPRINT – (also known as DACTYLOGRAM) is an impression, designed by

the ridges on the inside of the end joints of the fingers and thumbs on any smooth
surface through the media of ink, sweat or any reagents capable of producing
visibility.

2. DACTYLOSCOPY – the science that deals with the study of fingerprints as a means
of personal identification that involves manual comparison of fingerprints.

3. DACTYLOGRAPHY – the scientific study and analysis of fingerprints as a means

of identification.

4. DACTYLOMANCY –the study of fingerprints for the purpose of interpreting one’s

personality.

Origin of the word “dactyloscopy”

Derived from two Greek words:

1. Dactyl- means finger
2. Skopein - means to study or to examine.

RELATED SCIENCES OF FINGERPRINT

1. Chiroscopy – science of palm print identification. Derived from Greek words:

 Cheir - means “a hand” and
 Skopein - means “to examine.”

Pattern zones of palmprint:

1. Thenar zone – the base of the thumb.
2. Hypothenar zone – the base of the little finger.
3. Palmar zone – base of the four fingers.
4. Carpal delta zone – near the wrist.
5. Distal side – tip of fingers and thumbs
6. Proximal side – towards the wrist
7. Ulnar side – towards the little finger
8. Radial side – towards the thumb
2. Podoscopy – footprints and footwear identification. Derived from two Greek words:
 Podo - means “the foot” and
 Skopein - means “to examine.”

3. Poroscopy – study of the pore structure for the purpose of

identification. Derived from the Greek words:
 poros - means “a pore” and
 skopein - means “to examine.”
 The father of poroscopy is Dr. Edmond Locard

4. Edgeoscopy – The study of the edges and shapes of the ridges which includes
the study of:
 endings,
 puckering,
 bifurcations

5. Ridgeology – The study of ridges with the combination of:

 poroscopy;
 edgeoscopy; and
 ridge characteristics.
 Ridgeology was introduced by Sgt. David R. Ashbaugh (1946-present), a
book author entitled “Quantitative-Qualitative Friction Ridge Analysis: An
Introduction to Basic and Advanced Ridgeology.”

6. Dermatoglyphics – study of the lines, tracings, ridges of the skin of fingers,

palms and hands. Derived from the words:
 “derma” - means “skin” and
 “glyphein” - means “to study”

FINGERPRINTS IN OTHER SPECIES

1. Koala - is one of the few mammals, native in Australia that has fingerprints.

2. Monkeys - have fingerprints which are almost the same with human beings. It is
proven that fingerprints of monkeys are mistakenly identified as human fingerprint

FRICTION, EPIDERMAL OR PAPILLARY SKIN

1. It is an epidermal hairless skin on the ventral or lower surface of the hands and feet.

2. The strips of skin on the inside of the end joints of our fingers and thumbs by
which fingerprints are made.

 Friction Ridges are found on every Friction skin/epidermal skin/papillary skin.

 Minutiae are friction ridges which are considerably minute in sizes such as delta,
core, dot, short ridge, bifurcation, recurving ridges, etc
COMPONENTS OF THE FRICTION SKIN

1. Ridges – are hill like, elevated, appear as black lines with tiny white dots called
pores in an inked impression.
2. Furrows – canal-like, depressed portions found between the ridges which appear
white lines.
3. Pores (sometimes called islands) – are small opening found on skin and appear
white on plain impression.
4. Sweat Duct – is a long-host like structure that serves as the passage way for the
sweat.
5. Sweat Glands – produces sweat/perspiration.

DEVELOPMENT OF RIDGES

rd th
 During the 3 - 4 month ridges start to develop

 At about 6 months, ridges are expected to be fully developed

 Fingerprints remain constant until during the decomposition stage of the skin of
the corpse.
 Fingerprint size may change as a person physically grows.
 Ridge characteristics and pattern do not change.
PRINCIPLES OF FINGERPRINT SCIENCE

1. Principle of Permanency (Constancy/Persistency/Perennial, Immutable)

 States that fingerprints are unchanging or constant from birth until
the decomposition of the body of the person.

2. Principle of Individuality (Variation/Differences)

 There are no two fingerprints that are exactly alike,”
 Except if two fingerprints were taken from the same finger and the
same person.
 Two fingerprints maybe alike in its pattern or design but considering its minute
characteristics, they differ.
 Fingerprints of two persons can be similar but NOT Identical.

3. Principle of Infallibility (Reliability)

 Fingerprinting is one of the most reliable means of personal identification.
 Fingerprints cannot be forged, unlike signatures and handwritings.
 DNA Fingerprinting is only applied to high profile and celebrated cases. It is
also applied when fingerprinting is not applicable (ex: when corpse is burned).

PHALANGES OF FINGERS

1. Terminal phalange/phalanx – is the end joint / tip of fingers.

2. Middle phalange/phalanx – is the middle portion of fingers.

3. Proximal Phalange/phalanx – is the base of fingers.

LAYERS OF SKIN

1. Epidermal layer (Epidermis) – the outer layer.

Sub-layers:
a) Stratum Corneum – also known as corneus layer.
b) Stratum Mucosum – also known as transparent layer.
c) Stratum lucidum – also known as granucar layer.
d) Stratum granulosum – consists of 3-4 layers.
e) Stratum spinosum – also called Malpighian layer.
f) Stratum Basale – also called Generating Layer.

2. Dermal Papillae (Dermis) – the inner layer of the skin containing blood vessels,
arrector pili muscles, sebaceous glands (produce fats/oil), sweat glands (produce
sweat) and nerves. It is where the dermal papillae are found.

3. Subcutaneous layer (Hypodermis) – the innermost layer of skin that also

contains blood vessels, connective tissue, nerves and fat lobules (a rounded division or
projection of an organ or part in the body, especially in the lungs, brain, or liver).

LAYERS OF SKIN - SUMMARY

Outer Epidermal Epidermis

Inner Dermal Papillae Dermis

REASONS OF DESTRUCTION OF RIDGES

1. Manual works
2. Skin diseases (Warts)
3. Burns
4. Scars

Remember:
If Dermis and/or hypodermis is damaged, ridges maybe destroyed or deformed.

