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XII STD. PHYSICS SLOW LEARNERSSTUDY MATERIAL, DEPT. OF PHYSICS , 1
t t .ni.ente
t
.ni.ente
t
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, t
.ni.ente IN PHYSICS
TIRUVANNAMALAI . t t
a l a il.ani.ene aslaila RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc.,
aslaila B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. TEACHER
aslaila a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s adsa adsa adsa adsa s
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww
UNIT - I (ELECTROSTATICS) ww ww ww
TWO MARKS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
e te t
ni.n State Coulomb’s entet in electrostatics. etet etet etet
s asl ail.a1. s asl ail.ani.law s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada ada
Coulomb's law states that da electrostatic force
athe adadirectly proportional
is ada
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww w product of the magnitude
towthe ww of the two point ww charges and is inversely ww ww
proportional to the square of the distance between the two point charges.
i.ni.ene
t t F∝ i.ni.ene
t t
i.ni.ene
t t
i.ni.ene
t t
i.ni.ene
t t
lala aslala aslala aslala aslala
a daadsaas 2. Define.pone sa
apdaadcoulomb (1 C) .p.apdaadsa apdaada
s s
apdaada
w.wp. p w w . w w w .wp. w .wp. w
ww ww The S.I unit of charge ww is Coulomb (C) ww ww ww
One Coulomb is that charge which when placed in free space or air at a
t t ntetequal and similar t repels with a force t t t t
l a il.ani.ene distance 1 m from
l ail.ani.ean l a i.ente
il.ancharge l a il.ani.ene of l a il.ani.ene
a
adsas 9 X 10 N9
adsas a a
adsas adsasa a
adsas
ww 3. ww
Distinguish between Coulomb ww force and Gravitational ww force. ww ww
S. No. Coulomb Force Gravitational Force
t t 1 It acts between t t two charges .ni.enteItt acts between two t t
masses t t
a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a ila a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s 2 It can s
asa be attractive or repulsive asa s It is always dattractive
asa s asa s
w .wp.apda w .wp.apdad w .wp.apdad w .wp.apad w .wp.apdad w
ww w3w It is always greater wwin magnitude It is w always
w lesser in magnitude ww ww
It depends on the nature of the
4 It is independent of the medium
e te t medium e t et e te t etet etet
ni.n ail.ani.n principle. saslail.ani.n ail.ani.n ail.ani.n
Padasalai.Net
s asl ail.a4. Define a
superposition
s sl s asl s asl
ada aa ada aa ada
w .wp.apda w .apdad
.wpAccording to .wp.apda principle, the total
Superposition
w w pdad acting on a given
.wp.aforce w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
charge is equal to the vector sum of forces exerted on it by all the other
. ni e
.n tet charges. .ani.ente
t
.ani.ente
t
.ani.ente
t
.ani.ente
t
l a il a
5. Define electric l a il
field. l a il l a il l a il
sas saas dsaas saas sas
.wp.apdaada .wpThe
.apdaadelectric field at a point
.wp .apdaa
‘P’ at a distance ‘r’ .wp.apdaadthe
from point charge ‘q’
.wp.apdaada
is
w w w w w w
ww wwforce experienced bywawunit charge. Its S.I unit
the wwis N C-1 ww ww
6. What is called electric dipole? Give an example.
te t tet t t ni.entet distance t t
a l a n
il.ai. e n Two equal a l a il.ani.enand opposite charges a l a il.ani.eneseparated by aalail.a small a l a il.ani.ene
adsas adsas adsas adsas adsas
w .wp.apda w .wp.apdaan electric dipole.(Eg.)
constitute
w .wp.apdaCO, HCl, NH4, H2O w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww 7. ww electric dipole moment.
Define ww Give its unit. ww ww ww
The magnitude of the electric dipole moment ( ) is equal to the product
te t tet one of the charges t t tet between t t
a l a il.ani.en of the magnitude a l a il.ani.enof a l a il.ani.ene(q) and the distance a l a il.ani.en(2a) a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s them. (i.e) s
a|ds⃗|a = . . Its unit pis.apd adsa s adsa s adsa s
.wp.apda .wp.apda .wp.apda .wp.apda
Cm.
w w w .w a w w w
ww 8. ww potential difference.
Define ww Give its unit. ww ww ww
The electric potential difference is defined as the work-done by an
etet external force to tet unit positive charge
ebring etet from one pointi.ato tet
eanother point etet
asl ail.ani.n asl ail.ani.n asl ail.ani.n asl al ni.n asl ail.ani.n
s
ada against the aelectric
s a field.Its unit is sa (V).
avolt aa s aas
w .wp.apda w .wp.apdad w .wp.apdad w .wp.apdad w .wp.apdad w
ww 9. Define
ww electrostatic potential. ww Give its unit. ww ww ww
The electric potential at a point is equal to the work done by an external
t force to bring a unit tpositive charge with constant
t velocity fromentinfinity t to the t
l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani. e l a il.ani.ente
adsaas point in theadregionsaas of the external electric adsaas field. Its unit is volt adsaas (V). adsaas
ada ada ada ada ada
w w.wp.p w w.wp.p w w.wp.p w w.wp.p w w.wp.p w
w w w w w ww
t t t t t t t t t t
a l ail.ani.ene a l ail.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
ww ww Send Your Answer Keys
Please ww to our Email Id: padasalai.net@gmail.com
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t t t t ntet
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, t t
a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.eneRAJENDRAN M, M.Sc.,a l a il.ani.eB.Ed., l
C.C.A., P.G. TEACHER
a a il.ani.ene IN PHYSICS a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s adsa s adsa s adsa s adsa s
ww 10. ww electric flux.
Define ww ww ww ww
The number of electric field lines crossing a given area kept normal
t tet is called electric ntet (Φ ).Its S.I unitais ntet 2C-1. It is a etet
l ail.ani.ente to the electric lfield
a i
l .ani.enlines l a i
l .ani.eflux l i
l .ani.eNm l ail.ani.n
s
ada as s
ada as s
ada as s
ada as s
ada as
scalar quantity.
ww 11. ww Gauss law.
State ww ww ww ww
Gauss law states that if a charge ‘Q’ is enclosed by an arbitrary
t t t ni.entet is equal t
l a i
l .ani.ente closed surface, l a i
l.anthen
i.ente the total electric l ai
flux
l.ani.entethrough the closed l ail.asurface l a i
l .ani.ente
sas sas sas adsa⃗a.s ⃗ =
da∮ sas
.
w p.apdaada to
.
w .apdaada net charge enclosed
timesthe
p .
w p.apdaada by the surface. .wp.a= p .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww 12. ww is called a capacitor?
What ww ww ww ww
Capacitor is a device used to store electric charge and electric
t t t t t t t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene energy. a l ail.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsas It consists adsas adsas ss
aadasome distance. .p.apdaada
ss
w .wp.apda w .wp.apdaof two conductingwplates .wp.apda or sheets separated w .wp.apdby w w w
ww ww
Capacitors are widely used ww in many electronicwcircuits w and in many areas ww of ww
science and technology.
l a ni.entet Define capacitance
il.a13. l a
t t t t
il.ani.eneof a capacitor.alail.ani.ene l a
t t
il.ani.ene l a
t t
il.ani.ene
a
adsa s a
sa s
Theadcapacitance s
adsa is defined as the
of a capacitor as
adsa of the magnitude
ratio a
adsa s
w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ofww
charge (Q) on either wofw the conductor platesww to the potential difference(V) ww ww
existing between the conductors. (i.e) C =
etet tet C V-1
il.ani.enor etet etet etet
ail.ani.n Its unit is farad ail.ani.n ail.ani.n ail.ani.n
Padasalai.Net
s asl s asl a(F) s asl s asl s asl
ada 14. aa ada ada ada
w.wp.apda w w .apdad of point or corona
Define.paction
w .wp.apda discharge. w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww The electric field near ww this sharp edge isww very high and it ionized ww the ww
surrounding air. The positive ions are repelled and negative ions are attracted
t ntet t t t
l ail.ani.ente towards the sharp l a i
l.ani.eedge. l a i
l .ani.ente l ail.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas This saas sas dsaas the sharp edge. sas
.
wp.apdaada .
w p.apdaadreduces .
w p.apdaada of the conductor
the total charge
.
w p.apdaa
near
.wp.apdaada
w This w w w w w
ww ww is called action of points ww or corona discharge ww ww ww
THREE MARKS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
15.t t Discuss the basic t
tproperties of electric t t
charge. t t t t
a la il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsas (i) Electric as
ascharge: daadsas ss
apdaada
ss
apdaada
.wp.apda .apdadmass, the electric
.wpLike .wp.apcharge is also wan .
w p. .wp .
ww
w
ww
w
ww
w w intrinsic and fundamental
w
ww
w
ww
w
property of particles. The unit of electric charge is coulomb
t t (ii) Conservation of electric charge:
il.ani.ene i .ani entet
. i.ente
t
il.anuniverse ni.entet
il.aand
t t
il.ani.ene
a sl a The totala sl a l electric charge in l
the
as a is constant asl a charge can asl a
adsa adsa adsa asa asa
w.wp.apda neither
w .apdacreated
.wpbe .wp.apda In any physicalw.process,
nor be destroyed.
w wp.apdad the net change w .apdad
.wpin w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
charge will be zero. This is called conservation of charges.
(iii)Quantization of charge:
etet etet ntet to an integral
il.ani.eequal i.ente
t etet
s asl ail.ani.n The charge
s asl ail.ani.n‘q’ of any object s asl ais s aslail.anmultiple of this
s asl ail.ani.n
ada ada aa aa ada
.apdadq = ne. Where n →.wpinteger .apdad and1.6 x 10 C
-19
w.wp.apda w .wp.apda unit of charge ‘e’.wp(i.e)
fundamental
w w w.wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t
l a i
l.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
.
w p.apdaada .
wp.apdaada .
w papdaada
. .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
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XII STD. PHYSICS YSICS SLOW LEARNERSSTUDY MATERIAL, DEPT. OF PHYSICS , 3
t t t t ntet
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVAN t
i.ente IN PHYSICS
UVANNAMALAI . t t
a l a il.ani.ene a l a
e
il.ani.en RAJENDRAN
RAJE M, a l a
M.Sc.,il.ani.eB.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. l a
TEACHER
a il.anHER a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s adas s s s
ada s s ada adsa s
ww ww ww ww ww ww
16. Derive an expression
ion fo
for torque experienced by an electric
c dipole
dipo placed
etet t
.ani.entetric ffield. Torque .ani.ente
t t
.ani.ente in electric etet
s asl ail.ani.n in the uniform s asl ailelectric s asl ailexperienced by the dipole
s asl ailipole s asl ail.ani.n
ada field: papdaada ada ada ada
w .wp.apda w .w. w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww Let a dipole of mo ww
moment ⃗ is placed ww ww ww
in an uniform electricc field ⃗
t ente+t q ⃗ t t t
l a i
l .ani.ente The force on ‘+q’ l a i
l.ani.= l ail.ani.ente l ail.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas adsaa‘−q’
s sas sas sas
.
w p.apdaada The force
.
w p.apdaon = −q⃗ .
w p.apdaada .wpapdaada
. .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww Then the total tal fo ww acts on the
force ww ww ww
dipole is zero. The
e tota
total torque on the
t t et ‘O’
ni.entnt t t t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene dipole about athe l ail.apoint a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsas |"⃗| = #OA ⃗ daadsas⃗ #sinθ + #OB⃗##' ⃗ #sinθ adsas adsas adsas
w .wp.apda w .wp.ap##&' w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww "w
w
= ()* + )+) q sin ; w
w ww ww ww
" = 2 ,' sin - ∵ [)* = )+ = ,]
t t t t t t t t t t
a l ail.ani.ene . = /0123 (Where, a l a il.ani.ene2 ,'' = → dipole a l a il.ani.ene
moment)
a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s s s asa s asa s adsa s
.wp.apda aada
.wp.apdnotation,
In vector "⃗ = p⃗ x E⃗ ..w .apdadtorque is maximum,
pThe pdad - = 900
.wp.awhen .wp.apda
w w w w w w
ww 17. ww an expression
Obtain ww
on electric
ele potential at a point ww due to a point c w
w
oint charge. ww
Potential due to a point
oint charge:
etet et +
i.entarge etet etet etet
ail.ani.n Consider a spoint ail.ancharge ail.ani.n ail.ani.n ail.ani.n
Padasalai.Net
s asl a sl s asl s asl s asl
ada at origin. ada ada ada ada
w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww wwbe a point at a distanc
‘P’ ww
istance ww ww ww
‘r’ from origin.
t t t t t
l ai l.ani.ente By definition,lathe i l.ani.enteelectr
electric
l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente
sas
apdaada field at.p‘P’
apdais a⃗as 6 7
adsE r> .p.apdaadsa
as sas
apdaada
sas
apdaada
w .wp. w w . 89: ; w w w .
w p. w .wp. w
ww ww ww ww B ww ww
7 E
Hence electric potential tial at ‘P’ is V = −<A ⃗ . ?@⃗ = −<A @̂ . ?@⃗
8GH; B
t t t t t t t t t t
a il.ani.ene 7 a il.ani.ene a il.ani.ene a il.ani.ene a il.ani.ene
[∵ ?@a⃗ da=adsdrr
l l l l l
a
adsas V = −<Aadaadsas r> . ?@ r>
a as>]
a a
adsas a
adsas
w .wp.apda w .wp.p89:; w .wp.p w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww B
7
ww ww ww ww
V=− < dr [∵ r>. r> 6 1]
89:; A B
t t 7 B.ni.entet t t t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene V = − C& a D
l a ila; = C
7
&
7
D a la il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s 89:;dadsa A s 89:; A adsa s adsa s adsa s
w .wp.apda w7.wp.aEpa w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww Vw=w 89:; B
. If the source rce chcharge
ww is negative (−'),then ww the potential ial also
als negative
ww ww
7 E
and it is given by V = −899: B
etet etet ; etet etet etet
s asl ail.ani.n s aslail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s aslail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada ada ada ada ada
w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w.wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t
l a i
l.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
.
w p.apdaada .
wp.apdaada .
w papdaada
. .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
l asla l l l
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t t t t ntet
i.ente IN PHYSICS
UVANNAMALAI . t t
e
il.ani.en RAJENDRAN
RAJE M, a l a
TEACHER
adsa s s
ada s s sada s s ada adsa s
ww ww ww ww ww ww
18. Obtain an expression
ion for
f potential energy due to a collection
ection of three
etet t t
il.ani.eneh are separatedalby .entet distances. lail.ani.entet etet
asl ail.ani.n point charges asl awhich sail.anifinite a a l ail.ani.n
. p.ap
s
daada Potential
.p.ap
s
ada
daenergy of syste
system of
. p.athree
p
s
daada charges: . p.apdaadsas .wp.apda
s
ada s
ww ww ww ww w w
ww ww Electrostatic potent ww energy of a systemww
potential ww ww
of charges is defined
ned as
a the work done to
t t t t t
l a i
l .ani.ente assemble the charges.
l a i
l.ani.ente l ail.ani.ente l ail.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas Consider da sas charge
point rge q at ‘A’ daadsaas sas sas
.
w p.apdaada .
w p.apaada .
w p.ap 7 E .wpapdaada
. .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww potential at ‘B’ due
Electric wwto q is, V1B = 89:; B ww ww ww
7 E W
The work done e on the
t charge q is, w = q2 V1B = 89: B
i .
a ni entet
. i .ani entet
. t t
il.ani.ene
; t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
l a l This work addone l a l
sas is stored as electrostatic l a potential energy l a l a
a
adsas a a
asas asas off system
a syst of two adsas
a
w .wp.apda w .
w p.apda w pdad
Wp.a
7 E .w
w .
w p.apdad ada
w.wp.p w
w w charges
w w q and q U = w
w; B
89:
………. (1) w w w w ww
The potential at ‘C’ due
ue to charges q &q
t t 7 E t t 7 E t t t t t t
a l ail.ani.ene a a;
ne 2C=
V1C= 89:lailB.ani.e&V 89: BK a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s daadsas
K ;
adsas adsa s adsa s
w.wp.apda .
wwp.ap w.wp.apda w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww Thus work done
ww
ne on charge qX is,
ww ww ww
7 E E 7 E W E E
tet W = q3 (V1C + V2C )e=teqt 3 C Y D(or) U te=t 89:; C B K Y B K D………
K K
……(2) t etet
n .e
n n .n 89
9: B B n e
. n .ani.ente ail.ani.n
Padasalai.Net
l a i
l .
a i l ail.
a i ; K K
l a i
l .
a i l a i
l l
s
ada as Hence s as
ada the total tal ele
electrostatic s as
adapotential energy of s as
da m of three
asystem t point s
ada as
ww ww
charges is U = C ww X Y XD…….. (3) ww
Y ww ww
LMN O O X O X
19.tet Obtain an expression teion
t for
f electrostatic tpotential et Energy off atedipole dt in a t
l ail.n
a i e
.n
uniform electricl a i
l.ani e
. n
field. l a i
l .
a ni e
. n
l ail.ani e
. n
l a i
l .ani.ente
sas adsaas sas sas sas
.
wp.apdaada . p
Potential
w .apdaenergy of dipo
dipole in.
w p.apdaada electric field:.wp.apdaada
uniform .wp.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww Let a dipole off mom ww
moment ⃗ is placed in
ww ww ww
a uniform electric field ⃗
t t
il.ani.ene Here the dipole et
.ani.enteriences
ilexperienc
t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
a la a l a torques, a lawhich a l a a l a
w .wp.apda rotate
w .wp.apdadipole
the along .wp.apda
ng the field.
w w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww To rotate the e dipww from -’ to -
dipole ww ww ww
against this torque
torque, work has to be
t t t t ni.entet t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene done by
alaan
n e
.n external
il.ai externa torque(.aextla)il.aand a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s daadsas U daadsas adsa s adsa s
.wp.apda .
ww p.ap .
ww p.ap .wp.apda .wp.apda
ww it is given by, W = w<wV τ[\] dθ
w w w w
ww U ww ww ww
U b
etet et ; = pE ^&cosθa
= <UV pE sinθetdθ
b V i.ni.ente
t etet etet
l ail.ani.n lail.ani.n l ala lail.ani.n l ail.ani.n
s
ada as = &pE[cos
s
aa as -& cos -’] ; Wda=adpE[cos
saas -’&cos -] s
aa as s
aa as
w.wp.apda w .apdad
.wpThis w .
w p.ap w .
w p.apdad w .
w p.apdad w
ww ww work done ne is w
sstored
w as electrostatic potential
ww energy of the th dipole.
ww ww
Let the initial angle be -’ = 90 , then U = W = pE [cos 90 &cos
0
cos -] 0
i .ani.ente
t U = &pE cos ente;t & ⃗ . ⃗
i.ni. entet
i.ani. entet
i.ani. i .ani.ente
t
sasl a l
If da-= slala0, then
saa180 hen po
potentialda saaslal is maximum dadsaaslal
energy sasl a l
apdaada a ad a a
d aa apdaada
. p. w.wp.p w.wp.p w.wp.p . p.
ww If - = 0 , then potential
w w 0 w w w
ww poten
ww energy is minimumww ww ww
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
l asla l l l
p
w.w
a
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XII STD. PHYSICS
YSICS SLOW LEARNERSSTUDY MATERIAL, DEPT. OF PHYSICS , 5
t t t t ntet
i.ente IN PHYSICS
UVANNAMALAI . t t
a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.eneRAJENDRAN
RAJE M, l a
M.Sc.,
a il.ani.eB.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. l a
TEACHER
Derive wwcapacitance of parallel
on for ww plate capacitor. citor. ww ww
Capacitance of parallel
allel p
plate capacitor:
etet Consider et
etcapacitor et parallel
ni.enttwo etet etet
s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.anai.ncapac consistsail.a
s asl
of
s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada plates each a area ‘A’ sep
adof separated adaa distance ‘d’
by ada ada
ww ww‘c′ be the surface
Let ww density of the plates.
e charge
cha ww ww ww
The electric field between
ween the plates,
t d e t t t t
l a i
l .ani.ente E = H = f H ……….. l a i
l.ani.ente(1) l ail.ani.ente l ail.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas ; ;saas saas sas sas
.
w p.apdaada Since .
w p.apdaadfield
the is unifo
uniform, .
w .apdaadpotential
the
p difference
.wpapdaada
. .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww
between the plates,
ww ww ww ww
e
V = E.d = Cf H Dd ……….. ….. ((2)
i .
a ni entet
. ;
i .ani entet
. t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
a l a l a l a l a l a e a l a a l a
adsas Then the ss
aada adsas C = = m adsas adsas
w .wp.apda w .wp.apdcapacitance e of th
the capacitor,
w .wp.apda C Do
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww wnw
g ; ww ww
H;g
C= h
…………. (3)
t t ntet t t t t t t
a l ail.ani.ene Thus capacitance a l a il.ani.eis, a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s (i) Directly s
adsa proportiona rtional to the s
adsa (A) and
Area adsa s adsa s
w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w.wp.apda w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww(ii) Inversely proportion portional
ww to the separation (d)ww ww ww
21. Derive an expression on for energy stored in capacitor.
etet Energy stored in et
tapacitor:
ecapacit etet etet etet
ail.ani.n ail.anisi.na devic ail.ani.ncharges and energy. ail.ani.n ail.ani.n
Padasalai.Net
s asl Capacitor
s asl device used tos asl
store s asl s asl
ada daada daada ada aa
w.wp.apda When w p.apbattery
.w
a is connec
onnected w p.apthe
.w
to capacitor, .wp.apdaof totall char
electrons
w charge ‘-Q’
w p.apdad
.are
w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
transferred from one e plate to other plate. For this work is done e by thet battery.
t This work done isn.e stored
ored
t as electrostatic nenergy t in capacitor. t t
l ail.ani.ente To transfer ′?i′lailfor .ai natepoten
potential difference l a i
l i.entethe work done islail.ani.ente
.a‘V’, l a i
l .ani.ente
asaas
adad asaas
apdad e asaas asaas asaas
w.wp.p dW w.wp. .apdea]d
w.wp=
adad
w.wp.p
adad
w.wp.p
ww= VdQ =j dQ [∵V
w w w w w
w w j w w ww
e
ee 7
The total work done tto charge ch a capacitor, tW = <p j dQ ; = C D t 6 This
i .ani.entet i .ani ente
. t
il.ani.ene
l e kt p
il.ani.ne
kl t t
il.ani.ene
la l work donead l a
issastored l as ele
electrostatic l a l a l a
a
adsas as adsaenergy
as of the capacitor, adsa(i.e)
as a
adsas
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda
7 2 w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww UwEw= kl = k CV ww[∵Q = CV] ww ww ww
22. Give the applications ations and disadvantage of capacitors. itors.
te t te t te t t t t t
a l a il.ani.en Applicationsalof a i.en acitor:
capacito
il.an a l a il.ani.en a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s adsa
1. Flashapcapacitors s are used
us in a s
adsa camera to take photographs
digital s
adsa phs adsa s
w .wp.apda w .wp. da w .wp.pda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww 2.wDuring
w cardiac arrest, rest, waw device called heart defibrillator ww is used sed to give ww ww
a sudden surge off a lar large amount of electrical energy to the patien patient’s chest
etet to retrieve the n normal
t mal
t h heart function. n.entet t t t t
a l ail.ani.n 3. Capacitors a l il.ai.ene
aare a l a il.ai a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
s
ada s adas s used
sed in the dignition s
ada s system of automobile s s
ada ile engines e to ada s s
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda sparking.
eliminate w .wp.apa w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
4. Capacitors are used ed to reduce power fluctuations in power supplies suppl
t and to increase ethe t efficiency
effic of power etransmission. t t t
l a il.ani.ente Disadvantages: l a il.ani.nte l a il.ani.nte l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente
sas daadsas
a dsaas dsaas sas
.wp.apdaada 1. Even.wp.aafter
p the battery
ttery or
o power
.wp.apdaasupply is removed, .wp.apdaa
the capacitor itor st
stores .wp apdaada
.
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
charges and energy gy for some time. It caused unwanted shock.
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
l asla l l l
p
w.w
a
.pda p.apdad
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a
. pda p
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w.w.apda
w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
XII STD. PHYSICS
t t t t ntet
i.ente IN PHYSICS
UVANNAMALAI . t t
RAJE M, l a
M.Sc.,
TEACHER
ww 23. ww a note on microwa
Write ww oven.
rowave ww ww ww
It works on the
e prin
principle of torque acting on an electric dipol
dipole.
etet tet
il.ani.enume etet which are permane .ani.ente
t etet
s asl ail.ani.n The food we s asl aconsume h
has water molecules
s asl ail.ani.n s asl ailrmanent electric
s asl ail.ani.n
ada ada produces
dipoles.papOven uces microwavesada that are oscillating ada electro lectromagnetic ada
w .wp.apda w .w. da w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww and produce torque
fields wwon the water molecules. ww Due to this torque torqu on wweach ww
water molecule, the molecules
molec rotate very fast and produce thermal
therm energy.
t t u .entet t t
l a i
l .ani.ente Thus, heat generated
l a i
l.ani.ented is used to heat the.nifood.
l aila l ail.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
.
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada .
. .
w p.apdaada
w w FIVE MARK ARKS w w w w
ww ww ww QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ww ww ww
24. Define electric field.. Explain Exp its various aspects.
t t The electricefield tield
t at the point ‘P’ atn.eantedistance
t ‘r’ from the point
t t charge ‘q’ t t
a l a il.ani.ene is the force experienced
a l a il.ani.neced by
b a unit l
charge
a a il.aiand is given by alail.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsas adsas ss
apdaada
ss
apdaada
ss
apdaada
.wp.apda q⃗ .w
⃗w=w =
p apda
. 7 .
w p. .
w p. .
w p.
ww
w w
E; 89:;
r> ww
w
ww
w
ww
w
ww
w
Important aspects:
t t t t t
.ani.ente away and if ‘q’lailis tet t t
a l ail.ani.ene If ‘q’ is positive,
a l a il.ani.en,e the electric field a l a ipoints
l a
.ani.enneg
negatives the
a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s asa s s s s
asa erienced by the adsa s
.wp.apda electric.p.apdad points towar
field towards the aada
.wp.apdsource .apdad experienc
charge. The.pforce .wp.apda
w w w w w w w w
ww wwcharge q0placed in electric
test ww field ⃗ is ,w⃗ =q0 ⃗ww
ele ww ww
The electric field
d is independent
in of test charge q0and it depend
epends only on
etet etet etet etet etet
ail.ani.n source charge aqil.ani.n ail.ani.n ail.ani.n ail.ani.n
Padasalai.Net
s asl s asl s asl s asl s asl
ada Electric aa da it has unique direction
q .p.apdaaSo ada and aa
w.wp.apda w .wp.afield
pdad is a vector ctor quantity.
w w w .wp.apda nd ma magnitude.pat
w w .apdad w
ww ww point.
every ww ww ww ww
Since electric field is inversely proportional to the distance,
nce, a
as distance
t t t is made sufficiently t t
l ail.ani.ente increases the lfield a i
l.ani.entdecrea
eecreases. The testi.ncharge
l a l a i.ente l ail.ani.ente small such
ently
l a i
l .ani.ente
sas that it will adsaasmodify the electric a
daadsasof the source charge. sas sas
.
wp.apdaada .
w p.apdanot e
.
w p.apfield .
w p.apdaada .wp.apdaada
w w ww finite size charge w w w
ww ww For continuous ous wand ww distributions, ns, integration
ww ww
techniques must be used. use There are two kinds of electric field. They are
t t (1)Uniform or constant t nt
t fiel
field, (2)Non uniform t field
t t t t t
adsas 25. Calculate athe
dadsas
electric ric fie
field due to a dipole on its axial aline.
daadsas dsas adsas
w .wp.apda Electric
w .wp.apfield due to dipo
dipole w .wp.apits
on axial line: w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
Consider a dipole ipole AB along X - axis. Its dipole moment be p = qa and
its direction be along− q to + q .
i .
ani entet
. i .ani entet
. il‘r’ ntet
.ani.efrom il.aon et
ni.entits t t
il.ani.ene
a sl a l Let ‘C’asbe
l a l the point at a distance asla the midpoint a‘O’
sl a a sl a
adsa adsa adsa adsa adsa
w .wp.apda .wp.apda
axialwline. w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww
Electric field at C due
w
ue tow +q ww ww ww
⃗+ = 7 E
p>
etet 89:; rBstu
ni.entet etet etet etet
s asl ail.ani.n Electric field s asl
atail.aC due
ue to −q s asl ail.ani.n s aslail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada aa ada ada ada
.wp.apda ⃗
p.apdaEd
7.w .wp.apda .wp.apda .wp.apda
ww
w
w−=
w w
89:; rBvtu
p> ww
w
ww
w
ww
w
ww
w
Since +q is located closer to point ‘C’ than −q , ⃗ > ⃗ . + −