PERSONS WHO ATTEMPTED TO ERASE FINGERPRINTS

1. John Herbert Dillinger (1902-1934)

 An American criminal who attempted to erase his fingerprints with the use of
acid, committed crimes over a period of 13 months in 1933 and 1934.
 While in prison, Dillinger formed a gang, which included Baby face Nelson and
Pretty boy Floyd, both of whom were later killed in gun battles with law officers.
 He was the declared by the FBI as “Public enemy number one” in the United
States.

2. Roberts James Pitts

 He gained the fame as the “man without fingerprints” after knowing from an
inmate of a possible destruction of fingerprints.
 He is known by name Roscoe Pitts.
 Adermatoglyphia is a rare medical condition of a person with no ridges
on palms and feet.

3. Edmond Locard & Witkowsji

 Performed painful experiments on themselves by burning their fingertips with
boiling water and oil with hot metals to find out whether it can destroy the
ridges of a finger.
 Edmond Locard - father of Poroscopy.

CLASSES OF LATENT PRINTS

1. Visible prints - are impressions made by fingers smeared with colored

substance, such as blood, ink, grease, dirt or paint.
2. Semi-visible prints – are molded or plastic impressions. They are prints made in
plastic materials such as soap, melted candles, wax, tar, pitch, paraffin, putty, the
adhesive gun on envelopes and postage stamps, and the like.
3. Invisible prints (True Latent Prints)- are the most common type of chance
impressions.

FACTORS AFFECTING THE STABILITY OF LATENT PRINTS

1. Climate/Climatic Condition – windy, sunny and wet seasons affects the

stability of latent print.

2. Subject Factor – Sweat is acidic. High degree of acidity, the latent print stays
longer time. Low degree, latent print stays the lesser time.

3. Nature of the Surface – whether the surface is smooth or rough

NO. OF RIDGE DETAILS FOR A FINGERPRINT TO BE ACCEPTED AS EVIDENCE

There are no international rules or laws setting the required no. of similarities of latent
and suspect’s fingerprint. Other countries set points of similarities:
1. England = 16 similarities
2. United States = 12 similarities
3. European Countries = 15 similarities

What about in the Philippines?

1. Educational background – at least a graduate of a degree course.
2. Training – must have attended local or international trainings on dactyloscopy.
3. Experience – must have enough experience in the Fingerprint Section.
4. Proof of expertise to the field of specialization – includes being an author of
a book, speaker/facilitator of seminar/training.

 Opinion – the means, the result of the critical study and comparison by a
fingerprint examiner.

 Only the Judge – is authorized to declare whether a person is expert witness or

an ordinary witness.

CASES INVOLVING FINGERPRINTS AS EVIDENCE

People vs. Jennings (USA)

 The first authoritative case involving fingerprint as evidence in US which
was decided by the Illinois Court in 1911.
 Happened in Illinois, USA
 Complete name of accused is Thomas Jennings

People of the Philippines vs. Marciano Medina y Diokno (AKA Mariano Medina)
(G.R. No. L-38434 December 23, 1933)
 The counterpart of the Jennings’ case in USA. This is the first leading judicial
decision in the Philippine jurisprudence in the science of fingerprinting.

Summary of the Case:

 On February 12, 1932, at night, Mariano Medina breaks into and enters
through the window of the house of James C. Rockwell. Medina took several
personal properties of Rockwell. One of the properties taken by Medina is a
box, which was discovered in the vicinity of the scene of the crime.

 A Constabulary Officer named Agripine Ruiz, discovered a fingerprint in the

surface of the box which was compared to the fingerprints of the accused-
Medina. It was found out that the Right Middle Finger of Medina matched
with the latent print lifted from the silver box in 10 points. A case was filed
against the deendant and was later on convicted.
 The law of multiplicity of evidence
 States that the greater the number of similarities or dissimilarities the greater
the probability for the conclusion to be correct.
 The more similarities of ridges between the suspect’s print and latent print,
establishes a positive result.

The law of probability

 As claimed by Dr. Edmond Locard, if the world’s population will reach 64
billion, there will be two fingerprints of two different individuals that will be
identical.

The Locard’s exchange principle

 If two objects come into contact, it will leave a trace. Examples of trace

RIDGE CHARACTERISTICS

Type lines
1. The two outermost ridges which tend to surround the pattern area.
2. The basic boundaries of most fingerprint patterns.
3. The skeleton of each pattern.

Pattern Area

1. The area surrounded by the typelines.

2. The area of a loop or whorl which contains the ridge details.
3. It is the area inside the type lines and the only part of a fingerprint which is of
importance in regard to interpretation and classification.

Delta (also known as outer terminus and tri-radius)

1. Found at, in front an/or near the point of divergence.
2. The word delta is an old Greek word, and is the fourth letter of the Greek
alphabet.

evidence includes fingerprints, toolmarks, DNA profile on cigarette butts, etc

Point of Divergence (also known as Area of Divergence). The area where delta can be
found inside the two diverging ridges.

Diverging Ridges
 Are two ridges running side by side and suddenly separating, one ridge going
one way and the other ridge going another way.

Core (also known as inner terminus)

 The heart of the pattern.
 The approximate center of the pattern

Rod/ Bar
 A single ending ridge located inside the innermost sufficient recurve in a loop
pattern.

Recurving Ridges (also known as looping ridges)

 The ridges that curve back from which it started in the horizontal baseline.

Shoulders of a Loop
 The two points where the looping ridge start and ends its curve.

Sufficient Recurve
 Located at the top or closed end of a recurving ridge between the two
shoulders.

Furrows
 The depression or canals between the ridges which maybe compared with
the low area.
 Furrows are part of the skin surface that is not inked during recording of
fingerprints.

Bifurcating Ridge
 A single ridge which splits into two ridges, forming a Y shape structure. It is
referred to as a fork.

Trifurcating ridges
 is a friction ridge that divides into three friction ridges.

Opposed bifurcation
 are two bifurcations located at both ends of a single ridge.

Series of Bifurcations
 Appear in tandem or group
Spur or hook ridge
 A bifurcation with one short ridge branching off a longer ridge.

Converging ridge
 A ridge formation whose closed end is angular and serves as a point of
convergence, usually pointed and abrupt.

Puckering Ridge
 A kind of ridge that appears curly, irregular in appearance and growth ceases
at several ends.

Appendage or Abutment
 A short ridge that spoils the sufficiency of a recurve located at the top or
summit of a recurve usually at right angle.

Staple
 A single recurving ridge on the center of the pattern area. It can be located
along the looping ridges.

Crossover or Bridge ridge

 A ridge that connects at least two ridges. It must have crossed and connected
two ridges.

Spike
 Is also known as rod or bar that appears inside the innermost sufficient
recurve (Fingerprint Training Manual).

Fragment
 A ridge of extremely short in length not more than 3 millimeters.

Short ridge
 A ridge that is insufficient or limited in length other than the fragment.

Series of Short Ridges

 A group of short ridges found inside a pattern area. These ridges co u
ld appear also as broken short ridges between well-formed ridges.

Upthrust
 The ending of a ridge that rose sufficiently from the horizontal baseline.

Dot Ridge
 Any dot or point that can be observed inside a fingerprint pattern.

Series of dot ridges or Row of dots

 The group of dots as printed inside a pattern area.

Ridge Ending
 An abrupt end of any ridge formation.

Island, Lake, Eyelet

 Refers to a formation of ridge that forms a lake-like smaller in size than the
enclosure.

Enclosure
  A bifurcation which does not remain open but in the legs of the bifurcation,
after running alongside for a short distance, come together to form a
single ridge once more.

Envelop
 A single recurving ridge enclosing one or more bars, short or dot ridge.

Incipient Ridges / Nascent ridges

 NOT counted because they are only the result of dirts, dirty fingerprint
paraphernalia and other factors, found between two well formed
ridges.

Dissociated Ridges
 NOT counted. Appears like patches and has no no well defined pattern.

Creases
 They are caused mainly by minor surface damage, work and tear or
advanced of age.
Focal Points

Within the pattern areas of loops and whorls are enclosed the focal points which are
used to classify them. These points are called delta and core.

a. Delta or Outer Terminus/Triradial Point – Is a point on the first ridge formation

directly at or in front or nearest the center of the divergence of the type lines.
- The word delta is an old Greek word, and is the 4th letter of the Greek
alphabet.
-Originally refers to a “deposit of earth at the mouth of a river”.
It may be:
 a bifurcation
 an abrupt ending ridge
 a dot
 a short ridge
 a meeting of two ridges
 a point on the first recurving ridge located nearest to the center and in front of the
divergence of the type lines.

RULES IN LOCATING THE DELTA

When there is a choice between two or more possible deltas, the following rules govern:

RULE 1 – The delta may not be located at a bifurcation which does not open towards the
core.

The bifurcation at E is closer to the core than the bifurcation at D.

However, E is not immediately in front of the divergence of the type lines and it does not
open toward the core. A---A and B---B are the only possible type lines in this sketch and it
follows, therefore, that the bifurcation at D must be called the delta. The first ridge count
would be ridge C.

RULE 2. When there is a choice between a bifurcation and another type of delta equally
close to the point of divergence, the bifurcation is selected.

The dot, A, and the bifurcation are equally close to the

divergence of the type lines, but the bifurcation is selected as the delta. The ridges marked
“T” are the type lines.

RULE 3 – When there is a series of bifurcations opening towards the point of divergence of
the type lines, the bifurcation nearest to the core is chosen as the delta.
 Ridge A enters the pattern area and bifurcates at points X and
D. The bifurcation at D, which is the closer to the core, is the delta and conforms to the rule
for deltas. A---A and B---B are the type lines. A bifurcation which does not conform to the
definition should not be considered as a delta irrespective of its distance from the core.

RULE 4 – The delta may not be located in the middle of the ridge running between the type
lines toward the core but at the nearer end only.

The location of the delta in this case depends entirely upon the point
of origin of the ridge running between the type lines toward the core. If the ridge is entirely
within the pattern area, the delta is located at the end nearer the point of divergence of the
type lines.

RULE 5 – If the ridge enters the pattern area from a point below the divergence of the type
lines, the delta must be located at the end nearer to the core.

A---A and B---B are the type lines, with the dot as the delta. The
bifurcations cannot be considered as they do not open toward the core.

the dot cannot be the delta because line D cannot be considered as

the type line. It does not run parallel to type line A---A at any point. The same reason
prevents line E from being a type line. The end of ridge E is the only possible delta as it is
a point on the ridge nearest to the center of divergence of the type lines. The other type
line is, of course, B---B.

CORE (inner terminus)

  Located at the approximate center or heart of the pattern.

Explanation: When the core is referred as the center of heart of a pattern, it

does not mean that it is the exact central point of the fingerprint impression
because there are numerous ridge details outside of the type lines which are not
considered in pattern interpretation.

RULES IN LOCATING CORE

RULE 1 – If the innermost sufficient recurve does not contain any rod or bar, the core is
placed on the shoulder of the loop farther from the delta.

RULE 2 – If the innermost sufficient recurve contains odd number of rods/bars rising as
high as the shoulders, the core is placed upon the summit of the center rod, whether it
touches the looping ridges or not.

RULE 3 – If the innermost sufficient recurve contains even number of rods/bars rising as
high as the shoulders, the core is placed upon the summit of the farther one of the two
center rods.

RULE 4 – The core on the shoulder of the recurving ridge farther from the delta.

RIDGE COUNTING
Ridge Counting – is the process of counting the ridges that touch or cross an
imaginary line drawn between the core and the delta of a loop pattern.

Rules
1. In a loop fingerprint pattern, locate the delta and core.
2. Draw an imaginary line between the core and delta.
3. Count all ridges which touch or cross the imaginary line drawn between the core
and delta.
4. Incipient ridges, puckering, dissociated and creases are NOT counted.

5. Fragments and dot ridges are counted as ridges only if they appear as thick
as the surrounding ridges.
6. DO NOT include in your counting the delta and core.