n e
. ntet n e
. ntet n e
. ntet t
.ani.enteis .ani.ente
t
l a i
l .
a i By superposition l ail.aprinciple
i nciple, the total electric
l a i
l.a i field at ‘C’ due to ldipole
a pole
i
l is, l a i
l
sas sas sas sas sas
.
w p.apdaada ⃗ tot = .p⃗ +.apd+aad⃗a−
w .
w p apdaada
. .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada
w ww 7 w w w w
ww ⃗w E 7 wwE ww ww ww
tot =
rBstu
p
> − rBvtu
p>
89:; 89::;
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
l asla l l l
p
w.w
a
.pda p.apdad
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w.w
a
. pda p
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w.w.apda
w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
XII STD. PHYSICS
t t t t ntet
i.ente IN PHYSICS
UVANNAMALAI . t t
RAJE M, l a
M.Sc.,
TEACHER
ww ⃗w
w 7 8Bt
D p>
ww ww ww ww
tot = qC rB st u
89:;
t Here the directionn.eof f total
t electric field is the dipole moment p>
l ail.ani.ente l a i
l .ai nte l a i
l .
a ni.e7ntet 8Bt l
etet
ail.ani.n l
etet
ail.ani.n
s
ada as If @≫a , then adaneglecting , . We aget
s as 2 ⃗
adatot = 89: qC B| D p> ; adaada
s as s as s
ada as
.wp.apda .wp.apda .wp.pda ; .p.p .wp.apda
ww
w w
w7 8t ky⃗w
7 w
w ww w ww
w
ww
w
= w qC D p> ⃗ tot= [q 2ap> = ⃗] w
89:; BK 89:; B K
26. t Calculate the electric ric
t fie
field due to a dipole ton itsequatorial line. t t
l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas Electric field sasdue to dipo dipole on itsasequatorial
as line: sas sas
.
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada a dipole
Consider ipole AB . p.apdada
along
w .wpapdaada
. .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
X - axis. Its dipole mome oment be p =
qa and its direction n be along− q
i . ni entet
. i . ni entet
. t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
a l a l a to + q . a l a l a a l a a l a a l a
adsas asas adsas adsas adsas
w .wp.apda w .apdad‘C’ be the
.wpLet he po
point
w .wpat.apdaa w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww
distance ‘r’ from the midpoint ww
mid ‘O’ ww ww ww
on its equatorial plane.
t t et du t t t t t t
l a n
il.ai e
. n e Electric fieldlailat .ani.entC due to +q lail.ani.ene l a il.ani.ene l a il.ani.ene
a
adsa s asaas a
adsas a
adsa s a
adsa s
w .wp.apda (along.pBC)
w w .apdad w .wp.apda w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww # ⃗ # = 7 E ww ww ww ww
v 89:; rB vt u
t Electric fieldt at C due to −q (alongt CA)

.ani.ente e et
7 il.ani.nE
e et etet etet
ail.ani.n ail.ani.n ail.ani.n
Padasalai.Net
a i
l ⃗ a
s
ada asl # # =
s asl
s ada89: rB vt u s
ada asl s
ada asl s
ada asl
w.wp.apda w .wp.apda ;
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww # ⃗v # = # ⃗s # . Resolve
Here ww⃗ +and ⃗ −in to two components.
esolve ww ww ww
rpendicular components #/⃗ # sin3 and #/⃗ # sin3are
Here the perpend v s
n e
.ntet n e
. ntet n e
. ntet n e
. ntet .ani.ente
t
l ail.a i equal and opposite
l a i
l.a i will c
cancel each l other.
a i
l .
a i l ail.a i l a i
l
sas saas sas saas sas
.
wp.apdaada .
w .apdaadthe
But
p horizonta zontal .
w p.apdaada
components #/ w apdaad#/
⃗v # cos} .pand
. ⃗s # cos}are
cos equal
.wp.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww ww
and in same direction ((&p>) will added up to give total electric field. ww
ield. Hence ww ww
⃗ tot = # ⃗v # cosθ (& ⃗ ⃗ ⃗
&p>) +# s # cosθ(&p>) (or) tot = & 2# v # cosθ ̂
t t .ni.ente
t t t etet t t
la il.ani.ene asla2Cila 7
⃗ tot a=sa& E
⃗la il.ani.ene 7 kE t lail.ani.n l a il.ani.ene
a
adsas Dcosθp > ads;astot = & C
a D s s p>
a a
adsas
adad 89:; rB
r vtv u 89:; rB vt uapdaada
w .wp.apda w.wp.p w.wp.apda w .wp. rB vt u w .wp.apda w
ww w w
7 {
yz
ww ww ww ww
⃗ tot = & K
89:;
rB vt u
t t t t t t t t t t
. ilIf.anir.en>ea then
the neglecting a laail.an2i.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s adsas adsa s asa s adsa s
.wp.apda .wp.apda /⃗ =& y⃗ .apda2ap
.wp[q . p.apdad .wp.apda
ww
w
ww
w w w > =p p> 6 ⃗]ww w w
ww
w
ww
w
LMN w
tot
OX