RIDGES SUBJECT TO RIDGE COUNTING

(Depending on the travel of imaginary line)

1 RIDGE COUNT
1. Envelop
2. trifurcation

2 RIDGE COUNT
1. An island/lake/eye, and enclosure.
2. Criss-crossing of ridges
3. Bifurcation
4. Converging ridge

1 RIDGE COUNT
1. A short ridge, long ridge, dot ridge,
2. An abrupt ending of ridges is given one ridge count.
3. Ridge that bifurcates
 RIDGE TRACING

Ridge Tracing

The process of tracing the ridges intervening between the tracing ridge (flows
from the left delta to the right delta) and the right delta.

Rules in Ridge Tracing

1. In a whorl pattern, look for the left delta and trace towards the front of the right delta.
2. When the ridge being traced abruptly ends, drop to the next ridge just below the
original tracing ridge and continue the tracing until it reaches the point nearest to
the
right delta.
3. When the left delta is a dot, the same procedure in No. 1 shall be followed.
4. When the ridge that is being traced is a bifurcation, always follow the lower branch
until tracing is completed.
5. Determine whether the tracing ridge flows inside (above) or outside (below) the
right delta.

6. Draw and imaginary line between the tracing ridge (refers to the left delta that
was moved towards the right delta) and the right delta and count the intervening
ridge
that touch or cross it.
7. Exclude the tracing ridge and deltas when counting the intervening ridges.

TYPES OF WHORL TRACING

1. Inner whorl (I) – result is 3 or more ridge count above or inside the right delta.
2. Outer Whorl (O) - result is 3 or more ridge count below or outside the right delta.
3. Meeting whorl (M) – the ridge count is 0, 1, 2 either below or above the right delta.
 F I N G E R P R I N T P ATT E R N S

CATEGORIES /FAMILIES/ GENERAL PATTERN TYPES OF FINGERPRINTS:

 Family of loop – 60% frequency.
 Family of whorl - 35% frequency.
 Family of arch - 5% frequency.

LOOP PATTERNS FREQUENCY:

 Radial Loop – 6%.
 Ulnar Loop – 94%.

ARCH PATTERNS FREQUENCY:

 Plain Arch – 60%.
 Tented Arch – 40%.

WHORL PATTERNS FREQUENCY:

 Plain Whorl - 71%.
 Central Pocket Loop Whorl- 13%.
 Double Loop Whorl - 13%.
 Accidental Whorl - 3%.

ILLUSTRATIONS OF FINGERPRINT PATTERNS

Observe the following fingerprint patterns. Below are 10 fingerprint patterns. For
the purpose appreciating other appearance of patterns, there are two loops, and two
double loop whorl illustrated below. Under Henry Fingerprint System, there are 8
standard fingerprint pattern in which the Philippines has adapted.
DESCRIPTIONS OF THE FINGERPRINT PATTERNS

1. Plain arch (A)

This is a pattern in which the ridges enter on one side of the pattern then flow
toward the other side, with a rise at the center. The simplest of all pattens.

2. Tented arch (T)

a. This is a fingerprint pattern where majority of the ridges form an arch and one or
more ridges at the center shape a tent in outline giving an angle of 90 degrees
or less or one with an upward thrust having an angle of 45% or more, or a
pattern similar to a loop but lacking one or two of its essential elements.
b. Considered “Transitional Pattern.”

3. Radial Loop (R)

a. A fingerprint pattern that has a downward slope or slanting of the ridges

towards the direction of the thumb either to the right or left hand.

4. Ulnar Loop (U)

A fingerprint pattern where the direction of the ridges flows towards the little finger
side of either right or left hand. The term Ulnar came from the Greek term “Ulna”
which means little finger bone.

Requisites of a loop
1. It must have a delta;
2. It must have a core;
3. It must have a recurving ridge that passes between the core and delta; and
4. It must have ridge count of atleast one.

Other types of loop

1. Plain Loop – the ridges in this pattern make a backward turn

arranging themselves in the form of a hairpin or staple.

2. Converging Loops – the ridges of this pattern converge sharply to give

the pattern a possible whorl like appearance.
 3. Nutant Loop – the ridges of this pattern conform to the explanation of the
plain loop but additionally the looping ridges bent over and drops towards the
delta.

5. Plain Whorl (W)

A fingerprint pattern consisting of two deltas and in which at least one ridge makes
a turn through one complete circuit of 360 degrees.

Two Types of Plain Whorl:

1. Elongated or Oval whorl
2. Spiral or Circular whorl

Requisites of plain whorl:

1. It must have a complete circuit;
2. It must have atleast two deltas; and
3. Atleast one circuiting ridge is touched or crossed by an imaginary
line traversing the two deltas.

6. Central Pocket Loop Whorl (C)

a. This is a fingerprint pattern which possesses two deltas, with one or more
ridges forming a complete circuit which may be oval, spiral, circular, or any
variant of a circle.
b. Sometimes called a composite pattern. Means, there are two patterns in one,
a whorl inside loop.

Requisites of Central Pocket Loop Whorl

1. There must be atleast one recurving ridge that rises at right angle.
2. It must have atleast two deltas
3. There must be no whorl ridge that touches the imaginary line
drawn between the two deltas.

7. Double Loop Whorl (D)

 A fingerprint pattern consisting of two separate and distinct loop
formations with two sets of shoulders, and two deltas.
 Also called Composite Pattern.

Types of Double Loop Whorl

1. “S” type pattern – a double loop formation where ridges form two
loops forms letter “S”

2. Interlocking type pattern – a double loop pattern that are formed

opposite from each other with interlocking ridges.

3. Twinned loop type pattern – a double loop pattern that possesses two
well defined loops where ridges embraced each other.

Requisites of Double Loop Whorl

1. There must be two separate loop formations

2. There must be two separate and distinct sets of shoulders
3. There must be two or more cores and deltas.
 8. Accidental Whorl (X)

 This is a fingerprint pattern consisting of a combination of two

different patterns such as:
 A combination of a loop and any whorl
 But it cannot be the combination of an arch with any other pattern.

Related Terms

 Questionable Pattern – refers to fingerprint patterns that don’t coincide

with the description of the 8 standard patterns.

 Charred Pattern – is the pattern that is smudged and not clear.

SUMMARY OF TOPICS
 Categories of fingerprints are: Loops; Whorls; Arches
 Ulnar loop- towards the little finger side.
 Radial Loop – towards the thumb side.
 Plain arch – most simple of all patterns
 Tented arch – transitional pattern
 Composite patterns are: double loop whorl; central pocket loop whorl and accidental
whorl

RECORDING OF FINGERPRINTS
 In relation to Dactyloscopy, a normal person has 8 fingers & 2 thumbs.
  When there is the appearance of extra fingers of a person, the case is
anatomically known as Polydactylism.

 While the extra digits or fingers are called Supernumeraries.

“Properly and Improperly” recorded fingerprints

ITEMS THAT MAKE UP A FINGERPRINT KIT

1. Ink roller – spreads ink.
2. Ink slab – ¼ inch thick and 6 or more inches long.

3. Card holder – clips the fingerprint card.

4. Fingerprint ink – for fingerprint recording

5. Magnifying glass – used in examining developed latent prints. A 3-inch wide

reading glass is required.

kinds of magnifying glass:

a) Linen tester – has an opening one inch square, with fixed focus.
b) Bausch and Lomb magnifier – also known as “Horse shoe magnifier.”
c) Hand lens – used in examining developed print.

6. Fingerprint powder – are specially manufactured.

7. Fingerprint brushes – appear in various designs

8. Fingerprint lifting tapes – different sizes

9. Latent fingerprint transfer cards – strips of fingerprint card.

10. Fingerprint card – 8x8 card.

11. Flash light – a very useful device for searching prints.

12. Ruler or tape measure – measurements

13. Pair of forceps – used in picking up objects

14. Graph paper – used for sketching purposes to indicate proper locations
and measurements of objects in the crime scene.

15. Evidence identification tape or tag – used to properly identify objects or

physical evidence gathered from the crime scene.

16. Scissors – used in cutting fingerprint tapes and for other purposes.

17. Rubber gloves – used primarily to avoid the technician to leave his own
fingerprints in the object being collected or examined.

18. Post-mortem fingerprinting equipment – contains hypodermic syringe,

spoon, tissue builder solvent, tissue cleaner, etc.

19. Carrying case – a box-like structure or an attaché type.

20. Inkless inking device – a porelon pad, sensitized fingerprint cards that is used
to record fingerprints even without staining the fingers.

Materials needed in recording fingerprints:

a) Fingerprint ink
b) Fingerprint roller
c) Fingerprint slab
d) Fingerprint card
e) Fingerprint card holder
KINDS OF FINGERPRINT IMPRESSIONS

1. Rolled impression is one made by rolling an inked finger from one side of the
finger nail to the other.

2. Plain impression is one made by pressing an inked finger directly down upon
a fingerprint card without any rolling motion.

TYPES OF FINGERPRINT CARD

1. Criminal Fingerprint Card - used to record fingerprints of suspects and criminals.

2. Civilian Fingerprint Card - used in recording fingerprints of a civilian for

various purposes such as requirement for employment, clearance, etc..

PROCEDURE IN TAKING AND RECORDING FINGERPRINTS

1. Wash hands of subject with soap and water

2. The fingerprint card will be filled-out by the subject
3. Make sure that all needed materials are ready
4. Clean the needed materials
5. Ink and spread ink on the slab
6. Allow the ink on the plate to spin in the air
7. Test the amount of ink on the slab
8. Print the fingerprints of the subject
 Perspiring heavily? Use dry cloth and Alcohol
 Dry and hard? Apply Lotion and Massage
 Tell the subject not to help you.
9. Place the inked glass slab near the edge of the table, at extreme left.

10. Place the fingerprint card in the card holder, which is to the right of the inking
plate. The first row of five squares is properly aligned to the aperture of the card
holder lid.

11. Ink and print the ten fingers following the sequence presented in the table.

Manner of inking and printing:

 Thumbs - rolled towards the subject’s body (inward).

 Four other fingers - rolled away from the subject’(outward)

 The rolling of fingers should be done 180 degrees.

12. Print the 2 thumbs in the box provided below the fingerprint card (no rolling motion)

13. Print the 4 other fingers (the right and left index, middle, ring and little fingers)
simultaneously in the space provided below the fingerprint card (no rolling
motion).

14. Thank the subject

Temporary and Permanent Disability

QUALITY CHECKLIST OF RECORDED FINGERPRINTS

1. Is there a fingerprint impression in each finger block?

2. Were the fingerprints rolled fully, from nail to nail?
3. In every pattern, are the delta and core present?
4. Are the fingerprint impressions clear and distinct?
5. Are the fingerprint impressions uniform in tone and not too dark or light?
6. Are the rolled impressions in the correct finger blocks when compared to the
plain impressions below?

COMMON ERRORS IN RECORDING FINGERPRINTS

1. Use of insufficient or too much ink.

2. The materials were not cleaned before use

3. The prints were not rolled properly.

4. The “up and down portion” of the terminal phalange are not properly inked
and recorded.

IMPORTANCE OF FINGERPRINT
1. Issuance of passport
2. Conferring of educational degrees
3. Employment in various agencies
4. Bank Transactions
5. Examinations
6. Insurance Claims
7. Wills and Inheritance Claims
8. Lying-in hospitals and maternity homes
9. Monitoring and checking of attendance

SPECIAL CONDITIONS IN RECORDING FINGERPRINTS

1. Amputated (Amp) or Finger missing at birth (FMB)

Write “Amp” or FMB at the upper right corner of the block.

2. Bandaged Finger Due to Injury

Write “bandaged” on the plain impression NOT at the block.
3. Presence of scar
Write the word “ scarred” on the plain impression.

4. Presence of deformities on fingers

Make use of Spatula and Spoon in recording the prints.

5. Partly amputated
By all means, print the remaining, then write partly amputated on the plain
impression.

6. Two thumbs at the same hand

Ignore the outermost thumb and record the 5 fingers. At the back record the
prints of the outermost thumb and make a note.