ada ada ada ada ada
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t
l a i
l.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
.
w p.apdaada .
wp.apdaada .
w papdaada
. .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
l asla l l l
p
w.w
a
.pda p.apdad
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w.w.apda
w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
XII STD. PHYSICS
t t t t ntet
i.ente IN PHYSICS
UVANNAMALAI . t t
RAJE M, l a
M.Sc.,
TEACHER
Derive wwelectro static potential
on for ww due to electric d ww
tric dipole. ww
Electrostatic potential
tial d
due to dipole:
etet Consider et
entipole t
.ani.ente Its dipole moment
t
i.entep = 2qa and etet
s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.aani.dipole AB along X -ailaxis.
s asl s asl ail.anbe s asl ail.ani.n
ada its direction a along− q to + q adaada
adbe ada ada
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.p w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww‘P’ be the point att a dis
Let ww
distance ‘r’ from the midpoint ww ‘O’ ww ww
Let ∠•)* = -, BP = r1 and AP = r2
t tet tP du 7 t t t
l a i
l .ani.ente Electric potential l a i
l.ani.enat due to +q V1 = 89:
l ail.ani.e;nte l ail.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
.
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada .
. .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww ww 7 ww ww ww
due to −q V2 =&
Electric potential att P du
89:;
t t t t t t t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene a l ail.ani.ene al a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsas Then totaladpotential l at ‘P
‘P’ due toaddipole is
.wp.apda da sas
.1wp+.apV . p.
ss
apda a .wp.apda
adsas
.wp.apda
adsas
w V = V
w w w w w w
ww ww 7 7
2
7
ww ww ww ww
= 89: qC & D ………
……………. (1)
;
t t t t t t t t t t
a l ail.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s Apply cosine s
adsalaw in ∆ BOP adsas adsa s adsa s
ww ww r12 = r2 + a2 - 2ra cosθ ww ; r12 = r2C1 Y t & ktwcos
co
w
-D ww ww
B B
7 7 t
etet = C1 Y B ecos
tet -DD…………..(2) etet etet etet
ail.ani.n ail.ani.n ail.ani.n ail.ani.n ail.ani.n
Padasalai.Net
ada ada ada ada ada
.wp.apda .wp.apda .wp.apda .wp.apda .wp.apda
ww
w w
ww Apply cosine law in ∆ AOP
ww
w
ww
w
ww
w
ww
w
t kt
r22 = r2 + a2 + 2ra ccos (1800 – θu ; r22 = r2C1 Y B Y B
cos -DD
t ntet t t t
l ail.ani.ente 7
= sa
7
C1 l &
a i
l.anti.ecos -D
D…………..(3) l a i
l .ani.ente
sas as B sas sas sas
.
wp.apdaada .
w p.apd7aad y .
w p.apdaada .
w w w w w w
ww ww =89: B cos -[p p = 2qww
2qa] ww ww ww
;
7 y.⃗B̂
t t Or V = 89: [pc - = ⃗. @̂ a
[pcos
il.ani.ene i .
a;ni eBntet
. t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
la l a l la l a l a
a
adsas Here adsa@̂s is the unit vector
a v along a
adsasOP a
adsas a
adsas
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
Special cases
entet Case (i) If the enteet poin
point P lies on the axial entet line of the dipole le eon the side of
a i
l .
ani . a i
l .
ani . a i
l .
a ni . 7 z a i
l .
ani . ntet a
t t
il.ani.ene
a sl a l
+q, then θda=dsa0. Then the electric
s e a l
potential
s becomes V =89: a sl a sl
adsa adsa adsa adsa
w.wp.apda w .wp.apa w.wp.apda w .wp.apda; w .wp.apda w
ww ww Case (ii) If the wwP lies on the axial line
e poin
point wwof the dipole on th ww of –
the side ww
7 y
q, then θ = 1800, then V =& 89:; B
t tet entet t etet
l a i
l .ani.ente Case a
(iii)
l i
l ni.enthe
.aIf e poi
point P lies on ail.ani.equatorial
the
l line ofsathel i.ente then θ =
ail.andipole,
dipol l ail.ani.n
s
ada as s
ada as s
ada as ada s s
ada as
w.wp.apda 900. w .wp.apda V = 0
Hence w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w.wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t
l a i
l.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
.
w p.apdaada .
wp.apdaada .
w papdaada
. .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
l asla l l l
p
w.w
a
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ww ww ww ww ww ww
XII STD. PHYSICS
t t t t ntet
i.ente IN PHYSICS
UVANNAMALAI . t t
RAJE M, l a
M.Sc.,
TEACHER
ww 28. ww
Obtain an expression ww electric field due w
ion fo
for towan infinitely y long chargedww ww
wire.
etet entetinfin etet etet etet
s asl ail.ani.n Electric field s a
due
sl ail.ani.to infinitely long charged
s asl ail.ani.n wire: s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada ada an infinitely
Consider infinite long da
astraight wire of uniform a r charge
adlinear char density ada
ww ww ‘P’ be a point
‘•’.Let nt atwaw distance ‘r’ from the ww ww ww
wire. Let ‘E’ be the electric
lectric field at ‘P’. Consider a
t t surf ntet and t t
l a i
l .ani.ente cylindrical Gaussianl a i
l.ani.entne surface of length.ni.e‘L’
l .ani.ente
sas radius ‘r’ daadsaas sas sas sas
.
w p.apdaada .
w p.ap .
. .
w p.apdaada
w The w ww top surface,Φtap = w w w
ww ww electric flux through oughwthe ww ww ww
< ⃗ . ?*⃗ = < ?* cos 90p =0
t t t th t t t t t t
l a il.ani.ene The electric flux l ail.athrough
ni.enteugh the bottom surface,
l a il.ani.ene l a il.ani.ene l a il.ani.ene
daadsas= < ⃗ . ?*⃗ = < ?*
a
adsas Φbottom
a cos
as p =0
adsa90 a
adsas a
adsas
w .wp.apda w .wp.ap w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww the total electric
Then ic fluxwwthrough the ww ww ww
Curved surface,
ia .ni.ente
t Φcurve = < .⃗ni..e?* nte⃗t = < ?* cos 90p =.nEi.e<nte?* t
.ni.ente
t t t
il.ani.ene
saaslal aslaila
sa=
ia
saaslal
ia
saaslal a
adsa sl a
d ad Φ d ad E 2…rL d a
d d ad
a
w.wp.p
a a a
curve
w.wp.p
a
w.wp.p
a a
w.wp.p
a
w .wp.apda w
ww ww the total electric
Then ww through the
ric flu
flux ww ww ww
Gaussian surface,
etet ΦE =Φtap+Φ tet + Φcurve ; ΦE = E.n(2…rL)
ebottom etet etet etet
ail.ani.n ail.ani.ne†‡ ailai.n ail.ani.n ail.ani.n
Padasalai.Net
s asl s asl s ˆ‰
asl s asl s asl
ada By Gauss ada ΦE =
law, ; E (2…rL) ad=a ; ada ada
w.wp.apda w .wp.apda H; w .wp.apda H; w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ˆ‰ ww ˆ‰ w
w ww ww
E = kGH B vector notation, ⃗ = kGH @̂
In vec
; ;
t Here@̂ → unit vector
t perpendicularnto the
t curved surface outwards.
outwa t t
l.ani.ente l a i
l .ai.ente l ail.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas daadsas⃗ points
If •> 0 , athen a ts perpendicular
perp sas saas and if •< 0 , thendadsaas
apdaada p apdaadaoutward (@̂ ) from.wpthe apdaadwire aa
w .
wp. .
w
⃗wpoints
p.
ww perpendicular w .
w p. w . w.wp.p w
ww ww (−@̂ ).
lar inward
inw ww ww ww
la ni.entet Obtain an expression

il.a29. l a
t t
il.ani.eneion ffor electricalfield
a
t t
il.ani.enedue to an charged l a ntet
ild.ani.einfinite
infi plane
l a
t t
il.ani.ene
a
adsas sheet. daadsas a asas a
asas a
asas
w .wp.apda w .
w p.ap w.wp.apdad w.wp.apdad w .
w p.apdad w
ww Electric
ww field due to charged char
ww infinite plane sheet: ww ww ww
Consider an infinite plane sheet of uniform
t t t t surface t charge
t density ‘Š’ entet t t
l a il.ani.ene l a il.ani.ene l a il.ani.ene l a il.ani. l a il.ani.ene
a
adsa s a
adsas adsaLet
as ‘P’ be a point at a distance
adsaas nce ‘r’ from the adsaas
w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda sheet. Let ‘E’ be w .wp.apdaelectric
the c field at ‘P’.
w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
Here the direction of electric
ele
field is perpendicularly larly outward
o
etet etet .ani.entet ni.entet etet
s asl ail.ani.n s aslail.ani.n s from
asl a il the sheet. Consider s aslaai l.acylindrical
cylind s asl ail.ani.n
ada ada ada ada ada
w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda Gaussian surface w .apdalength
.wpof ‘2r’ and
a area w .wpof.apda w
ww ww ww cross section ww‘A’. ww ww
t t t t t t t t t
l a i
l .ani.ente The
l
e electric flux throughi.ani.eplane
ail.ani.nelectric l al n
e surface ‘P’ laThe ni.eneelectric
il.ahe el flux l
ee
ail.ani.n
sas s as s as s as s as
apdaada adaada the curved surface,
through adaada The total electric daada through
aflux ough the plane adaada
w .
w p. w.wp.p w.wp.p w.wp.p w.wp.p w
ww w w surface ‘P’ w w w w w w ww
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
l asla l l l
p
w.w
a
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w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t ntet
i.ente IN PHYSICS
UVANNAMALAI . t t
e
il.ani.en RAJENDRAN
RAJE M, a l a
TEACHER
adsa s ada s s s s
ada s s
ada adsa s
ww ww ww
ΦP = < ⃗ . ?*⃗ = < ?* cos 0p = < E?* ww ww ww
The total electric fluxx throu through the plane surface ‘P’’
e tet e tet etet etet etet
s asl .
aila n i . n
s asl aila < ⃗ . ?*⃗ = < ?*scos
Φp’= .n i . n
asl ail0.anpi.=n < E?* s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada aada ada aa ada
w .wp.apda The w .wp.apdelectric
total fluxx throu p.apdacurved
throughw.the
w surface, w.w p.apdad w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
Φcurve = < ⃗ . ?*⃗ = < ?* cos 90p = 0
. ni e
. ntet The total electric.nflux i e
. ntxetthrou
through the Gaussiant surface,
.ani.ene
t
.ani.ente
t
.ani.ente
t
sas l a i
l a Φl a i
l a=Φ Φp’+
+Φ Φ l ail l ail l a i
l
apdaada adsaas
da=<
E P curve as
daadsa?* sas
apdaada
sas
apdaada
w .wp. w .wΦ
p.ap
E E?* +< E?*?* + 0;
w .w=
p.ap2E< ; Φ E = 2EA w.wp. w .
w p. w
ww ww wwe df w
d
w ww ww
By Gauss law, ΦE = H†‡ ; 2EA = H;
; E = kH
; ;
d
i .
a ni entet In vector notation,
. i .ani en⃗te=t kHH ‹>
. t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
a l a l a l a l ; a l a a l a a l a
adsas asas adsas asas twards. adsas
w .wp.apda w .apdad{‹→ unit vecto
.wpHere w .wp.apda
vector perpendicular to the plane.w
w .apdad outwards
psheet w .wp.apda w
ww w
IfwŠ> 0 , then ⃗ points perp ww
perpendicular
w
outward ( {‹)wfrom the plane ne sheet
w
sh w and if ww
⃗
tet Š< 0 , then points perpendicular inward (−t {‹)
s perp
entet t t t t t
a l ail.ani e
. n
a l a i
l .
ani .
a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s sa s
daaddetail asas asa s adsa s
w.wp.apda 30. w .wp.apin
Explain the e effe
effectwof pdad
.wp.adielectric placed inw.a
w pdad
p.aparallel .wp.apda
plate capacitor
w w
ww ww the capacitor is disconnected
when diw
w
from the w
w
battery. ww ww
Effect of dielectrics
s when
whe the capacitor is disconnected from
m the battery:
etet et
entarallel etet etet etet
ail.ani.n Consider ail.aani.parallel plate capacitor. ail.ani.nArea ail.ani.n ail.ani.n
Padasalai.Net
ada a a A, ada ada ada
w.wp.apda of each
w pdad
.wp.aplates= w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww
Distance between the ww d ,
e plates=
plat ww ww ww
Voltage of battery= V0
t nteet ca t t t
l ail.ani.ente Total charge laon i
l.ani.ethe capacitor= Q0. i.aSo
l a l ni.entethe l ail.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
.
wp.apdaada .wp.apdaadaof capacitor
capacitance citor without
w
.
w p. aada
apddielectric, .
ww
w
Cw wwe;.
0 = ww
w
ww
w
ww
w
ww
w
Œ ;
Electric field withou
without dielectric= E0, Electric field with dielectric=
ectric= E,
t t t t t t
.ni.ente
t t t
a la il.ani.ene Relative n en e
il.ai. ittivity or dielectric
alapermittivity
n e
il.ai.
alaconstant
n e
= •@ alaila a l a il.ani.ene
adsas adsas Ž adsas asas adsas
w .wp.apda w .wp∴.apda E = H;. Since •w
@>.w .apda
p1, p.apdad
we have E < E0 w.w w .wp.apda w
ww ww • ww ww ww ww
Then the capacitan
acitance of a capacitor with dielectric,
e e; e
t t C =n.e;
te; t= ; = •B Œ; ; •B C0n.entet t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene a l a Œn
il.ai ‘
C ;D
n•
;
a la il.ai a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s asa s adsa s adsa s adsa s
w.wp.apda w .apdad insertion
.wpThus n of di .wp.apdaslab increases thewcapacitance.
dielectric
ww ww ww H; f H• H; f ww’ ww ww
We have,
ve, C0 = h
;C= h
;C=
etet Where, t O = → permittivity of
t the dielectric medium dium.t etet
l ail.ani.n la i
l.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente la i
l .ani.ente l ail.ani.n
s
ada as Theadenergy
saas stored
tored in the capacitor
adsaas without dielectric,
adsaas s
ada as
w.wp.apda ada
w.wp.p 7 e;
a
7 e.p.ap “;
w ;=
d ada
w.wp.p .wp.apda
ww ww U=k j
=wkw
;w ;
H j H• ww ww
w
ww
w
• ;
Since •@> 1, we
e have
hav U < U0
t t t et t
l a i
l .ani.ente There lis ail.anai.entedecre
decrease in energy l a i
l.ani.entebecause, when lathe i
l .ani.entdielectric
die is l a i
l .ani.ente
sas adsaascapacitors a
daadsasenergy to pulling aas ctric sslab inside.
daadsdielectric sas
.
w p.apdaada inserted,
.
wp apdathe
. itors sspendp.asome
.
w p .
w p.athe
p .
w p apdaada
.
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
l asla l l l
p
w.w
a
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ww ww ww ww ww ww
XII STD. PHYSICS
t t t t ntet
i.ente IN PHYSICS
UVANNAMALAI . t t
RAJE M, l a
M.Sc.,
TEACHER
ww 31. ww
Explain in detail the e effeww of dielectric placed
effect wwin a parallel plate capacitor ww ww
when the battery remain
mains connected to the capacitor.
etet etetwhe the batteryi.aremains etet tcapacitor:
i.entec etet
s asl ail.ani.n Effect of dielectrics
s asl ail.ani.ns when s asl al ni.n connected to
s asl ail.anthe s asl ail.ani.n
ada ada a parallel
Consider ada
arallel platep.acapacitor. ada ada
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w.w pda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww Area of each plates ww= A, Distance between wwthe plates= d ww ww
Voltage of battery= ttery= V0
t Total charge et the capacitor= Qi.0ni.entet t t
l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l.ani.enton l a la l ail.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas adsaascapacitance
Sodathe a a
daadsas without dielectric,daadsas
itance of capacitor sas
apdaada a a a apdaada
w .
w p. w.wp.p e; w.wp.p w.wp.p w .
w p. w
ww ww C0 = Œ; . ww ww ww ww
Dielectric is inserte
serted between
t t tet b battery is lail.ani.ente
t t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene the plates aand l ail.ani.enthe a a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsas remains adsas ss
aada adsas adsas
w .wp.apda w .wp.apdain connected cted with
w .wp.apdthe w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww
capacitor. So the charge wwstored in
harge ww ww ww
the capacitor is increased ased.
t t Total charge t t
.an0i.ente
t t t t t
a l ail.ani.ene a l a il.ani.enwithout
withou
e dielectric = iQ
a l a l a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s Total s
adsacharge with dielectric=d s
adsQ,
a adsa s adsa s
ww(dielectric constant) =w•w@
w w w w w w
ww ww Relative permittivity ittivity ww ww
∴ Q = OQ 0
etet Since •@> 1, ewe
teet have
hav Q < Q0 entet t etet
ail.ani.n ail.ani.nitance increasessaswith ail.ani.the .ani.ente ail.ani.n
Padasalai.Net
s asl Hence s asl
capacitance l insertion of a l ailtric
dielectric
s s slab.
sla s asl
ada ada ada ada ada
w.wp.apda w .wp.apda H; f w .Hwp•H.ap;dag Hf w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww wwknow that, C0 = h . ∴
We ∴C
ww= h
;=
h
ww ww ww
Where, O 0 = → permittivity of the dielectric medium
t tet ntet t t
l ail.ani.ente The energy
l a i
l.ani.enstored
tored in the capacitorl a i
l .ani.ewithout dielectric,U 0la=
i
l .an7i.enCteo Vp k l a i
l .ani.ente
sas sas sas adsaas k sas
apdaada apdaada apdaad7 a k 7 kp.apda apdaada
w .
wp. After . p.
wthe dielectric is inser
w w U = k C Vp ; = k O Cw
inserted, .
w p. V .
w ; = O Uo
w w.wp. w
ww ww ww wo p ww ww
Since •@> 1, we e have
hav U > U0
t t So there is e increase
tcrease
t in energy when tthe
t dielectric is inserted. t. t t t
a la il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ne a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsas 32. Derive the s
adsaexpression sion for resultant adsas capacitance,adwhen adsas capa capacitors are adsas
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda in series
connected s and inw .wp.apda
parallel. w .wp.pa ada
w.wp.p w
ww w w w w w w w w ww
Capacitors in series:
t t Consider three ca
capacitors
. t t
il.ani.ene il.ani.ene
t t t t
il.ani.ene
a sl a of capacitance asl a l C 1 , C 2 and C 3 a sl a asl a asl a
w.wp.apda w .wp.apda in series with a battery
connected w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww
of voltage V
ww ww ww ww
In series connection,
s asl ail.ani.n 1) Each capacitor
s asl ail.ani.nor has same saslail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada aa aa ada ada
w.wp.apda w .apdad of charge
.wpamount arge ((Q) .w
w p.apdad w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww 2)ww But potential differe ww
difference ww ww ww
across each capac apacitor will be different.
t t th t ret t
l a i
l .ani.ente Let V1, aVil.2an,i.V3be
l
e nte the potential adifference
l i l.ani.ente across C1, C
l a i
2,l .en3terespectively,
.aniC l a il.ani.ente
sas a
daa1ds+asV2 + V3 asaas asaas asaas
. p.apdaada then V p=.apV p.apdad p.apdad p.apdad
w w w.w w.w w.w w.w w
ww ww V = e Y e
Yj
e
ww[∵Q = CV]; V = Q C 7 Y
ww7 Y 7 D ……………
……… ww
(1) ww
j j K j j j K
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
l asla l l l
p
w.w
a
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t t t t ntet
i.ente IN PHYSICS
UVANNAMALAI . t t
e
il.ani.en RAJENDRAN
RAJE M, a l a
TEACHER
adsa s ada s s s sada s s ada adsa s
ww ww Let CS be the equivalent
equi ww
capacitance of capacitor in series
ries connection,
c ww ww ww
e
then V = j ……………..
….. (2
(2)
etet • t t
il.ani.ene
tet
ani.en 7 7 7 entet t t
il.ani.ene
l ail.ani.n From (1) and l a e 7 lail.7
e havej = QdCad
7 la7il.ani. l a
s
ada as s a
ada (2) , we
s saY j Y j D ; j = j aYdaajdaY j
as s as s
ada as
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w w paj
• .p.a K •
w .wp.p K
w .wp.apda w
ww ww Thus the inverse ww of the equivalentww
verse c ww
capacitance of capacitors ww
connected in series
ies is equal to the sum of the inverses
erses of each
t t t t t
l a i
l .ani.ente capacitance. lail.ani.ente l ail.ani.ente l ail.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas This equivalent sas dsaasalways less than sas allest individualdadsaas
apdaada apdaada capacitan
acitance CaSdaais
p apdthe
aada smallest aa
w .
w p. w .
w p.
capacitance eries.www
in the series
.
w p. w.wp. w.wp.p w
ww ww ww ww ww
t t Capacitors in parallel: t t t t t t t t
l a il.ani.ene l ail.ani.ene l a il.ani.ene l a il.ani.ene l a il.ani.ene
a
adsas Consider s sthree capacitors
a capac ofs s capacitance C1d, adC
a s 2s and
a nd C3connecteddadsas a
.wp.apda apdaada apdaada apa a aa
w w .
w p.
in parallel with a battery tery o . p.
ofwvoltage V.
w w w .
w p. w.wp.p w
ww ww w ww ww ww
In parallel connection,
t t 1) Each capacitor or has same
il.ani.ene i .an i entet
. t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
a sl a potential asl a difference
l rence (V) asl a asl a asl a
adsa adsa asa adsa adsa
w.wp.apda 2) w.w .apdacharges
pBut onn eac
each w.w p.apdad w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww capacitor ww ww ww ww
will be different
etet entet, Q , Q be the charge etet etet then etet
ail.ani.n ail.ani.Q ail.ani.n on C1, C2, C3 respectivel l.ani.n ail.ani.n
Padasalai.Net
a l aLet
l 1 2 3 a l a l aiectively, a l
s
ada s s s
daadQa1 + Q2 + Q3 s
ada s s
ada s s
ada s
w.wp.apda w .wpQ.ap= w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww Q = C1V + C2V + C w3wV [∵Q = CV] ww ww ww
Q = V [C1 + C2 + C3]……….. (1)
t t t ni.entetconnection, t
l ail.ani.ente Let CP be l a il i.enteequivalent
.anthe equiv capacitance
l a il.ani.ente of capacitor in parallel
l a il.aallel c l a il.ani.ente
sas saas …………… …… (2) p.apdaadsa
as sas sas
.
wp.apdaada then Qp=.apdC
.w
aaPdV .w .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww From (1) and (2), C wPwV = V [C1 + C2 + C3] ww ww ww
CP = C1 + C2 + C3
t t Thus the .equivale t t ntetcapacitors connected ni.entet in parallel t t
a la il.ani.ene a l a ilani.eneivalent capacitance a la il.ani.eof a l a il.acted a l a il.ani.ene
adsas is equal to as sum of the
asthe th individual asas capacitances. adaadsas asas
w .wp.apda w .apdad
.wpThe w .wp.apdad w. wp.p w .wp.apdad w
ww ww equivalent nt cap
capacitance
ww CPin a parallel wwconnection iss always alwa wgreater
w ww
than the largest individual vidual capacitance.
t t t t t t t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a la il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s adsas adsa s adsa s adsa s
ww ww ww ww ww ww