7. Extra little finger at the same hand

Ignore the outermost little finger. Begin recording from the thumb. Record the
print of the outermost little finger at the back of the card and make a note.

8. Extra finger appear anywhere between any of the fingers

Record the prints of the fully-formed and normal fingers, but record also the print
of the extra finger which is NOT fully formed at the back of the card with notation.

9. A hand has six fully formed fingers.

Begin recording prints from the thumb, then record any left-over finger at the
back of the card.

10. Split thumb

Print it in the usual manner and make a note on the plain impression below.

11. Two or more normal fingers joined or webbed by thin membrane of skin

Right hand fingers are recorded in plain impressions.

Left hand fingers are recorded with great precautions.

12. Worn Fingerprints

 A technique known as "milking the fingers" can be used to raise the fingerprints
prior to fingerprinting.
 In a situation of dry, flaky fingers, simply add a small amount of hand lotion or
ridge builder prior to fingerprinting.
 The technique involves applying pressure or rubbing the fingers in a downward
motion from palm to fingertip.

13. Fingerprinting old-aged person

Remedies:
1. First, use just a little more ink.

2. Second, use a lighter pressure.

3. Hand lotion rubbed into the finger tips of aged persons is helpful.
14. Fingerprinting people suffering from arthritis and rheumatism

a. This situation presents problems because it is difficult, sometimes

impossible, to bend their fingers.

b. There is also a bone condition known as ankylosi in which the finger

joints cannot be bent.

c. The procedure in printing these special conditions is quite similar to

that employed for printing the dead person.

POSTMORTEM FINGERPRINTING
This is the process of recording the fingerprints of a dead person.

PROCEDURE IN TAKING THE FINGERPRINTS OF A DEAD PERSON

1. The ink is rolled on a glass slab, and then the slab is rolled around each of
the deceased’s extended fingers, instead of rolling the fingers on the slab.

2. The fingerprint card is then rolled around each of the inked fingers, making sure
that each digit is recorded in the correct square. The plain impressions are taken by
pressing the fingerprint card against the extended digits without any rolling.

3. Next, with a pair of scissors, a standard fingerprint card is cut up into pieces. Each
of the ten finger blocks is cut out, and also each of the three areas for plain prints,
one for the right hand plain fingerprints, one for those of the left hand, and one for
the two plain impressions of the thumbs.

4. If the finger blocks do not have printed numbers from 1 to 10 showing the sequence
of the fingers, it would be wise for the operator to number them himself so he will
not get the sequence of the rolled impressions mixed up.

5. Record other important information about the dead person.

PROBLEMS IN RECORDING FINGERPRINTS OF A CORPSE

1. The fingers are clenched (tight hold)

 Use finger strengtheners if possible before recording fingerprints.

2. The fingers are shriveled or shrunken

 With the use of hypodermic needle, the finger tips may be “blown up” with a
solution of 1 part hot gelatin and 7 parts glycerin can be injected.

3. The finger skin is shredding

 Ten clean small bottles with labels
 A quantity of formalin
 Fingerprint Classification

A. Definition of Terms (NBI Files)

Classification - is the method of obtaining a formula for a set of fingerprints whereby it

may be located in the filing cabinet.
Classification Formula - is the numerical description for a set of classified fingerprints
which is composed of figure and letters written above the horizontal line like a fraction.
Blocking - is the process of writing below each finger-print pattern the corresponding
symbols of its name.

B. Six Divisions of Classifications in Order According to their Importance (Henry-FBI

System)
Primary Classification
Secondary Classification
Sub-secondary classification
Major Division – Added by FBI
Key – Added by FBI
Final

C. Formation in classification line

Key Maj. Prim. Sec. Sub.Sec. Final
Div. Class. Class Class Class

1. Primary Classification
Primary classification is the sum total of all numerical values of whorls found in
fingerprint set expressed as the numerator and the denominator plus the pre- established
fraction of one over 1 (1/1).
 A numerical formula derived from the presence of any whorl pattern as they appear
on the fingers.

How to get the primary classification

1. Blocking or writing below each finger-print pattern the corresponding symbols of its
name.
2. By Pairing.
Right thumb and right index – 1st pair
Right middle finger and right ring finger - 2nd pair
Right little finger and left thumb – 3rd pair
Left index finger and left middle finger – 4 th pair
Left ring finger and left little finger – 5 th pair
3. By assigning numerical values to each pair.
1st pair – 16
2nd pair – 8
3rd pair – 4
4th pair – 2
5th pair – 1
Note: Only whorl pattern has numerical value.
Without numerical value: A, T, R, U
With numerical value: W, C, D, X
4. Knowing the numerators and denominators in the pairs
Note: Even Number- Numerator
Odd Number- Denominator
5. Summing up the numerical values of whorls assigned to the fingers plus the pre-
established fraction of 1/1
N= 16+8+4+2+1 = 31+1 = 32
D= 16+8+4+2+1 = 31+1 = 32
 Purpose of Fixed Count of One:
The purpose is to avoid a classification of zero over zero (0/0) in a set of
prints in which this might be mistaken for a letter “O” which has another specific
meaning in the classification.
Number of Possible Combination in Primary Classification
• There are 1,024 possible combinations for primary classification from 1/1 to 32/32.

• 1/1 – lowest primary classification

• 32/32 – highest primary classification

2. Secondary Classification
Secondary classification is the exhibition of Capital Letter symbols of plain arch,
tented arch, radial loop, ulnar loop, plain whorl, central-pocket loop, double loop whorl, and
accidental found in the index finger of both hands.
 An alpha expression derived from the pattern type of the index fingers.

The pattern appearing on the right index should be placed on the numerator and the
pattern appearing on the left index should be placed on the denominator.
There are twenty five (25) possible combinations which may appear in the index finger from
A/A to W/W without C, D, and X (Collins). There are 64 combinations for filing from A/A to
X/X. (Tubid). Example is illustrated below:
RI
LI
Steps:
1. Blocking
2. Put the capital letter symbol in the classification line. The capital letter symbol for the
right index finger should be placed as the numerator and the left index as denominator.

Secondary Classification (Small-letter group)

It is the exhibition of small letter symbols of arch (a), tented arch (t) and radial loop
(r) found before and after the index finger of both hands.
Prints with an arch or tented arch in any finger or a radial loop in any except the
index fingers constitute the small-letter group of the secondary classification. Such “small
letters,” with the exception of those appearing in the index fingers, are brought up into the
classification formula in their proper relative positions immediately adjacent to the index
fingers.

Steps:
1. Blocking
2. Look for Plain Arch, Tented Arch, and Radial Loop before and after the index finger and
placed the small letter symbol adjacent to the Capital Letter Symbol of the patterns in the
Index Fingers.

3. Sub- Secondary Classification

Sub-secondary classification is the exhibition of the resultant symbol for the ridge
counting in loops as expressed by symbol I and O and ridge tracing for whorl as expressed
by symbol IMO from the right index to the left ring finger excluding the thumbs and the little
fingers of both hands. Fingers to be considered are: index finger, middle finger, and ring
finger of both hands.
Loop Sub- Secondary by Ridge Counting

It is the exhibition of the resultant symbol for the ridge counting in loops as
expressed by symbol IO found from indexes, middles and ring fingers of both hands, the
ridges are counted and compound to the pre-established table to obtain the resultant
symbol IO. All loop sets of prints using the Index, Middle, and Ring fingers of both hands
has sixty four (64) combinations.

Index Fingers (R & L) Middle Fingers (R & L) Ring Fingers (R & L)

1-9 ridge counts = Inner (I) 1-10 ridge counts = Inner 1-13 ridge counts = Inner
10 & above = Outer (O) 11 & above = Outer 14 & above = Outer

Steps:
1. Locate the core and the delta.
2. Make an imaginary line connecting the core and the delta.
3. Count the number of ridges between the core and the delta passed through by the
imaginary line. Do not include in the counting the core and delta.
4. Put the corresponding symbol (I or O) in the classification line using the above table.
If there are 1-9 ridge counts for the both index finger then put Inner (I) in the
classification line. 10 and above ridge counts will have a corresponding symbol of
“O” which means Outer. 1-10 ridge counts for the middle fingers will be Inner (I), 11
and above is Outer (O). 1-13 ridge counts for ring fingers will be Inner and 14 and
above will be Outer.

Whorl Sub- Secondary by Ridge Tracing

When the whorl is found on the index, middle and ring fingers of both hands the
ridges are traced to obtain the resultant symbol IMO. There are seven hundred twenty nine
(729) possible Sub secondary combinations for whorl type patterns in the Index, Middle,
and Ring fingers of both hands.

Rules for whorl tracing:

Meeting (M) – 0 to 2 ridges from left delta to the right delta.
Outer (O) – 3 or more intervening ridges below or outside the right delta.
Inner (I) – 3 or more intervening ridges above/inside/infront the right delta.

Steps:
1. Blocking
2. Conduct ridge tracing
3. Put the resultant symbol in the classification line whether Meeting (M), Outer (O), or
Inner (I) following the above rules.

For Tented Arch and Plain Arch

If a Plain Arch or Tented arch are present on the index, middle, and ring fingers of
both hands, just put a dash (-) for the sub-secondary classification.

Combination of Loop, Whorl and Arch Patterns

If the patterns composed of loop, whorl and arch patterns, they must be treated
independently according to the rules applied for each pattern.

4. Major Division
It is the exhibition of the ridge counting in loops as expressed by symbol SML and
the ridge tracing for whorls as expressed by symbols IMO found on the thumbs of both
hands.
Three (3) Kinds of Major Division

1) Loop Major Division

When the loop is found on the thumb of both hands, the ridges are counted
and compared to the pre- established table of Whorl Major Division.

Denominator Numerator
Left thumb Right thumb

1- 11= S 1-11= S
12- 16= M 12- 16= M When the ridge count for left
17 and over = L 17 > = L thumb is 16 or less

1 – 17 = S This table will be used for right

18 – 22 = M thumb if the left thumb has ridge
23 > = L count of 17 or over

Left Thumb denominator Right thumb numerator

1 to 11, S (small) ------------------------------------ 1 to 11, Small

12 to 16, Medium
17 or more ridges, Large
12 to 16, M (medium)------------------------------- 1 to 11, Small
12 to 16, Medium
17 or more ridges, Large
17 or more ridges, L (Large)---------------------- 1 to 17, Small
18 to 22, Medium
23 or more ridges, Large

2) Whorl Major Division

When the whorl is found on the thumbs of both hands, the ridges are
traced to obtain the resultant symbol IMO. Same rules and steps applied in the
Sub-secondary Classification.

3) Combination of Loop and Whorl Major Division

When one of the thumbs is loop, the resultant symbol SML is used and when
the other thumb is whorl, the resultant symbol IMO is used.

For T and A just put dash in the classification line.

5. Final Classification

It is the ridge count of the loops and whorls found on the little fingers of both hands.
No ridge tracing conducted in this division as ridge counting is applied for both loop and
whorl. The ridge count for the right little finger is placed as numerator while ridge count for
left little finger is the denominator. Plain arch and tented arch are represented by dash in
classification formula.

 Final Classification is located or placed on the extreme right of the classification

line.
How to Ridge Count a Whorl:
 When a whorl is found on the right little finger, ridges are counted from left delta to
the core.

 When the whorl is found on the left little finger, ridges are counted from right delta to
the core.

 If there are two or more cores (usually applies to accidental whorls), the ridge count
is made from left delta (right hand) or right delta (left delta) to the core which is the
least number of ridges distant from that delta.

 An exception is made in the case of the double loop. The double loop is counted
from the delta to the core of the upright loop. Where loops of a double loop are
horizontal, the nearest core is used.

6. Key Classification

It is the ridge count of the first loop from the right thumb to the left ring finger
excluding little fingers which are never considered for the key as they are reserved for the
final. In the absence of loop, the ridge count of the first whorl will be utilized as the key
treated as ulnar loop. The rules in ridge counting for whorls in this division is the same with
the rules applied in the Final Classification.
 For T and A just put dash in the classification line.