ada ada ada ada ada
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t
l a i
l.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
.
w p.apdaada .
wp.apdaada .
w papdaada
. .
w p.apdaada .
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w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
l asla l l l
p
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t t t t ntet
ww 33. ww
Explain in detail the constructionww and working wwof Van de Graff generator. ww ww
Van de Graff Generator:
etet It is designed etet t t
il.ani.ene etet etet
s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n by Robert Vansde a sl aGraff. s asl ail.ani7.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada It produces a
adlarge electro staticap ada
potential difference ofapd ada 10 V
about ada
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w.wp. da w .wp. a w .wp.apda w
ww ww
Principle: ww ww ww ww
Electro static induction, Action of points
t t t t t
l a i
l .ani.ente Construction:lail.ani.ente l ail.ani.ente l ail.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas sas
It dconsists of large hollow sasspherical conductor sas ‘A’ fixed on thedadsaas
apdaada apaada apdaada apdaada aa
w .
w p. w .
w p
insulating
.
stand. w .
w p. w.wp. w.wp.p w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
Pulley ‘B’ is mounted at the centre of the sphere
t t and another pulley t is fixed at the bottom.
te‘C’ t t A t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene belt madeasup a l ail.ani.eninsulating
of material a l a il.ani.enesilk or
like a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsas as asas adsas adsas
w .wp.apda rubber
w .apdadover the pulleys.w.wp.apdad
.wpruns w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
The pulley ‘C’ is driven continuously by
the electric motor. tTwo comb shaped metallic
t t ete t t t t t t
a l ail.ani.ene conductor Dsa and
l ail.anEi.nare fixed near the a l il.ani.ene The
pulleys.
a a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s a s adsa s adsa s adsa s
.wp.apda combw.‘D’ aadmaintained
p.apdis .wp.apda potential of w.wp.apda
at a wpositive .wp.apda
w w w w
ww w4wV by a power supply.ww
10 The upper comb ‘E’ w is
w ww ww
connected to the inner side of the hollow metal
Padasalai.Net
l sphere. l l l l
s
ada as s
ada as s
ada as s
ada as s
ada as
w.wp.apda w .wp.apda
Working:
ww ww Due to the high electric ww field near combw‘D’, w air between the belt ww and ww
comb ‘D’ gets ionized. The positive charges are pushed towards the belt
t t t t t
l ail.ani.ente and negative charges
l a il.ani.ente are attracted ltowards a il.ani.ente the comb ‘D’.lail.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente
sas a
daadsas charges stick
The apositive aas belt and moveadup.
daadsthe sas sas
.
wp.apdaada .wp . p .wp .apto .wp. p aada When the positive .wp.apdaada
w w reach the comb ‘E’
charges w ww ww w
ww ww ww a large amount of wnegative and positive w charges ww
are induced on either side of comb ‘E’ due to electrostatic induction.
t t The positive t charges
t are pushed away
t t from the combn.en‘E’ t t and they t t
a la il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ai e a l a il.ani.ene
adsas reach thedaouter sas surface of the sphere. asas ss
apdaada
ss
apdaada
w .wp.apda w .apadnegative charges
.wpThe w .apdad
.wpneutralize the positive w. wp.charges in the belt w .wp. w
ww ww ww ww ww due ww
to corona discharge before it passes over the pulley. When the belt
descends, it has almost
t t
il.ani.ene i .ani entet no net charge. i.ani.entet
. tet
il.ani.enthe
t t
il.ani.ene
a sl a This process asl a l continues until theasl a louter surface producesasl a potential asl a
adsa adsa 7papdaad
sa asa adsa
w.wp.apda .wp.apda of the order of 10
difference
w w .w V. which is the limitingw.value. wp.apdad w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
Applications:
The high voltage produced in this Van de Graff generator is used to
etet etet i.ente
t entet etet
s asl ail.ani.n accelerate positive
s asl ail.ani.n ions (Protonssa and
sl ail.anDeuterons) for nuclear
s aslail.ani.disintegrations s asl ail.ani.n
ada adaada adaada adaada adaada
w.wp.apda and other
w.wp.p applications. w.wp.p w.wp.p w.wp.p w
ww ww w ww w ww w ww w ww
t t t t t
l a i
l.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
.
w p.apdaada .
wp.apdaada .
w papdaada
. .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
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p
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ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t .ni.ente
t
.ni.ente
t
.ni.ente IN PHYSICS
ww ww ww
UNIT - II (CURRENT ELECTRICITY) ww ww ww
etet ni.entet MARKS QUESTIONS etet etet etet

s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.aTWO s asl ail.ani.n AND ANSWERS s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada ada ada ada ada
ww 1. ww electric current. ww
Define ww ww ww
The electric current in a conductor is defined as the rate of flow of
t tet cross - sectional e he
a i
l .ani.ente charges through a i
l.aa
ni.engiven ail ntet = – (—@) = h– .ail.ani.entet
.ani.earea.I a i
l .ani.ente
t
l l l saasl l
a daadsaas The
a da
saas
adSI unit of current is a daadsaas (A). It is a scalar
ampere a d
a aquantity.
d sas
apdaada
w.wp. p w.wp.p w.wp. p w.wp. p w .
w p. w
ww 2. ww drift velocity. ww
Define ww ww ww
The average velocity acquired by the free electrons inside the
t t t
ntesubjected t t t
.ani.ente (˜⃗?). Its t t
a l a il.ani.ene conductor when a l ail.aitni.eis to an electric
a l a il.ani.enefield is called drifta l a ivelocity
l a l a il.ani.ene
adsas unit is pms a-1dsas adsas adsas adsas
w .wp.apda w .w.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww 3. ww mobility.
Define ww ww ww ww
The magnitude of drift velocity acquired by the free electrons per
2 -1 -1
i .ani entet unit electric fieldi.ais
. ni . tet
encalled mobility (™). Its.niunit
i a entet is m V s
. t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
asl a l asl a l asl a l a sl a a sl a
adsa 4. Define current asa density. asa asa asa
w.wp.apda w .apdad
.wpCurrent w .
w p.apdad w.wp.apdad w .
w p.apdad w
ww ww density (J) wwis defined as the current ww per unit area of wwcross ww
š -2
section of the conductor. J = ›. Its unit is Am
ni.entet Give the microscopic
ail.a5.
etet
ail.ani.n form of Ohm’s .ani.ente
aillaw.
t etet
ail.ani.n
etet
ail.ani.n
Padasalai.Net
ada ada a
daadne˜ •ž •daažda ada
w.wp.apda .wp.apda density is given w
The current
w .wp⃗.ap=
by,J ⃗h ; = neC Ÿ ⃗ D w p.apŸ
; .=
w
⃗ (or) ⃗J = Š ⃗
w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
Thus Current density is directly proportional to the applied electric
.n i e
.ntet field. This is known . ni e
. nteas
t microscopic formnof
. i e
. nteOhm’s
t law.
.ani.ente
t
.ani.ente
t
l ail a
6. Define resistivityl a i
l a of the material. l a i
l a l ail l a i
l
sas saas sas sas sas
.
wp.apdaada .
w p.apdaadelectrical
The resistivity
.wp. aadaa material is defined
apdof .
w p.apdaadaas the resistance .
w p.apdaada
w w ww w ww w
ww ww
offered to current flow w by a conductor of unit length ww having unit area w of cross ww
7 ¢f
section.¡ = d ; = £ Its unit is ohm - metre (¤m )
i.ani.entet i .
a ni entet
. i .
a ni entet
. entet
il.ani.material.
t t
il.ani.ene
a la l It depends only
a l a l
the type of material l
and
a a l not the dimension of
a l a
the a l a
w .wp.apda 7. w .wp.apda electric energyw.and
Distinguish p.apdaelectric
w power. w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
S.
Electric Energy Electric Power
t No.
t t t t t t t t t
il.ani.en e il.ani.ene il.ani.ene h“ i.ni.ene il.ani.ene
a l a 1 dW = dU =
a l a
VdQ a la P= ; = VI lala l a
adsa s adsas adsa s h– adsaas a
adsa s
w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w.wp.apda .p.apda
w is watt (W) .wp.apda
ww 2 ww
Its SI Unit is joule (J) ww wwUnit
ItswSI ww
w
ww
w
Its practical unit is kilowatt hour (kwh) Its practical unit is horse
3 6
. i. nentet 1 kwh = 3.6x10
. i. nentJet . i. nentet power(HP)1 HP =ne746
. i. ntet W etet
ail.ani.n
a
dsaaslaila ads
a aslaila ads
a aslaila adsaaslaila s
ada asl
ada ada ada ada .wp.apda
w.wp.p 8. w.wp.p
State w.wp.p w.wp.p w w
ww ww Kirchhoff’s first law ww(current rule or junction
ww rule) ww ww
It states that the algebraic sum of currents at any junction in a circuit
t is zero. (∑ ¥ = 0).It is ta statement of conservation t of electric charge. t t
l a i
l.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
.
w p.apdaada .
wp apdaada
. .
w papdaada
. .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
l asla l l l
p
w.w
a
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ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t ntet
ww 9. ww Kirchhoff’s second
State wwlaw (voltage rule or wloop w rule) ww ww
It states that in a closed circuit the algebraic sum of the products of
etet .entet t t
il.ani.eneof the circuit isalaequal
t t t t
il.ani.ene to the total alail.ani.ene
s asl ail.ani.n the currentsand asl ail.aniresistance of each apart
s asl s s s s
ada emf included ada in the circuit( ∑ ¦§ ad=a ∑ ¨). It is a statement ada of conservation of ada
ww ww for an isolated system.
energy ww ww ww ww
10. Define Seebeck effect.
t In a closed t t t t
l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l.ani.entecircuit consisting l ail.anof
i.entetwo dissimilar metals,
l ail.ani.ente when the l a i
l .ani.ente
sas junctions da aresasmaintained at different sas temperature an demf sasis developed. Thisdadsaas
apdaada ap ada apdaada apaada aa
w .
w p. w .
w p
phenomenon
.
is called Seebeck .wp.
w effect or thermoelectric .
w p.
w effect. The current w.wp.p w
ww ww ww ww ww that ww
flows due to the emf developed is called thermoelectric current. The two
t t dissimilar metals t t connected to form t t two junctions .niis t tknown as t t
a l a il.ani.ene thermocouple. a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a ila .ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsas adsas asas adsas adsas
w .wp.apda 11. What w p.apdathe
.are
w applications of
w .apdad
.wpSeebeck effect? w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
Seebeck effect is used in thermoelectric generators (Seebeck
t t generators) which tare used in power plants to convert waste heat into
il.ani.ene i . ni enet
. i . ni entet
. i . ni entet
. t t
il.ani.ene
a sl a electricity. sThis asl a l a effect is utilized
asl a l a in automobiles asl aasl a automotive asl a
adsa ada asa adsa adsa
w.wp.apda .wp.apda
thermoelectric
w generators for w .apdad
.wpincreasing .wp.apda
fuel efficiency
w w .wp.apda w
ww ww Seebeck effect is w w
used in thermocouples wwand thermopiles to measure ww ww
the temperature difference between the two objects.
ni.entet t t
il.ani.ene ail.ani.n
etet
ail.ani.n
etet
ail.ani.n
etet
Padasalai.Net
s asl ail.a12. Define Peltierlaeffect.
s as s asl s asl s asl
ada aa a
daadpassed ada ada
w.wp.apda w .apdad an electric current
.wpWhen w .wp.apis through a circuit
w .wp.apda of a thermocouple, w .wp.apda w
ww ww is evolved at onewjunction
heat w and absorbedww at the other junction.wThis w is ww
known as Peltier effect. Peltier effect is reversible.
l ail ni.entet
.a13. Define Thomson’s
l a il
t
.ani.enteeffect. l a il.ani.ente
t
l a il.ani.ente
t
l a il.ani.ente
t
sas as
daadsapoints saas at different temperatures, sas sas
.
wp.apdaada .wp
Ifaptwo
.
in a conductor
.wp .apdaadare .wp apdaada
.
the density of
.wp.apdaada
w w
electrons at these pointsww w differ and as a result
will w w w
ww ww ww the potential difference ww is ww
created between these points. Thomson effect is reversible.
t t THREE t
t MARKS QUESTIONS t
tAND ANSWERS n.entet t t
a la il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ai a l a il.ani.ene
adsas 14. Obtain an ss
expression
apdaada
ss
for drift velocity.
apdaada
How it is related
apdaada
s
s with the mobility? dadsas
.wp.apda p . p . p . w.wp.p
aa
ww velocity (©⃗ ):
w Drift w .w w .w w. w w
ww ww ww ww ww
If there is no electric field, all the free electrons in a conductor are moves
t t in random directions. entet As a result no net eflow of electrons in anyetdirection and
a il.ani.ene a il.ani . a i l.ani . ntet a il.ani . net a
t t
il.ani.ene
a
adsa sl hence there asa will
asl not be any current. adsaaIf
sl the conductor is subjected
a
adsa sl to an electric a
adsa sl
w.wp.apda field (
w ⃗ .apdad electrons experiences
.wp)free w .wp.apda a force given by,w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
⃗ ⃗
w = & e ………….(1)
t So all the free t electrons are accelerated in a direction opposite to the
l a i
l .ani.ente la i
l.ani.ente ⃗ l a i
l .
a ni.e⃗ntet la i
l .
a ni.entet l
etet
ail.ani.n
as as qsas s•Ž as as
s
ada s
ada
field. ByapNewton’s second law ,⃗ap=daaŸ
da; = Ÿ ……….. (2)p.apdaada s s
ada
w.wp.apda w .wp. da w .wp. w .w w .wp.apda w
ww wwBut the positive ionswwscatter the electronswwand change its direction ww of ww
motion. So they move in zigzag path.
t t et t t
l a i
l .ani.ente In addition toi.anthe
l a l i.entezigzag motion due l a i
l ni.entcollisions,
.ato the electrons
l a i
l .ani.entemove slowly l a i
l .ani.ente
sas adsaas dsaas sas
to that of .⃗p..apdaada
sas
.
w p.apdaada along .the
wp.apdaconductor in a direction
.
w papdaa
. opposite
w .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww This average velocity ww acquired by the ww free electrons inside ww the ww
conductors, when it is subjected to the electric field is called drift velocity (©⃗ )
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
l asla l l l
p
w.w
a
.pda p.apdad
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w.w.apda
w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t ntet
i.ente IN PHYSICS
UVANNAMALAI . t t
e
il.ani.en RAJENDRAN
RAJE M, a l a
TEACHER
ww ww ww
The average time between successive collisions is called the mean ww ww ww
free time or relaxation
ion ti
time (").
etet etet etet s•Ž⃗ etet etet
ail.ani.n .nift velo il.ani.⃗n = ,⃗"; = lail.an⃗i.
n ail.ani.n
s asl Hence lail.anidrift
sasthe velocity is given
saslaby,© Ÿ ada
;6
sas&™ s asl
ada aa ada ada
w .wp.apda w .apdad •ª= ™ → mo
.wpWhere, mobility
w .apdaelectrons
.wpof w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww Ÿ ww ww ww ww
The magnitude
e of tthe drift velocity acquired by the free electron
electr per unit
t tmobility.™ = |©⃗ | . It unit
entetis m2V-1s-1 t t
l a i
l .ani.ente electric field islacalled
i
l.ani.ente mob Ž⃗ lail.ani. l ail.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas saas dsaas velocity and the adsaas sas
.
w p.apdaada 15. w apdaadrelation
Derive.pthe
. betw
between .the
p
w apdaadrift
. .
w papdacurrent.
. .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww velocity and curren
Drift ww- Relation:
urrent ww ww ww
Area of cross section
n of th
the conductor =*
t t t t tet t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene Number of electronsa l ail.ani.ene per unit volume= a l a il‹,
.ani.enApplied
w .wp.apda w w .apdad ⃗
electric.pfield=
ww ww velocity of electrons
Drift ronsww= © , ww ww ww
ns= ®
Charge of an electrons=
t t tet tra i.ente
t t t t t
a l ail.ani.ene Let ‘?«’ be the a l a il.ani.ennce
distance travelled by the
a l a il.anelectron a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
s
adsa in time ‘?¬’, then s
adsa h- adsas adsa s adsa s
w.wp.apda w .wp.apdavd = h– (—@)) ?w.= p.apvdad?¬
ww ww
The number of electrons
w
wavailable
rons a
ww
in the volume of length ‘?«’ is
ww ww
= A ?« X n ; = A v ?¬ X n
e
n tet entet d etet etet etet
n . n . ail.ani.n is, =*˜??¬‹® saslail.ani.n ail.ani.n
Padasalai.Net
l .
aila i .
Then the totalaslchargei
aila e in this th volume aelement l l
s
ada as s
ada s
ada s ada s
ada as
w.wp.apda By w .wp.apda the current
definition, rrent is .wp.apdaby I = he ; = f ¯° h– w•.wp.a;pdIa= n e A Vd
given
w w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww h– wh–w ww ww
16. Write a note on carbon bon rresistors. Carbon resistors:
t Carbon resistors tors
t consist
c of a ceramic et core on whichi.nai.entthi thin
et layer of t
l ail.ani.ente crystalline acarbon l a i
l.ani.eniste deposited.
depo They l a il
are
.ani.entinexpensive, stable l a l aand compact
c in l a il.ani.ente
sas sas a
daadsas adsaas sas
.
wp.apdaada size. .wp.apdadarings drawn
Colour rawn o
over .wp
itapare
. used to indicate the
.wp.apdavalue of the resistance
.wp apdaada
.
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
according to the ruless in th the table.
Color Number Multiplier
t t entet ni.ente1t t t t t
a la il.ani.ene Black saslal i .
a ni . 0 a l a il.a a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsas ada asas adsas adsas
Brown 1 .w
w p.apdad 101 w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww Red ww 2 102 w
w ww ww
Orange 3 103
t t t t t et 4 t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene Yellow aslail.ani.n
e e
4 a l a il.ani.en10 a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s adsa asa s adsa s adsa s
Green 5 .w
w p.apdad 105 w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww Blue ww 6 106 w
w ww ww
Violet 7 107
etet etet etet 8 etet etet
s asl ail.ani.n Grey
s asl ail.ani.n 8
s asl ail.ani.n10 s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada ada aa ada ada
White 9 .w
w p.apdad 109
ww ww Color Mww
Multiplier Tolerance ww ww ww
Gold 10-1 5%
t t et % t t
l a i
l .ani.ente Silver lail.ani. e nte 10-2
l a il
e t
.ani. 10
n
l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
. p.apdaada No
. p. aada
Ring
apd . p apdaada
. . p.apdaada . p apdaada
.
w w w w w w 20 % ww w w w w
ww ww (Colourless) ww w ww ww
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
l asla l l l
p
w.w
a
.pda p.apdad
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a
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w.w.apda
w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t ntet
i.ente IN PHYSICS
UVANNAMALAI . t t
e
il.ani.en RAJENDRAN
RAJE M, a l a
TEACHER
ww ww There is three ww
e coloured
colo ww
bands on its left and one metallic ic coloured
colo ww
band ww
on its right side. The e first and second rings are the significantt figu figures of the
etet resistance andail.a the te t te t .entet them. the etet
ail.aniafter
e e
s asl ail.ani.n s asl ni.n third ring indicate
s asl i.n decimal multiplier
ail.anthe s asl s asl ail.ani.n
ada ada ring show
fourth pmetallic ada
shows thepatolerance of the resistor. ada ada
w .wp.apda w .w.apda w .w.pda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww Example: ww ww ww ww
For the given carbon n resi
resistor, The first digit = 5 (green), the secon second digit = 6
t t 3 t t t
.ani.ente (blue), decimal multiplier .ani.enteiplier = 10 (orange).niand .ente tolerance = 5%la(gold). gold).
.ani.ente The value .ani.ente
l a i
l l a il 3 l a il a il l a il
sas of resistance sa=s 56 × 10 Ω or 56 kΩ as the tolerance value
swith sas5%. sas
.
w p.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp apdaada
. . wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada
w w FIVE MARK ARKS w w w w
ww ww ww QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ww ww ww
17. Describe the microscop scopic model of current and obtain general eral formfo of
t t Ohm’s law. t t tet t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene Microscopic a l a
modelil.ani.enleof cu current and a l a
Ohm’ il.ani.enlaw: a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsas adad asas adad asas adad asas adadasas
w .wp.apda w.wp.p w.wp.p w.wp.p w.wp.p w
Area of cross section the conductor= *
n of th
Number of electrons s per unit volume= ‹,t Applied
. ni entet
. ni entet
. il.ani.ene
t t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
a sl ail a electric field= a ⃗
sl a i
l .
a asl a a sl a a sl a
w.wp.apda Drift w .wp.apda of electrons
velocity rons =w.wp.a,pda
© w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
Charge of an electrons= ns= ®
ee t t Let ‘?«’ be the distance tnce

t tra
travelled by the electron t t in time ‘?¬’, then t t t t
ail.ani.n i.ni.ene(—@)) i.ni.ene i.ni.ene i.ni.ene
Padasalai.Net
h-
s
ada asl vd =asaaslala ?« = vads?¬ aasl
a la
adsaas
lala
adsaas
lala
dh– d
w.wp.apda a
w.wp.p
da apda
w.wp.available
a da
w.wp.pof length ‘?«
a
p.p
«’ is www.w
da
w
ww ww The number of elec electrons
ww in the volume
ww ww
= A ?« X n ; = A vd?¬ X n
t Then the total
entel tcharge
char in this volumeentelementet is, =*˜??¬‹® entet entet
il.ani.ente lail.ani. i.ani. il.ani. i.ani.
dadsaasl a
By definition,
dadsaasthe current
rrent is given dby
a
d saaIsl=alhe ; = f ¯° h– • ; dI a=dsanasla
e A Vd dadsaaslal
aa aa aa h– h– aa aa
w w.wp.p w w.wp.p w w.wp.p w w.wp.p w.wp.p w
w w
Current density (J): w w ww ww
Current density
ity (J)
(J is defined as the current per unit
it area of cross
t t t t š ± [ › ¯° t t -2t t t t
a la il.ani.ene section of theaconductor.
l a il.ani.enector. J = ›; = ›alai.l.aniJ.en=e ne ˜h . Its unit is a l Am
a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsas ss
aada adsas adsas adsas
w .wp.apda w .wpIn.apdvector notation,tion, .wp.a⃗phda; ⃗J= neC& •ž ⃗ D ; = w&.wp.a•pdaž ⃗
⃗J =wne˜ w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww Ÿ ww Ÿ ww ww
• ž
Where, Ÿ
→Conductivity; ∴ ⃗J = &Š ⃗
=Š→
te t t
.entenventionally, ntet direction of current ntet t t
a l a n
il.ai e
.n
a
But
l a il.aniconventi we take
a la il.ani.ethe a l a .ani.edensity
ilnt den as the
a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s asas asa s asa s adsa s
.wp.apda .apdad
.wpdirection of electric
lectric field. pdadthe above equation
.wp.aSo pdad
.wp.abecomes,J ⃗ =Š
= ⃗ .wp.apda
w w w w w w
ww ww is called microscopic
This
w
copicwform of Ohm’s law. w
w ww ww

ada ada ada ada ada
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t
l a i
l.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
.
w p.apdaada .
wp.apdaada .
w papdaada
. .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
l asla l l l
p
w.w
a
.pda p.apdad
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a
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w.w.apda
w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
XII STD. PHYSICS
t t t t ntet
i.ente IN PHYSICS
UVANNAMALAI . t t
RAJE M, l a
M.Sc.,
TEACHER
ww 18. ww the macroscopic
Obtain ww
copic form of ohm’s law from ww its microscopic copic form ww and ww
discuss its limitation.
etet etet Oh law: ail.ani.entet etet etet
s asl ail.ani.n Macroscopic s asl ail.ani.n of Ohm’s
form
s asl s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada ada a segmen
Consider gment of pwire a length land
adof ada ada
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .w.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww sectional area A. ww
cross ww ww ww
When a potential differen
fference V is applied across
t et fiel t t t
l a i
l .ani.ente the wire, a netlaelectric
i
l.ani.entric field is created in.nthe
l aila i.entewire l ail.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas which constitutessas the e current.
curr sas that the
If assume sas sas
.
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada .wp.apdaada .
w papdaada
. .
w p.apdaada
w w
electric wwentire length of thewwire, ww the potential d www is w
ww ww field is uniform rm inwtthe tial difference ww
Œ
given by, V = El (or) E = £
t t et
ni.entroscopic t t Œ t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene From the
a l ail.amicroscop form of Ohm’s
a l a il.ani.enelaw, J = ŠE ; = Ša£lail.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsas adsas daadsas adsas adsas
w .wp.apda w .apdadefinition,
.wpBy the C .wp.apdensity
Current
w is J =
š
ww ww ww › ww ww ww
š Œ £
Hence, › = £
; ∴ V = I CdfD; V = IR
t t £ n.entet ntet t t t t
a l ail.ani.ene Where, a l a i R →Re
il.a= Resistance ofala il.ani.econductor.
the This isacalled
l a il.ani.enemacroscopic
m a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s asa s df adsas adsa s adsa s
w.wp.apda formw pdad law.The
.wp.aOhm’s
of he re .wp.apda is the ratio of potential
resistance
w w .wp.apda differen fference .wp.apda
across
w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
the given conductor to the current passing through the conductor.
From Ohm’s law, th the graph between current versus voltage ge is straight
e
n tet entet e ntet ni.entet etet
n . n . n . ail.ani.n
Padasalai.Net
l .
aila i line with a slope l . i
aila equal ual to the inverse l . i
ailaof resistance R ofsthe l .
ailaconductor
cond l
s
ada as aas as aas as as s as
.wp.apda .apdad
.wpMaterials, for which the pdad
.wp.acurrent against voltage aada is a straight
.wp.apdgraph s .wp.apda
line
ada
w w w w w w
ww ww
through the origin, are wwto obey Ohm’s law and
re sai
said ww their behaviour iour is said wwto be ww
ohmic.
t t t
ni.entdevice t t t
l ail.ani.en e Materials l a i
l.aor eevices that do not l a i
l i.ente Ohm’s law are
.anfollow l ail i.ente to be non-
.ansaid l a i
l .ani.ente
sas a
daadsas materials sas dsaas sas
.
wp.apdaada ohmic..p.aThese
w p erials have .wp. aada complex (non.p.ap-daalinear)
apdmore w
rela
relationships
. wp.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww
between voltage and ww
d cur
current. ww ww ww
la ni.entet Explain the lequivalent

il.a19. a
t t
il.ani.enealent resistance la ilof
t
.ani.entae series and parallel
l a il.anllel
t
i.ente rresistance l a
t t
il.ani.ene
a
adsas network. a
asas a
asas a
asas a
asas
w .wp.apda w .
w p.apdad w.wp.apdad w.wp.apdad w .
w p.apdad w
ww ww
Resistors in Series: ww ww ww ww
When two or more resistors are connected
t t end to end, they.nare t tsaid to be in series. Let
t t R1, t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene a l a ilai.ene a la il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s R2 , R3 be adsas
the resistanc
istances of three
daadsa s resistors adsa s adsa s
w.wp.apda w .wp.apda in series. Let
connected Le w .wp.apbe
“V” the potential w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
difference applied across acros this combination. In
ee t t series connection i)t Curre
ee
Current
t through each resistor
ee t t ee t t etet
ada will be psame ada(I) ii) But ut potential
pote ada
difference across ada ada
w.wp.apda w .w.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w.wp.apda w
ww ww
different resistor will be dif ww
different. ww ww ww
Let V1, V2, V3 be the potential
t et1, R2, R3respectively, t t t
l a i
l .ani.ente difference across l ail.ani.entR l a i
l.ani.entethen l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas from Ohm’s as V1 = IR1 ; V2 = IRa2d,saV
slaw. as = IR3 sas sas
.
w p.apdaada .
wp.apdaada .
w papda 3
. .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada
w w
Total ww w w w
ww ww potential difference, ence,wV = V1 + V2+V3 ; ww ww ww
= IR1 + IR2 + IR3
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
l asla l l l
p
w.w
a
.pda p.apdad
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w.w.apda
w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t ntet
i.ente IN PHYSICS
UVANNAMALAI . t t
e
il.ani.en RAJENDRAN
RAJE M, a l a
TEACHER
adsa s ada s s s s
ada s s ada adsa s
ww ww V = I[R1 + R2 + R3] ……………. (1) ww ww ww ww
Let Rs be the equivalent lent resistance
r in series connection, then
etet V = IRs ………..(2) e te t etet etet etet
s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n ..(2) s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada From equation ada (1) and nd (2)
(2), we phave ada ada ada
ww ww IRs = I [R1 + R2 + R w3w] ; ∴ Rs = R1 + R2 + Rw3 w ww ww
When resistances nces area connected in series, the equivalent nt resistance
res is
t the sum of the.nindividu t t t t
l a i
l .ani.ente l a il a i.enteividual resistances. l a il.ani.entThe
e equivalent resistance
l a il
stance
.ani.ente in series l a il.ani.ente
sas connection sas be greater
will sasindividual resistance. sas sas
apdaada apdaada apdaada apdaada apdaada
reater than each
w .
w p. w .wp. .wp. .wp. .wp.
ww Resistors
ww in Parallel: www ww
w
ww
w
ww
w
When two or more resistors are connected across the sam same potential
t t difference, they are said
t to t be in parallel. eLet R , R , R be the resistances resis of
a il.ani.ene a i.ente
il.anconnect a ntet 1 2 3
il.ani.Let a ni.entet
il.ntial
a a
t t
il.ani.ene
a l three resistors a l nnected in a l
parallel. “V” be the a l
potential difference a l
adsas ss
apdaada this combin adsas adsas adsas
w .wp.apda applied
w .wp.across ombination.
ww ww ww ww ww ww
In parallel connection, n, i) P
Potential difference across each resistance tance will be the
t t same (V) ii) But current tent
t flo
flows through different t t resistors will be different.
differe t t t t
adsa s adsa s adsas adsa s adsa s
ww ww ww ww ww ww

Padasalai.Net
ada ada ada ada ada
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t eet the currents flowi.nithrough

.entet ni.entet t
l ail.ani.ente Let I1, I2,i.anIi3.entbe
l a l l a l a R1, R2, R3 respect
l ail.aspectively, then
l a i
l .ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
.
wp.apdaada from Ohm’s
.
w p.apdaadalaw. I1 = ² ; I2= .²wp.apda;adIa3 = ² .
w w w K
ww w w
ww ww ww 7 7 7w ww ww
I = I1 + I2 + I3 ; = ² Y ²
Y ² ; I = VC² Y ²
Y ² D………(1)
K K
t t t t re t t t t t t
a la il.ani.ene Let Rp be theaequivalent
l a il.ani.enelent resistance in parallel
a la il.ani.ene connection, then a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsas adsasI = ……… …………….. sas
ad(2) adsas adsas
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda ²³ w .wp.apda w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww 7 w
7
w 7 ww ww
From equation (1) and (2), we have² = VC² Y
nd (2) ²
Y² D
³ K
t t 7 7 7 7 t t t t t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene ∴ ² = C² Y ²alaYil.an²i.enDe a la il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s ³
asas K
asa s s s adsa s
.wp.apda .apdad resistances
.wpWhen p.apdad
.w .wp.apdaada .wp.apda
w w nces are
w connected in parallel,wthe reciprocal cal of equivalent
w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
resistance is equal to the sum of the reciprocal of the values of re resistance of
the individual resistor.
etet etet etet t
ni.entelesser etet
s asl ail.ani.n s aslail.ani.n nt res
The equivalent
s ail.ani.n connection swill
resistance in asparallel
l a slail.abe le than
s asl ail.ani.n
ada ada aa ada ada
w.wp.apda .wp.apda
eachwindividual resistance
tance. w.wp.apdad w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t
l a i
l.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
.
w p.apdaada .
wp.apdaada .
w papdaada
. .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
l asla l l l
p
w.w
a
.pda p.apdad
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a
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w.w.apda
w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
XII STD. PHYSICS
t t t t ntet
i.ente IN PHYSICS
UVANNAMALAI . t t
RAJE M, l a
M.Sc.,
TEACHER
ww 20. ww
Explain the ww
deter
determination of ww internal resist
the resistance ww of a ww
cell using voltmeter.
s asl ail.ani.n Internal resistances asl ail.ani.n of a cell: s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada A realadabattery is ma made of ada
electrodes and electrolyte. adaThere ere is resistance ada
ww w flow of charges
towthe ww the battery and this
es wi
within ww resistance is called w
call winternal ww
resistance (r)
.ani.ente
t The emf .nof i.entethe cell is measured
t
.ani.ente by connectinglahigh
t ni.entetresistance
.aigh r .ani.ente
t
l a i
l l a i
l a l ail i
l l a i
l
sas sas it withou
voltmeterdaacross without connecting sas the external resistance sas R.. This circuitdaadsaas
. p.apdaada . p.ap ada . p.apdaada . papdaada
. .wp.ap
ww gives the emf (¶¶) of w
w w may w w w w w w wwcell. w
ww ww be considered as ope open,
ww the voltmeter reading the ww
Then external resistance ance is included in the circuit and current ‘I’ is established e
t t in the circuit. t t t t t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene a l ail.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
ww ww ww ww ww ww
This circuit ist then considered as close, the voltmeter reading eading gives the
i . ni entet
. i .ni enet
. i . ni entet
. i. ni entet
. t t
il.ani.ene
a sl a l a potential difference(V)
a sl a l a V) across
acr ‘R’ asl a l a a sl a l a a sl a
adsa adsa asa adsa adsa
w.wp.apda By Ohm’s
w pdad
.wp.apdalaw, = IR (or) I w=.wp.a……….(1) w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ² ww ww ww
Due to internal al res
resistance of the cell, the voltmeter reads ds the value “V”
t which is less than theet emf
em (¶). It is because, t certain amount off nvoltage voltat (Ir) has etet
.ani.ente .ani.ente .ani.ente .ai.ente ail.ani.n
Padasalai.Net
l a i
l l ail l a i
l l a i
l l
s
ada as dropped across
s
ada as the intern
ernal resistance s
aa as ‘r’. Hence s
ada as s
ada as
w.wp.apda w .wpV.ap=da − ¥@ − − − − (2)
w pdad = ¶ − ·
.wp.a(or) w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
w w ww w
w´ s Œ w w w w ww
´sŒ
∴ O= µ
; =C Œ
D§
t nteet kno t ni.entet ‘I’ can be t
l ail.ani.ente Since¶, V andlaR i
l.ani.eare known, internal resistance
l a i
l .ani.ente ‘r’ and total current
l ail.aurrent l a i
l .ani.ente
sas determined. sas sas sas sas
.
wp.apdaada .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada
w The w w w w w
ww wwpower delivered to the wwcircuit is, I = I ; = I (Vw+wIr); = I (IR + Ir) ww ww
2 2
P=I R+I r
2
i.ani.entet where,I R→ power tdeliver
il.ani.ene
elivered
t to R t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
a la l 2 l a
I r→adsaspower delivered
a delive to @ adsas
a la a l a a l a
adsas adsas adsas
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w.wp.apda w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww ww ww ww