 The Key Classification is placed on the extreme left of the classification line and is
always represented as numerator, no matter where it is taken.

D. Classification of Scarred Patterns – Amputations – Missing at Birth

1. Classification of Scarred Patterns

Emphasis should be placed upon the necessity for fully referencing all scarred
patterns. In connection with their proper classification, the following rules should be
observed:
 When an impression is so scarred that neither the general type of pattern nor the
ridge tracing or count can be determined with reasonable accuracy, the impression
should be given both the general type value and the sub-classification value of the
corresponding finger of the other hand.
 When an impression is partially scarred, i.e., large scars about the core so that the
general type cannot be determined with reasonable accuracy, but the ridges allow
reasonably accurate sub-classification by ridge tracing or counting, the impression
should be given the primary value of the pattern of the corresponding finger and the
sub-classification value as indicated by the ridges of partially scarred impressions.
 When an impression is partially scarred and the general type of pattern can be
determined with reasonable accuracy, but the ridges cannot be traced or counted so
as to fall within the proper sub-secondary classification, the impression should be
given the ridge count or tracing value of the corresponding finger of the other hand,
if the corresponding finger is of the same general type. If the corresponding finger is
not of the same general type, the scarred impression should be given the probable
value and referenced to all other possibilities.
 When an impression is so scarred that neither the general type of pattern nor the
ridge tracing or count can be determined with reasonable accuracy, and it so
 happens that the corresponding finger of the other hand is similarly scarred, both
patterns are given the arbitrary value of whorls with meeting tracings.

For example, the pattern is entirely obliterated. It could have been a small whorl, a
small ulnar or radial loop, an arch, or a tented arch. If the opposite finger were an arch or
tented arch or whorl, the obliterated impression would be classified as arch, tented arch, or
whorl (with the same tracing). If the opposite finger is a loop then the obliterated impression
will be classified as loop and would be given the count of the opposite finger. If the
opposite finger were scarred in the same fashion or were amputated or missing, both
impressions would be classified as whorls with meeting tracings.

2. Classification of Amputations and Fingers Missing At Birth

Rules:
 If one finger is amputated, it is given a classification identical with that of the
opposite finger, including pattern and ridge count or tracing.
 If two or more finger is amputated they are given classification identical with the
opposite fingers.
 If two amputated finger are opposite each other, both are given the classification of
whorls with meeting tracing.
 When fingerprint card bearing notation of fingers missing at birth is classified, the
missing fingers should be treated as amputations in that they are given the identical
classification of the opposite fingers.

3. Classification of bandaged or unprinted fingers

Rules:
 If fingers are injured to the extent that it is impossible to secure inked impressions by
special inking devices, the unprinted fingers are given classifications identical with
the classifications of the fingers opposite.
 If there are two lacking, opposite each other, they should be classified as whorls with
meeting tracings.
 If however, in the case of an injured finger, observation is made of the ridges of the
finger itself and indicated on the print, this classification should be, insofar as it is
possible, utilized.

E. Referencing
If there is any doubt as to which of two or more classifications should be assigned to
a given pattern, it is given the preferred classification and reference searches are
conducted in all other possible classifications.

Illustration:
FPC: 17 S 19 rW2t II- -
L 9 U2a OO- -
REF: 19 - 17 tW2t II- -
L 9 U2t OO- -
17 ridge 5 ridges I
counts above RD C T T
R ? T W

19 ridge 10 ridge O
counts counts 14 A A
U U C ? R
References:

Books

Collins, Clarence G. (2006), Fingerprint Science: How to Roll, Classify, File and
Use Fingerprints, USA: Thomson and Wadsworth.

Federal Bureau of Investigation. The Science of Fingerprints Classification and

Uses. United States Department of Justice.

James, Stuart H. & Jon J. Nordby (2005), Forensic Science: An Introduction to

Scientific and Investigative Techniques, 2nd Edition, USA: Taylor and Francis.

Solis, Pedro P. (1987), Legal Medicine, Quezon City, Philippines: R.P. Garcia
Publishing Co.

Tubid, Processo T. (1996), Dactyloscopy: Science of Fingerprint Classifications

and Identification, Quezon City, Philippines: Rex Printing Company, Inc.

Unpublished Materials

Depayso, Veneranda P (2007) “Handout in Personal Identification.”University of

Baguio.

Valdez, Gaudencio (2000), “Instructional Materials in Personal Identification”

University of Baguio.

National Bureau of Investigation compiled notes in fingerprint classification.

Electronic Sources

Michael, K. and Michael, M. G. (2006) The proliferation of identification

techniques for citizens throughout the ages. University of Wollongong Research
Online.http://ro.uow.edu.au/infopapers/388

http://explorehealthcareers.org/en/Career/126/Forensic_Odontology/eurl.axd/
e1e7626bc67e4f4b8162803dfae2be3e 6/6/12 1056AM

http://forensic-odontology.yolasite.com/ 6/6/12 1052AM

http://shs.westport.k12.ct.us/forensics/11-forensic_anthropology/toothmarks.htm 6/6/12
1039AM
http://www.forensic-medecine.info/forensic-serology.html 6/6/12 1116AM

http://www.fprints.nwlean.net/a.htm

http://www.google.com.ph/search?
q=Forensic+Odontology&hl=fil&prmd=imvnsb&tbm=isch&tbo=u&source=univ&sa=X&ei=1
mfNT8yOCLGjiAeOzsDbBg&ved=0CHsQsAQ&biw=692&bih=526#q=Forensic+Odontology
&hl=fil&sa=X&tbm=isch&prmd=imvnsb&bav=on.2,or.r_gc.r_pw.r_qf.,cf.osb&fp=1&biw=128
0&bih=625 6/6/12 1059AM
http://www.merrimacshs.eq.edu.au/digitallearning/2009%20Sem%202%20%20CORE
%20DISC/Science/Year%208%20%20CSI%20Merrimac/The%20Locard%20Exchange
%20Principle/Forensic%20Odontology.htm 6/6/12 1045AM
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/309/5736/892.figures-only 6/6/12/ 1016AM