ada ada ada ada ada
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t
l a i
l.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
.
w p.apdaada .
wp.apdaada .
w papdaada
. .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
l asla l l l
p
w.w
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w.w.apda
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XII STD. PHYSICS
t t t t ntet
i.ente IN PHYSICS
UVANNAMALAI . t t
RAJE M, l a
M.Sc.,
TEACHER
ww 21. ww the condition
Obtain w
n forwbridge balance in Wheatstone’s ww bridge.idge. ww ww
Wheatstone’s bridge:
etet An important t
eteapplication etet etet etet
s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n applic of Kirchhoff’s
s asl ail.ani.n laws is s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada ada
the Wheatstone’s bridge. Itpapis
bridg a
adused to comparepapdaada ada
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .w. da w.w. w .wp.apda w
ww ww
resistances and also lso whw
helps in determiningwwthe ww ww
e in the electrical network. The
unknown resistance
t .entetfour resistances t t t
l a i
l .ani.ente bridge consists l a i
l.aniof l ail.anP,
i.enteQ, R, S l ail.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas connected saas
s shown. own. A galvanometersas ‘G’ is daadsaas sas
.
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada .wp.ap .
w p.apdaada
w w
connected between n B ww w D. A battery ‘¶′wwis
and w w
ww ww w ww ww
connected between A an and C . Let I1, I2, I3, I4currents
t t through various branche t anches
t and IG be ethe t t current t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene through the a l ail.ani.eneometer.
galvanomet a l a il.ani.ne a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
w .wp.apda w .wp.apdaKirchhoff’s cur
Applying current
w .apdadat B and D,
.wplaw w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
I1 − IG − I3 = 0 − − − − (1)
t t I2 + IG − I4 t= t0 −− − − (2)
il.ani.ene i .
an i ene
. i .ani entet
. t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
a sl a Applying Kirchhoff’s asl a l vol
voltage law ABDA
asl a l and ABCDA, asl a asl a
adsa adsa adsa asa adsa
w.wp.apda w .wpI1.apPda+ IGG – I2 R = 0 w.wp.apda − − − − (3)w.w p.apdad w .wp.apda w
ww ww I P + I Q − I R − wIwS = 0 − − − −w
w
(4) ww ww
1 3 2 4
At balanced conditi ondition, the potential at B and D are same,, and hence the
etet t
.ilani.ente zero deflection.
t
.ani.entIeG = 0 etet etet
ail.ani.n galvanometerlashows ailSo ail.ani.n ail.ani.n
Padasalai.Net
s asl s as s asl s asl s asl
ada ada in equation ada (3) ada ada
w.wp.apda w .apdathis
.wpPut uation (1),.p(2)
w w .apdaand w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww I1 − I3= 0 (or) wwI1 = I3 − − − −w w
(5) ww ww
I2− I4 = 0 (or) I2 = I4 − − − − (6)
t tet t t t
l ail.ani.ente I1P − I2Ri.an=i.en0(or)
l a l
I1P = I2R
l a il.ani.en−te− − (7)
−
l ai l.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente
sas dsaas adsaas sas sas
.
wp.apdaada .wp
Put
.apdaaequation (5) an
and (6) in
.wp.apda(4) . wp.apdaada . wp.apdaada
w w w ww+ S) = 0 w w
ww ww I1P + I1Q − I2R − wIw 2S = 0 ; I1 (P+Q) − I2w(R ww ww
∴I1 ( P+Q) = I2 (R + S) − − − − (8)
t t Divide equation ton t (8) by (7) n.entet n.entet n.entet
il.ani.ene i. i n.ene
usla lšar² v ¹uu
.ai
aslvail¹u i.ai i.ai
a
adsas
la š r¸ v sa
ad a = ;
r¸ v u sr²
=a
d a a
d saaslal a
d saaslal
w .wp.apda aad
w.wp.pš ¸ š ² ¸
w.w
d
p.apa ² aa
w.wp.p
d aa
w.wp.p
d
w
ww ww ¹ ww ww ww ww
1+ =1+ ;
¸ ²
¹
t t = (or) entet t t t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene ¸ ² alail.ani. a la il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s asas
º adad¼ adsa s adsa s adsa s
w.wp.apda w .wp.p= ………..(9) w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww » ½ ww ww ww ww

ada ada ada ada ada
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t
l a i
l.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
.
w p.apdaada .
wp.apdaada .
w papdaada
. .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
l asla l l l
p
w.w
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t t t t ntet
i.ente IN PHYSICS
UVANNAMALAI . t t
e
il.ani.en RAJENDRAN
RAJE M, a l a
TEACHER
adsa s adas s s sada s s ada adsa s
ww ww ww ww ww ww
22. Explain the determinatio
ination of unknown resistance using Meter
ter Br
Bridge.
s asl ail.ani.n Meter bridge: s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada ada ada Metre Bridgeadaais da another other form pof ada
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w.wp.apda w .wp.p w .w.apda w
ww ww ww Wheatstone’s wbridge.w It consists w
sists of wuniform ww
manganin wire AB of 1m length. This wire is
t t stretched t et t
l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l.ani.ente l a il.ani.entealong a metre scale l a il.ale
ni.entbe
between two
l a il.ani.ente
sas sas sas strips C and D.
copper sEasis anoth another copperdaadsaas
.
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada p.ap
.An
ww
w
ww
w
ww
w strip mounted wwith ww two gaps G1 andwG w2w .w ww
w
unknown resistance P is connected ected in G1 and
t t t t standarderesistance connected d in G
l a il.ani.ene l ail.ani.ene l a ni.ntet
il.aA l a .entet 2
il.anifrom l a
t t
il.ani.ene
a
adsas a
adsas asasa jockey J is connected a
adsas E through a
asas
w .wp.apda a w .wp.apda
galvanometer G and h
highw wp.apdad
.resistance HR.A .wp.apda cell ¶ and
Lechlanche
w an key wK .apdad
.wpis w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
connected across the e brid
bridge wire. The position of jockey is adjusted usted so that the
galvanometer shows zero deflection. Lett the
s zer point be ‘J’
i . ni entet
. i .ni entet
. i . ni enet
. t
i.ente S of the
il.anand
t t
il.ani.ene
s asl a l a The lengths sasl AJ
a l a and
nd J
JB now replace
s asl a l a the resistance s aR
sl a s asl a
ada apdaada aa
apdad ²V›Â ada ada
.wp.apda .p.
Wheatstone’s p. ; =
The w»w=.w
bridge.. Then
º ¼ .wp.apda .wp.apda
ww
w
www w ½ ²V ÂÃ
w ww
w
ww
w
ww
w
º ›Â £
Where R¿ → resista
resistance per unit length,» = ÂÃ
= £ ………(1)
etet .n£i.ente
t etet etet etet
ail.ani.n ail.ani.n ail.ani.n ail.ani.n
Padasalai.Net
s
ada asl (or) aPsaa=slaQila£ ………
……..(2)
s
ada asl s
ada asl s
ada asl
d
ww ww Due to imperfect
fect w
contact
w of wire at its ends, ww some resistance stance might
ww be ww
introduced at the contact. ntact. These are called end resistances. Byy interchange inte P
t and Q, This errorncan nt be eliminated, and ethe t average value of Pn.enistefound. fo
t Let Ä t
l.ai.ente l a i
l .ani.nte l ail.ai l a i
l .ani.ente
sas be the length sasand r be th the radiusadsof aswire, its specific resistance sas ce (re (resistivity) is adsaas
.
wp.apdaada .
w p.apdaadaÁf ÁGB .
w p.apda a .
w p.apdaada .wp.apda
w given w w w w w
w w w be.À = £ ; = £ ……
w ………….(3)
w w w w w w ww
t t t t t t t t t t
a la il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a la il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww ww ww ww

ada ada ada ada ada
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t
l a i
l.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
.
w p.apdaada .
wp.apdaada .
w papdaada
. .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
l asla l l l
p
w.w
a
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t t .ni.ente
t
.ni.ente
t
.ni.ente IN PHYSICS
ww ww ww ww ww ww
UNIT - III (MAGNETISM AND
etet etet t t
il.ani.ene CURRENT)ail.ani.entet etet
a l ail.ani.n a l ail.ani.n EFFECTS OF
MAGNETIC
a l aELECTRIC l l ail.ani.n
s
ada s s s
adaTWO MARKS QUESTIONS s
ada s AND ANSWERS adsaas s
ada as
w .wp.apda a
w.wp.p
da a
w.wp.p
da a
w.wp.p
da
w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
1. Define pole strength of the magnet.
t The attracting t t tet poles only t
l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l.ani.ente property of the la magnet
i
l .ani.ente is concentrated l ail
at
.ani.enits l a i
l .ani.ente
sas sas is called pole strength
and this property sas ('Å). sas sas
. p.apdaada . p.apdaada . p.apdaada . papdaada
. . p.apdaada
ww
w w w w
ww The S.I unit of poleww
w w
strength is ’Æ ww
w w
ww
w w
ww
w
2. Define magnetic dipole moment.
t t Magnetic dipole t t moment (pm) is.nidefined t t as the producteteof t the pole t t
il.ani.ene il.ani.ene ila .ene il.ani.n il.ani.ene
asas (2 Ä). i.e Æ = ÆadÇaadsas
a l a strength ( ad a l a
qsms) and magnetic length a l a a l a a l a
adsas a a asas
.wp.apda .wpIn.apdvector . p.apda⃗d ⃗ . p.p . p.apdad
ww
w
ww
w notation;w⃗Ÿ w 6 'Ÿ ?[∵ | ? | = 2 Ä] ww
w w w w
ww
w w
ww
w
2
Its SI unit is Am . Its direction is from South Pole to North Pole.
3.etet Define magnetic field. t t t t t t t t
l a il.ani.n l a il.ani.ene ⃗ l a il.ani.ene l a il.ani.ene l a il.ani.ene
asaas a
Theamagnetic
sa s field + at aapoint a
sa is defined as a force
s as
asa experienced by asa as
adad adad adad adad adad
w.wp.p w.wp.p w.wp.p q⃗ w.wp.p w.wp.p w
w w w w strength.+⃗ =
w
w bar magnet of unit pole
the EÈ
w
w SI unit is NA-1m-1
. Its w w ww
4. Define magnetic flux. Give its unit.
etet etet ni.entet crossing per unit entet is called etet
ail.ani.n ail.ani.n of magnetic field ail.ani.area ail.ani.n
Padasalai.Net
a l The numbera l a l ail.alines a l a l
s
ada s s
ada s s
ada s s
ada s s
ada s
w.wp.apda .wp.apda
magnetic
w flux (Φ+)Φ+ = +⃗. *⃗w= .wp.aBpdaA cosθ w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww The SI unit of wmagnetic w
flux is Weber ww (Wb) and CGS wunit w
is ww
Maxwell(1 Wb = 108Maxwell).Its dimensional formula is [ML2T-2A-1]
l ail ni.entet Define magnetic
.a5. l a i
l .entet density.
.aniflux l a i
l .ani.ente
t
l ail.ani.ente
t
l a i
l .ani.ente
t
sas saas dsaas be defined as the dsaas sas
.
wp.apdaada .
w p.apdaadmagnetic
The flux density
.
w p.apdaa
can .
w p.apdaanumber of magnetic
.
w p.apdaada
w w w wwdirection of line of w ww w
ww ww lines crossing unit
field wwarea kept normal to w the force.Its ww
S.I unit is tesla or Wbm-2
la ni.entet Distinguish between
il.a6. l a
t t
il.ani.ene uniform and a l a
t t
il.ani.ene
non-uniform magnetic field.
l a
t t
il.ani.ene l a
t t
il.ani.ene
a
adsas S. a
adsas
UniformapMagnetic field adsas Non – Uniform a
adsasMagnetic field adaadsas a
w .wp.apda w .wp. da w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w.wp.p w
ww No. ww ww ww ww ww
1 Magnetic field is said to be uniform If it Magnetic field is said to be non-
t t has the same magnitude t t and direction .ni.enteuniform t If the magnitude t t or t t
a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a la ila a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s at all the dpoints s
adsa in a given region. adsa s direction or d both s
asa varies at all its adaadsa s
w .wp.apda w .wp.apa w.wp.apda w .wp.apad w.wp.p w
ww ww ww points.
ww ww ww
2 (e.g) Locally Earth’s magnetic field (e.g) Magnetic field of a bar
etet is uniform etet etemagnet
t etet etet
.ni.n .ni.n .ni.n .ni.n .ni.n
a
dsaaslaila ads
a aslaila ads
a aslaila adsaaslaila adsaaslaila
ada wp.ap
da ada ada ada
w.wp.p 7. w.Coulomb’s
State w.wp.p law of magnetism.
inversewsquare w.wp.p w.wp.p w
ww ww w ww ww ww
The force of attraction or repulsion between two magnetic poles is
. ni e
. ntet directly proportional
. ni e
. ntet to the product of . ni e
. ntet pole strengths.ni.eand
their
ntet inversely .ani.ente
t
l a i
l a proportional l
to ail a
the square of the l a i
l
distance a between them. l a i
l a l a i
l
sas sas sas sas sas
.
w p.apdaada .
wp apdaada
. .
w papdaada
. .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada
w ww ww
w www ww
w ww w ww
w
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
l asla l l l
p
w.w
a
.pda p.apdad
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w.w.apda
w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t .ni.ente
t
.ni.ente
t
.ni.ente IN PHYSICS
ww ww ww ww ww ww
8. State Ampere’s circuital law.
etet It state athat tet line integral of magnetic
il.ani.enthe etet field over a aclosed t t t t
il.ani.ene loop is μp alail.ani.ene
s asl ail.ani.n s asl s asl ail.ani.n s asl s s
ada ada ada ∮ +⃗ . ?Ä⃗ = μ I aa ada
times net current enclosed by.the
w p.apdaloop.
w p.apdad
p p .w
w w .wp.apda w
ww 9. ww Lorentz force. ww
Define ww ww ww
If the charge is moving in the electric field ( ⃗ ) and magnetic field ( +⃗ ),
t t t t t
l a i
l .ani.ente the total forcelailexperienced
.ani.ente by the charge
l ail.ani.enteis given by l ail.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas saas a
daadsas as Lorentz force. sas sas
.
w p.apdaada .
w w
p⃗.apd=aadqË ⃗ Y Ì ˜⃗x +⃗ ÎÏ . It.is
wp apknown
. .wpapdaada
. .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww 10. ww Fleming’s Left Hand
State ww Rule (FLHR). ww ww ww
Stretch for finger, the middle finger and the thumb of the left hand in
t t t t t t t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene mutually perpendicular
a l ail.ani.ene directions. If,alail.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsas asas asas of magnetic field, adsas adsas
w .wp.apda (i)
w .apdadfinger points thew.direction
.wpFore wp.apdad w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww The middle fingerwpoints
(ii) w w electric current, then
the direction ofwthe ww ww
(iii) Thumb will point the direction of the force experienced by the
t t t t t t t t t t
a l ail.ani.ene conductor.
a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
s
adsa 11. Define one s
adsampere.
a adsas adsa s adsa s
ww ww One ampere is defined ww as that current when ww it is passed throughweach w of ww
the two infinitely long parallel straight conductors kept at a distance of one
etet metre apart in vacuum i.ente caused eachlaconductor
t t t
il.ani.ene
to experiencena t force
il.ai.ene
t of 2 x t t
il.ani.ene
ail.ani.n 10−7Newtonsper ail.anmetre
Padasalai.Net
s asl asl a
length of dconductor.
s s s asl a s asl a
ada aa aada ada ada
w.wp.apda 12. w
Define .apdad
.wpcurrent sensitivity w
of .wpa.apgalvanometer. w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
It is defined as the deflection produced per unit current flowing through
U ÐÃ› 7
.n i e
.ntet it. Is = š ; = Ñ ;.n=i.eÒntet .ani.ente
t
.ani.ente
t
.ani.ente
t
l ail a l a i
l a l a i
l l ail l a i
l
sas sas sensitivity of galvanometer
sas a
daadsas sas
.
wp.apdaada 13. .
w p. aada
How theapdcurrent
.
w p.apdaada can beap
.
w p.
increased?
.wp.apdaada
w w ww of turns (N) w w w
ww ww By increasing the w number ww ww ww
By increasing the magnetic induction (B)
t t By increasing t the
t area of the coil (A) t t t t t t
adsas Byddecreasing
ss the couple dper s unit
s twist of the suspension s s wire adsas
.wp.apda .
w p.apaada .
w p.apaada .
w 14. Whyw w w w w
ww ww Phosphor - bronzewis w used as suspension wwwire? ww ww
Because, for phosphor - bronze wire, the couple per unit twist is very small.
15. entet Define voltage isensitivity entet of the galvanometer. t t
l a i
l .
ani . l a l.n
a i . la il.ani.ene per unit voltage l a .entet
il.aniapplied l a
t t
il.ani.ene
a
adsa s It is defined
a
adsas as the deflection s asproduced s as across s as
.wp.apda U.p.apdaÐ Ã ›
w 7 .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada
ww
w it.Iwsw= š ; = Ñ ; =Ò
w
ww
w
ww
w
ww
w
ww
w
16. How galvanometer can be converted in to ammeter?
etet A galvanometer etet is converted ini.anto i.entean ammeter by connecting
t etet a low etet
s asl ail.ani.n resistance s(shunt) aslail.ani.n in parallel withsthe asl algalvanometer. s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada ada ada ada ada
w.wp.apda 17. How w .wp.apda
galvanometer can be w .wp.apda
converted in to w .wp.apda
voltmeter? w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
A galvanometer is converted into a voltmeter by connecting high
t resistance in series twith galvanometer.n.entet t t
l a i
l.ai l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas 18. Why ammeter saas should always connected a
daadsas
in series to the sacircuit?
s sas
.
w p.apdaada .wp.apdaadammeter
The must .
offer
wp.aplow resistance such .wp.apdaaditawill not change .the
that wp.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
current passing through it. So ammeter is connected in series to measure the
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
l asla l l l
p
w.w
a
.pda p.apdad
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w.w.apda
w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
XII STD. PHYSICS
t t t t ntet
i.ente IN PHYSICS
UVANNAMALAI . t t
RAJE M, l a
M.Sc.,
TEACHER
ww ww current. An ideal
circuit ww
eal ammeter
am has zero resistance. ww ww ww
19. Why voltmeter should
uld always
al connected in parallel to the circuit
ircuit?
etet The voltmeter etet mu offer highi.aniresistance
etet ntet not draw
so that aitilt.ani.ewill etet
s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n r must s asl a l .n s asl s asl ail.ani.n
ada appreciable adacurrent.. So, So voltmeter ada is connected in parallel ada to measure me the ada
ww ww
potential difference. An id ww voltmeter has infinite
ideal ww resistance. ww ww
t t t t t
l a i
l .ani.ente THREE
l a i
l.ani.enteMAR
MARKS QUESTIONS
l ail.ani.enteAND ANSWERS lail.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas 20. What aredathe sasproperties sas
rties of bar dmagnet? Properties ofdaasas
magnet: sas
.
w p.apdaada .
w p.ap ada .
w p.apaada .
w pap da
. .
w p.apdaada
w w freely suspended
(i)wwA ded w wwmagnet will alwayswpoint
bar ww along the northnor w- w w
south w
ww ww
direction.
t t (ii) The attractive epropert roperty of the magnet eistemaximum near its end t ort pole. This
l a il.ani.ene l a .ntet
il.anistrength l a il.ani.n
t
l a il.ani.ene l a
t t
il.ani.ene
a
adsas is called a
sspole rength. a
ss a a
.wp.apda adaada adaada daadsas
p.apone .wp.apda
adsas
w w.wp.ppoles of a magne
(iii)wTwo w.wp.p pole strength equal
agnetwhave w .w
to another. ther. w w
ww w w ww ww ww
(iv) When a magnett is br broken into pieces, each piece behaves like a magnet
t t with poles at itst ends. t t t t t
l ail.ani.ene (v) The length l a ni.enethe
il.aof b
bar magnet lis
a i.ente geometrical llength
il.ancalled a .ani.ente and
ilngth a length l a il.ani.ene
a
adsa s a
adsa s adsa as as as
.wp.apda .wp.apda two magnet
between .wp.apda in a bar magnetw.is
agnetic wpoles daadsa magne
p.apcalled agnetic length. .wp.apda
adsa
w w w w w
ww wwThe magnetic lengthwwis always slightly smaller ww than geometri w
metricalwlength. ww
(i.e.) magnetic length: length geometrical length = 5 ∶ 6
ni.entet n e
.n tet etet
ail.ani.n law in ail.ani.n
etet
ail.ani.n
etet
Padasalai.Net
l ail.a21. Explain Coulomb’s l . i
aila ’s iinverse ssquare l l l
s
ada as s
ada as ada as s
ada as s
ada as
magnetism.
ww ww
Coulomb’ inverse squar squareww law in magnetism: ww ww ww
Consider two bar m magnets A and B as shown.
t t t t t
l ail.ani.ente Let , Pole strength
l a il.ani.e nt
ofef A=i
A= Å* ; Pole strength
l a il.ani.enteof B= iÅB l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente
sas sas A and B = @ apdaadsas
a sas sas
.
wp.apdaada .wp. aada
Distanceapdbetween
.wp. .wp.apdaada . wp.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww Then by Coulomb’s lomb’s wwlaw, the force of attraction ww or repulsion ion be ww two
between ww
magnetic poles is directly direc proportional to the product of ttheir pole
t t strengths and ninversel t t
ersely proportional t the square offn.ethe
t to t t distance t t
la il.ani.ene l a il.ai.ene e e la il.ani.ene e e l a il.ai ne l a il.ani.ene
daadsas Hence w⃗ ∝
a a Èg ÈÓ sas ⃗ a a a
adsas between them. daa@̂d(or) w 6 Ô
Èg ÈÓ
@̂ daadsas daadsas
.wp.apda .p.ap B.p.ap B a
w.wp.p
a
w.wp.p
ww
w
w ww w eÈg eÈÓ
w ww w ww ww ww
w
In magnitude, f = k B
Where, Ô → proportionalit ionality constant.
i .ni entet
. i .ni entet
. Ø;
t t
il.ani.en-1e
t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
a sl a l a In SI unit, the asl a l
value a of Ô is, k = ≅10a sl-7
a Hm a sl a a sl a
adsa adsa 8G adsa adsa adsa
.wp.apda .wp.apda p.apedaÈÓ
Ø;we.w .wp.apda .wp.apda
ww
w w
ww Then the force, e, F =ww
Èg
. Where, ™— w w
→wpermeability of free w
fre space
ww or ww
w
8G B
vacuum[™— = 4 …Õ 10−7ÖÅ
Ö −1]
ada ada ada ada ada
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t
l a i
l.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
.
w p.apdaada .
wp.apdaada .
w papdaada
. .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
l asla l l l
p
w.w
a
.pda p.apdad
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a
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w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
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adsa s adas s s s
ada s sada adsa s
ww ww ww ww ww ww
22. State and explain Biot--Savart law.
s asl ail.ani.n Biot - Savart s a
law
sl ail.ani.:n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada According ada to Biot - Savart ada law, the ada ada
ww ww
magnitude of magnetic ww
tic field
fie at a point ‘P’ ww ww ww
at a distance ‘r’ from the small elemental
t et t t t
l a i
l .ani.ente length ‘dl’ of the l a i
l.ancurrent
i.entrrent ‘I’
‘ carrying conductor
l ail.ani.ente l ail.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas varies,(i) daa?+∝¥(ii)
sas ?+∝ ∝?Ä(iii) ?+∝ sassin -(iv) sas sas
.
w p.apdaada 7 .
w p.ap da µ h£ ÚÛ b .
. .
w p.apdaada
w ?+∝ w w dB=k www w w
ww wwB Hence,dB∝ B ;ww (or) ww ww
µ h£ ÚÛ b
B
………..(1)
t t t t tet t t t t
il.ani.ene a i.ni.ene la; i.ni.en
Ø il.ani.ene il.ani.ene
a
adsas
l a saaslal ant, SI unit, k =askaas=la8G
Whereak→constant,
d a
adsas
l a a
adsas
l a
.wp.apda .wp.apda apdad
p.
b.w
Ø; µ h£ ÚÛ w .wp.apda .wp.apda
w w w w w
ww w
w Hence, dB = k = 8G
w
wB ………..(2) ww ww ww
Ø; µh£⃗ \B̂
In vector notation, ⃗
?+ 6 8G B ………..(3)
i .ani entet
. i .
ani entet
. t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
l a l ⃗ l a l l a ⃗ l a l a
a
adsa s Here d?+ as
adsais perpendic adsa ¥?Ä and @̂ . Fromadasuperpositio
endicular todabothas as
adsa osition principle s as
.wp.apda .wp.apa .wp.ap .wp.p .
w p.apdaada
w w w w ⃗ > w w
ww wwtotal magnetic field w
the dw to entire conductor
due wwis, Ü⃗ = < Ü⃗ = Ý ¦ < wÇßOw ww
LÞ O
23. Give the difference betw
between Coulomb’s law and Biot- savart’s
t’s la
law.
t
.enteNo. t t etet t etet
ail.aniS. il.ani.enelomb’s law ail.ani.n i.entela
ail.anrt’s ail.ani.n
Padasalai.Net
s asl s asl aCoulomb’ s asl Biot- savart’s
s asl law
s asl
ada ada aa ada ada
w.wp.apda 1 w .wp.apda field is calculated
Electric calcul w.w p.apdad .wp.apda field is calculated
Magnetic
w w .wp.apda w
ww wwProduced by a scalar w
calarwsource (i.e) ww
Produced be vector source
w
sou w (i.e.) ww
2
charge ‘q’ current element ¥?Ä⃗
t t t t t
l ail.ani.ente It is directed l a i
l
ente
.analong
i. ng the position vector l a i
l
ente
.ani. It is directed perpendicu l ail i.ente
.anndicular to the l a i
l .ani.ente
.
wp.apdaada 3 joining
.
w p.apdaadthe source ce a
and .
w p.apdaada
the position .
w p.apdaada and
vector d the current
c .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww wwpoint at which the wwis calculated.
e field ww
element ww ww
Depends on the angle ngle between
t 4t Does not depends t ds
t on angle t t entet entet
la il.ani.ene n
lail.ai.
en e n n e
lail.ai. and ¥?Ä⃗and@̂ lail.ani.
e
lail.ani.
a d
a
a
adsas a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa
p
w.w . p p
w.w . p p
w.w. p p
w.w. p . p. p
ww ww Lorentz force. ww the properties of Lorentz
ww ww w ww
w
24. Define e. Give
Giv magnetic force.w
tic for
When an electri
electric charge ′'′ moves in the magnet
agnetic field +⃗,
t t t t t t t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene it experiences a l a il.anai.eneforce called Lorentz
a la il.ani.enemagnetic force.alail.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s adsas asa s asa s adsa s
w.wp.apda w .wpF.ampda= Bqv sin 3 In
w p.apdad notation, w⃗Ÿ = qÌ
.vector
w w .w˜.apda+⃗dÎ
p⃗x w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
Properties of Lorentz tz ma
magnetic force:
tet (i) w⃗Ÿ is directlyt prop proportional
t to the magnetic tet field ( +⃗ )
e n en e e n etet etet
s asl .
aila ni .
(ii) w⃗Ÿ issadirectly
sl . ni.
aila proportional
prop tosthe
asl . ni .
ailavelocity ( ˜⃗) s aslail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada ada ada ada ada
w.wp.apda (iii) w .wpw⃗.apdais directlyy proportional
prop w .wp.apda to sine of the wangle .wp.apda between een the
t .wp.apda
velocity
w w
ww ww Ÿ ww ww ww ww
and magnetic field.
e tet (iv) w⃗Ÿ is directlyteproportional
propo
t to the magnitude tet of the charge tet tet
ail.ani.n i.ni.en
a ala i.ni.en lala i.ni.en e
ail.ani.n
s asl (v) The saaslal
addirection of w⃗Ÿ is always aasl
adsperpendicular to ˜⃗and ads+a⃗as s asl
adaada a da a d
a a da adaada
w.wp.p (vi) w.wp. p .wp.
wwalong
p .p. p
ww wthen w⃗Ÿ is zero. w.wp.p w
w w ww If the of the charge hargewis the magnetic wfield, w w ww
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
l asla l l l
p
w.w
a
.pda p.apdad
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a
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w.w.apda
w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t ntet
i.ente IN PHYSICS
UVANNAMALAI . t t
e
il.ani.en RAJENDRAN
RAJE M, a l a
TEACHER
ww ww ww ww ww ww
25. Write a note on velocity
ocity selector.
etet etet tet electric charge .‘q’
il.ani.enan etet etet
s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl aLet s asl ailani.n of mass ‘m’ saslail.ani.n
ada ada ada enters in to a region adaof uniform
niform magnetic ada
ww ww ww field +⃗ with ww velocity ˜⃗ . Due w
e to wLorentz ww
force, the charged particle rticle moves in
t t t .entet t
l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l.ani.ente l
helical
a il.ani.ente path. By applying
l a il.aniprop
proper electric
l a il.ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
.
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada .wp.apdaada field ⃗, the .wpLorentz .apdaada force can .wpbe .apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww ww balanced ww by Coulomb force. for wwHere ww
Coulomb force acts along g the direction
d of
t t electric field, whereas t t t t t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene a l ail.ani.eneas theth Lorentz force
a l a il.ani.enis
e perpendicular toi.the
a l a l ani.ened direction of
a l a il.ani.ene
adsas magnetic adsas
field. adsas adsas adsas
ww ww Therefore in orderww to balance these forces, ww both electric ic and magnetic
ww ww
fields must be perpend rpendicular to each other. Such an arrangement arrang of
t t perpendicular electric tict and magnetic fields are
t t known as cross .fields. t t The force t t
ail.ani.ene a il.ani.ene a il.ani.ene a ilani.ene a il.ani.ene
a
adsa sl a
on electricdaacharge
dsa sl due
ue to tthese fields sl ⃗ ⃗
adsa is, w = qË Y Ì ˜⃗xa+
a ⃗aÎÏ
dsaasl a
adsa sl
w.wp.apda w .wp.ap w.wp.apda w.wp.pda w .wp.apda w
ww ww For a positive char charge,
ww the electric force on wwthe charge acts cts in downward
ww ww
direction whereas the he LoLorentz forces acts upwards. When these hese two forces
etet balance one another, etthe net force w⃗ = 0..nHence
.ni.entr, i.ente qE = Bq ˜—
t
.ni.ente
t
.ni.ente
t
ail.ani.n
Padasalai.Net
l laila laila laila laila
s
ada as adsaas∴˜— = Ž adsaas adsaas adsaas
.wp.apda a
w.wp.p
da à a
.p.p d
a a
.p.pda a
.p.pda
ww
w
ww This means for w ww w w ww w ⃗ w ww w⃗ ww
w
or a given
gi magnitude of electric field and magne magnetic field + ,
or the particle moving with particular speed ˜—.
the forces act only for
t t ni.entet t t
l ail.ani.ente This speed is independenl a i
l.ani.entendent of mass and l a i
l .acharge, l ail.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas adsaas charged adsaas sas sas
.
wp.apdaada (i)If ˜>˜
.
w p ,da
—.ap then ged particle
p .
w p.apdadeflects .
w p.apdaadaof Lorent
in the direction orentz force..p.apdaada
w
w w w w w w
ww wwIf ˜<˜—, then charge
(ii) ww particle deflects in
harged wwthe direction ww
n of Coulomb ww
force.
t t t t and the charged ntet t
.ani.enteline. t t
a la il.ani.ene (iii)If , then noaldeflection
a il.ani.enetion a a la particle
il.ani.e moves in straight
a l a ilight lin
a l a il.ani.ene
adsas Thus s proper
adsaby er choice
ch adsas
of electric and magnetic adsas the particle
fields, pa with adsas
ww ww
particular speed can w
n bewselected. Such an arrangementww of fields
ields is calledww a ww
velocity selector. This his prprinciple is used in Bainbridge mass spect spectrograph to
t t separate the isotopes. t t t t t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
s
adsa 26. How Galvanometerasa s can be converted s
asa in to Ammeter. asa s asa s
w.wp.apda w .wp.apdad w .wp.apdad w .
w p.apdad w .wp.apdad w
ww Galvanometer
ww to an Amm Ammeter:
ww ww ww ww
Ammeter is an instrument used to
etet measure current. A galvan
galvanometer
t is converted etet etet etet
l ail.ani.n l a il.ani.ente l ail.anai.n low l ail.ani.n l ail.ani.n
s
ada as into an aammeter s as by connecting s as s as s as
da aa
.apdad with the w.wp.apdad
aa ada
w.wp.apda w .wp.apda called shunt inw.wpparallel
resistance w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
galvanometer. The sca scale is calibrated in
amperes. Galvanometer
.ani.ente
t
. ni e
. nteeter
t rresistance= RG; Shunt
.ani.ente
t
.ani.ente
t
.ani.ente
t
l a i
l resistance = a Sslalai l a il l a il l a il
sas daadsa through sas sas sas
.
w p.apdaada Current.wp.aflows
p h galvanometer=
galv .wp.apdaada IG .
w w w w w w
ww ww
Current flows through gh shu ww resistance = IS
shunt ww ww ww
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
l asla l l l
p
w.w
a
.pda p.apdad
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ww ww ww ww ww ww
XII STD. PHYSICS
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TEACHER
ww ww
Current to be measured= red=wIw ww ww ww
The potential
al difference
dif across galvanometer is same
sam as the
etet etetshunt resistance.i.an(i.e.)etet t t
il.ani.ene etet
s asl ail.ani.n potential difference
s asl ail.ani.n shun s asl al i.n V Galvanometer =saVsl ashunt s asl ail.ani.n
ada I Rada= I S ada aa ada
w .wp.apda w .wpG.apdaG S w .wp.apda µ w .
w p.apdad w .wp.apda w
ww ww IG RG = ( I - IG) S −w−w−(1) ; S = â wRwG ww ww
µsµ â
t From equationt (1) IG RG= S I – IG S

a i
l .ani.ente lail.ai n.ente ã
lail.ai ail n.entet
.ani.ente
t
a i
l .ani.ente
t
IG (S s+
a aasRG) = S I ; IG = ãv¢ asIaas
sasl sasl sasl
.
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdad .
w p.apdaâd 7 .wpapdaad7a
.
7 .
w p.apdaada
w w w of ammeter, then ww w w
ww ww Let Ra be the resis
ww
resistance w¢ 6 ¢ Y ã ww ww
å â
¢â ã
⟹ Ra = ¢ tvãHere, He RG> S > Rat
i .
a ni entet
. i .ani enteâ
. t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
l a l Thus an l a l l a l a l a
a
adsas adsaammeter
as er is a low resistancea
adsas instrument, andadsitasalways
a ays connected adsas a
w .wp.apda in w .wp.apda
series to the circuit. An w .wp.apdaammeter has zero
ideal w .apda
.wpresistance. ada
w.wp.p w
w w w w w w w w w w ww
27. How Galvanometer can be converted in to voltmeter?
t t Galvanometer to at voltmeter: voltm
il.ani.ene i .ani enet
. t t
il.ani.ene to
t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
a sl a A voltmeter asl a l is an instrument asl a used asl a asl a
adsa adsa s
apdaada any two adsa adsa
w.wp.apda measure
w .wp.apdapotential difference differe w.w p.across w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww A galvanometer
points.
w
eterw is converted in to w
w ww ww
voltmeter by connecting ecting high resistance in
etet e tet t
.ani.ente is etet etet
ail.ani.n n . n ail.ani.n ail.ani.n
Padasalai.Net
a l series with athe l aila galvano
. i lvanometer. The a l ailscale a l a l
s
ada s s
ada s s
ada s s
ada s s
ada s
w.wp.apda w .wp.apdain volts.
calibrated
ww ww
Galvanometer resistance ance= wwRG, ww ww ww
High resistance= Rh
t t galv IaGil.ani.entet t t
l ail.ani.ente Current flows through
l a i
l .ani.enteh galvanometer= l l ai l.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente
sas dsaasmeasured= dsaas sas sas
.
wp.apdaada Voltagep.ato
.w pdaabe red= V, Total
.wp.apdaaresistance .w .apdaada = RG + Rh
of this circuit
p . wp.apdaada
w w ww w w w
ww ww the current in thewelectrical
Here circuit is same ww as the curren ww
urrent passing ww
through the galvanomet ometer. (i.e) IG= I
t t Œ
tet (or) teht = &RG t t t t
a il.ani.ene IGa=il.an¢i.env¢ (or)RG + Rh = š ail;.an∴i.enR šæ a il.ani.ene a il.ani.ene
a l a l â ä aæl a l a l
adsas adsas adsas adsas asas
w .wp.apda Let RwV.w .apdathe
pbe resistance nce o .wp.apda then RV = RG w
of voltmeter,
w +.wR.ahpd.aHere,
p RG<R p.apdad
< h<Rv w.w w
ww ww Thus an voltmete ww is a high resistance
ltmeter ww instrument, and it walways w ww
connected in parallel
llel to the circuit element. An ideal ammeter
meter has zero
t t t t t t t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene resistance. alail.ani.ene a la il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
ww ww ww ww ww ww

ada ada ada ada ada
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t
l a i
l.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
.
w p.apdaada .
wp.apdaada .
w papdaada
. .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
l asla l l l
p
w.w
a
.pda p.apdad
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w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t ntet
i.ente IN PHYSICS
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adsa s adas s s s
ada s s ada adsa s
ww ww ww ww ww ww
28. Deduce the relation
n for magnetic induction at a point due to an infinitely
s asl ail.ani.n long straight s asl ail.ani.nuctor carrying scurrent.
conductor
asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada Magnetic ada due to long
field lon straight ada current carryingaconductor:
ada tor: ada
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w.wp.apda w .wp.pda w .wp.apda w
ww wwConsider a long straig ww wire Yö′ carrying awcurrent
straight w I ww ww
Let P be a point at a distance nce ‘a’ ‘a from ‘O’
t t t tet wire at a t
l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l.ani.ente Consider an i.element
l a lani.ente of length ‘?Ä’ iof
l a l.ani.enthe l a i
l .ani.ente
sas sas distance saasfrom point ‘O’ Let d@⃗adsbe as he vector sas
.
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaad‘Ä’ .wpapa a the
.
vec joining
.
w p.apdaada
w w ww element ‘?Ä’ with the w w w
ww ww wthe wwpoint ‘P’ and ‘-’’ be the wwangle ww
between @⃗ and ?Ä⃗ . Then the magnetic ic field at ‘P’ due
t t t t to the element .entet t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene a l ail.ani.ene a l a il.aniis, a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsas adsas Ý ¦ Çs 3 s adsas
.wp.apda .wp.apda ?+⃗ = apdaadsa {− − − − − (1) apdaadsa .wp.apda
w w w.wp.LÞ O w.wp. w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
Where, ‹>→ unit vector normal to both¥ ?Ä⃗ and @⃗
To apply trigonometry, draw a perpendic
endicular AC to
t t t t t t
.ni.ente
t t t
a l ail.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene n
the line BPalail.ai
e
. n e
alaila a l a il.ani.ene
daadsa s s
daa∆dsaABC, sin- 6 fj ⟹ daadsa6s*+èé‹- daadsas adsa s
.
ww p.ap In .
wwp.a
trianglep . p.a*ç
p . p.ap .wp.apda
ww ww ww w
wfà ww
ww
ww
w
ww
w
But AB = dl ⟹ *ç 6 ?Äèé‹-
t Let dê be the angle subte
subtended
t between APteand t BP etet etet
.ani.ente .ani.ente .ani.en ail.ani.n ail.ani.n
Padasalai.Net
a l a i
l i.e. ∠*•+ 6 a∠+•ç
l ail 6 ?ê a l a i
l a l a l
s
ada s s
ada s s
aa s s
ada s s
ada s
.wp.apda .wp.apda∆ APC, sinr?êu 6 .apdad
.wpfj .wp.apda sinr?êu ≃ ?ê w.wp.apda
ww
w Inww
w
triangle ww
w ; since, ?ê is w
very
ww small, ww ww
w
fì
But AP = r ⟹ *ç 6 @?ê ∴ *ç 6 ?Ä èé‹- 6 @?ê
t Ø µh£ t Ø µhï t t t
l ai l.ani.ente ∴ ?+⃗ = ; r@?êu l a il.ani.ent{‹e ; = ; {‹ l a i
l .ani.ente l a il.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas 8G B saas 8G B
apdaada aad angle betwe
apdthe apdaadsaas sas
apdaada
sas
apdaada
w .wp. Let êw be
.
w p . between BP
.
w p. and OP .
w p. .wp.
ww ww ëì w t
ww ww
w
ww
w
ww
w
In a ∆ OPA, cosê 6 6 ;
àì B
t Ø µ
il.an⃗i.en=e8G å ?ê {‹ alail.ani.ene
t t;
il.ani.ene ⟹ @ 6 íîÚïal;a?+
t t t t t t t t
a l a a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsas asas ðñò
ðñòó asas asas adsas
.wp.apda ⃗ Ø. p;ô.apdad . p.apdad . p.apdad .wp.apda
ww
w ?+
ww=
w w õ—èê?ê. {‹ ww
w w
ww
w w
ww
w
ww
w
8Gt
ïk
The total magnetic field at a P due to the conductor Yö′ is +⃗ =<sï7 ?+⃗
t t t t t t t t t t
a il.ani.ene ïk Ø;ô a il.ani.ene a il.ani.ene a il.ani.ene a il.ani.ene
a
adsa sl =<sï7 dõ—èê?ê. a
asasl {‹ ; a
asa sl a
asa sl a
asa sl
w.wp.apda Ø w .
w p.apad
8Gt
w.wp.apdad w .
w p.apdad w .
w p.apdad w
ww w;ôw^èé‹ê aïkï7 {‹ ww ww ww ww
8Gt
Ø
t +⃗ = ;ô rèé‹ê Y èé‹êu t {‹
a i
l
e
.ani.nte 8Gt
a i
l.ani.ente ni.entetp
ail.a
etet
ail.ani.n
etet
ail.ani.n
s
ada asl For infinitely s
aa sl
long
a conduc
onductor , ê 6s
7aa kê
asl 6 90 s
aa asl s
ada asl
.wp.apda Ø . pµ .apdad . p.apdad . p.apdad .wp.apda
ww
w +⃗w= w; w
w [2a {‹ ; ww
w w
ww
w w
ww
w
ww
w
8G t
Ø; µ
+⃗ = {‹ ---------
--------- (3)
t kG t tet t t t
l a i
l .ani.ente l ail.ani e
. n
l a i
l.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
.
w p.apdaada .
wp.apdaada .
w papdaada
. .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
l asla l l l
p
w.w
a
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XII STD. PHYSICS
t t t t ntet
i.ente IN PHYSICS
UVANNAMALAI . t t
RAJE M, l a
M.Sc.,
TEACHER
ww 29. ww a relation forr the
Obtain wwmagnetic induction w atwa point along g the axisww of a ww
circular coil carrying cur
current.
etet t t cu
il.ani.eneto current .entet etet etet
s asl ail.ani.n Magnetic field s asl adue carrying
s asl ail.anicircular coil:
ada ada a circular
Consider ircular coilp.aof a
adradius ‘R’ carrying pa.apdaada t ‘I’ in anti-clock
current ada
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w.w pda w .w w .wp.apda w
ww ww direction. Let ‘P’’ be w
wise w point on the axis at w
tthe awdistance ‘z’ from ce ww‘O’
rom centre ww
Consider two diametricall
trically opposite line elements of the coil off each of length
.ani.ente ?Ä⃗ at C and D. nt⃗etat C to the
t tbe tthe vector joining t t
l a i
l l a i
l.ani.ente@⃗be
Let
l ail.ani.entethe current element l ail.an¥?Ä
i.e?Ä l a i
l .ani.ente
sas a
point P. apdaadsas sas sas sas
.
w p.apdaada .wp. .
w p.apdaada .
w papdaada
. .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t t t t t t
adsa s asa s asas asa s asa s
.wp.apda .p.apdad . p.apdad . p.apda⃗d ⃗ Ý ¦ Ç p.apdad
3 .w
ww of ?+ is ?+= LÞ O ww {
w w w w w law, The magnitude w w w w
ww wwAccording to Biot - Savart ww ww
Ø; µ h£
due to the current element ¥?Ä⃗ is,?+⃗ =
The magnetic field att ‘P’ d {‹
t t t t 8G Bt
e te e te e te e e etet
ail.ani.n ail.ani.n ail.ani.n ∵ - =as90 0ni.n
ail.ani.n
Padasalai.Net
s asl s asl s asl s l ail.a]
s asl
ada daada aa ada ada
w.wp.apda p.a⃗pcan
Here,w.?+
w be resolved olved in w
to.w .apdadcomponents.
ptwo w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
(i) ?+⃗Sin- − ho
horizontal component (Y - axis)
t (ii) ⃗
?+cost -t − ve
vertical componentt (Z
t - axis) t t
l ai l.ani.ente l a il.ani.ene l a i
l .ani.ene l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente
sas Here horizontal saas componen ponents of each saselement cancel each other.
saas sas
.wp.apdaada .wp apdaadvertical
.
But compo
omponents .
w p.apdaada
alone contribute to . p.apdaadmagnetic
total
w etic field
f at . p
the
w .apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww ww Ø; µ h£ ww ww ww
⃗ ⃗ û ⃗
point ‘P’ += < ?+ = < ?+ sin ê Ô ; + = 8G < B sin ê Ô ………… (1) û
t t t = ²
a il.ani.ene Also from ∆OCP, a .enteê
il.anisin and ra2il.a nte2 t+ z2
=ni.eR a
t t
il.ani.ene a
t t
il.ani.ene
a l a l a l a l a l
adsas adsas r² vú u
apdaada
ss ss
apdaada
ss
apdaada
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda ù š
w .
w p. o£ ² w .
w p. w .
w p. w
ww wwfrom equation (1) +⃗=ww; <
But ûÔ ww ww ww
89 r² vú u
r² vú u
ù; š ²
il.ani.ene +⃗= il.ani.eûÔn,eWhe
t t K < ?Ä
t < ?Ä = 2…R ni.entet length of the coil. t t t t
il.a→total
t Where,
a l a a l a a la a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s 89r² vú ausa s asa s asa s adsa s
w.wp.apda w p.apdad
.w w.wp.apdad w .
ù š² ý þ¼ û
ww +⃗w=w ; K [2 …üa Ô ; Ü =
û w⃗w X
ww ww ww
89r² vú u Ì¼ v Î
etet et
i.entntains
t
i.entemagnetic field +⃗ l= et
ùe;tÐš²
Ðš etet
s asl ail.ani.n If the circular s as ail.ancontains
coil
l N turns , then
s asl ail.anthe s asail.ani.n K Ô
s asl ail.ani.n
ada ada ada ada kr² r vú v u ada
ww ww ww w
⃗ w ù;Ðš ww ww
The magnetic field att the ccentre of the coil z=0+ = Ô
k²
t t t t t
l a i
l.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
.
w p.apdaada .
wp.apdaada .
w papdaada
. .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
l asla l l l
p
w.w
a
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XII STD. PHYSICS
t t t t ntet
i.ente IN PHYSICS
UVANNAMALAI . t t
RAJE M, l a
M.Sc.,
TEACHER
ww 30. ww
Obtain an expression w magnetic field due
sion wfor ww to long curren ww
urrent carrying ww
solenoid.
etet t t cu
il.ani.eneto current .entet etet etet
s asl ail.ani.n Magnetic field s asl adue carrying
s asl ail.anisolenoid: s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada ada a solenoid
Consider ada ‘L’ having ‘N’ aturns.
soleno ofp.aplength ada To o calculate
cal the ada
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .w da w .wp.pda w .wp.apda w
ww ww
magnetic field at anyy poin wwinside the solenoid, ww
point ww ww
t t t t t
l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
.
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada .
. .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww ww ww ww
consider an Amperian erian loop ‘abcd’. From Ampere circuital law,
t t ∮ +⃗.?Ä⃗ = ™—¥epte−t − − − − (1) t t t t t t
a l ail.ani.ene TheaLHS a l a .ani.nequatio
ilof quation (1) can be
a l a il.ani.ene as
written a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s sa s asas asa s adsa s
.wp.apda adad í .p.apdad h t .wp.a⃗pda
d
.wp.apda
w w.wp∮.p+⃗.?Ä⃗ = < +⃗ . ?Ä⃗ + < ww ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗
w
+ . ?Ä + <í + . ?Ä + <wh + . ?Ä w w
ww w w
t w w w ww ww
<t +⃗ . ?Ä⃗ = <tte+t ?Ä õ—è 0p = B <t ?Ä t= Bh

etet n.en n.enet etet etet
Padasalai.Net
.i .i
s
ada asl í
⃗saas⃗laila í p saaslailah s
ada asl s
ada asl
.wp.apda <ada+ . ?Ä = < + ?Ä õ—è 90
a
d ada= 0 ; <í 6 0
ad
.wp.apda .wp.apda
w w.wp.tp w.wp.p w w w
ww ww t ww ww ww ww
<h +⃗ . ?Ä⃗ = <h + ?Ä õ—è 90 = 0
p
t Here ab = h . tIf we take large loop such

t that it isequal toentlen length
t of the t
ail.ani.ente a i
l.ani.ente a i
l .ani.ente ail.ani. e a i
l .ani.ente
sasl solenoid, dwe l
sahave∮
s ?Ä⃗ = B daa
+⃗.?Ä l
−s−as− − − − − (2) sasl sasl
.
wp.apdaada .
w p.apaada .
w p.ap da .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww Let ‘I’ be the curren current wwpassing through the solenoidof ww ‘N’ turns,
urns, tthen ww ww
¥p = N¥− − − − − − − (3)
t t t t t t t t t t
il.ani.ene il.ani.ene il.ani.ene il.ani.ene il.ani.ene
adsasBL = ™—N¥
a la l a
Put aequation
a (2) an
and (3) in (1)a la a l a a l a
adsas dsas adsas adsas
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda B = ™— ¥− − −w−.wp−.ap−da− (4) w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ‰ ww ww ww ww
Let “n” be the numb
number of turns per unit length, then ‰
= n.. Hence,
Henc
t t ù.e;ntet entet t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene a B
l a=i
l .
ani = ™
™—n ¥− − − − a− la−i
l .
a n
−i . (5) a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s asas ‰ adsa s daadsa s asa s
w.wp.apda w .apdad ‘n’ and μ0 ar
.wpSince are w .wp.apda
constants, for fixed .wp.ap‘I’
current
w the magne agnetic field
w .apdad
.wp‘B’ w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
inside the solenoid iss also constant.

ada ada ada ada ada
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t
l a i
l.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
.
w p.apdaada .
wp.apdaada .
w papdaada
. .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
l asla l l l
p
w.w
a
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XII STD. PHYSICS
t t t t ntet
i.ente IN PHYSICS
UVANNAMALAI . t t
RAJE M, l a
M.Sc.,
TEACHER
Obtain wwthe force on a current
ion fo
for wwcarrying conduc nductorwplacedw ww
in a magnetic field.. Forc
Force on current carrying conductor in magnetic
magn field:
etet When a t
.enterrent etet is etet etet
s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.anicurrent carrying conductor
s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada placedpin a
aadmagnetic ic field ada experienced
field, thep.aforce ada ada
w .wp.apda w .w.apda w .w pda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww
by the wire is equal to the wwsum of Lorentz forces ww ww ww
on the individual charge carriers in the wire.
t Let a current t flows through a conductor t t t
l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l.ani.ente‘I’ flo l ail.ani.ente l ail.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas sas and area of cross-section
of lengthdaad‘L’ sas ‘A’. sas sas
.
w p.apdaada .
w p.ap a .
. .
w p.apdaada
w w a small segment
Consider gment w w w w
ww ww wwof wire of length ‘?Ä’ ww ww ww
The free electrons ctrons drift opposite to the
t t direction of currentewith t
il.ani.ene i.nte ntet
il.ani.eand
t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
a l a velocity ˜?a.saThe alsail.anrelation
ation b between acurrent a l a drift velocity is,
a l a a l a
adsas d dsas adsas adsas
w .wp.apda w .wpI .a=pdanAevd w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
If the wire is kept in a magnetic field, then average force experienced expe by
t t the electron in the wire ire is
il.ani.ene n entet t
i.ente number of free laelectron .ani.ente
t t t
il.ani.ene
a sl a a i
l a i .
w as=aasl−e ( ˜⃗dx +⃗) . Let a
⃗ . lail.anthe
‘n’saasbe as
illectrons per unit a sl a
adsa dad d daadsa adsa
w.wp.apda volume,
w .wp.apthen the totalal number
num w .apdaelectrons
.wpof in the .wp.apelement
small
w t of volume
vo w .wp.a=pda
(V w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
A ?Ä) is N = ‹A . Hence Henc Lorentz force on the small element,
⃗ = − e n A ?Är
etet ee t t ©⃗dxÜ⃗) − − − − −t −t (1)
ee ni.ene t t ee t t
ail.ani.n ail.ani.n?Ä is along thesalength ail.ani.n of the wire and ail.ani.n
Padasalai.Net
s asl Here slength
asl sl s asl ail.ance
hence t
the current s asl
ada daada ada ada ada
w.wp.apda .wp.apis=
element
w − ‹*®?Ä ˜
⃗ d w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
Put this in equation uation (1), ?w⃗ = ¥ ?Ä⃗ x +⃗ − − − − − − (2)
t Therefore, theetforce t in a straight current t carrying conductor ctor of
ot length ‘Ç’ t
i .ani.ente i .ani.ne i .ani.ente i .ani.ente i .ani.ente
sasl a l sasl
placed in daaduniform a l magne
magnetic field. sw⃗as= ¥ ⃗Ä x +⃗ − − − − d−ad−saa(3)
l a l sl a l sasl a l
.wp.apdaada .wp .apa a .wp.apdaada .wp.apa .wp.apdaada
ww In magnitude,F ww sin3 − − − − − − (4)ww
w w F=B BIÄ w w w w
ww ww ww
Special cases:
entet (i) If theetecurrent
curren
t carrying conductor etet placed along the t ddirection
t of t t
a l a i
l.ani.
a a il.ani.n tic fie
magnetic
l field, then = 0a
0lail.ani.n
∴ = a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsas asas adsas adsas asas
w .wp.apda w .apdad If the curren
.wp(ii) current w .wp.apda conductor is placed
carrying w .wp.apda perpendic endicular tow p.apdad
.the
w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
magnetic field, then= 900 ∴F = BIÇ = maximum.
tic fie
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww ww ww ww

ada ada ada ada ada
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t
l a i
l.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
.
w p.apdaada .
wp.apdaada .
w papdaada
. .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
l asla l l l
p
w.w
a
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XII STD. PHYSICS
t t t t ntet
i.ente IN PHYSICS
UVANNAMALAI . t t
RAJE M, l a
M.Sc.,
TEACHER
ww 32. ww a force between
Obtain w long parallel current
eenwttwo ww carrying condu onductors. ww ww
Hence define ampere.
etet t
ni.entepara etet etet etet
s asl ail.ani.n Force between s asl ail.atwo parallel conductors
s asl ail.ani.ncarrying current: s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada ada
Consider two o straight
str ada
parallel ada ada
ww ww carrying conducto
current ww ‘A’ and ‘B’
ductors ww ww ww
separated by a distance
ance ‘r’ kept in air.
t nteet cur
currents passing.ni.entet t t
i
l .ani.ente Let I1 and I2 labe i
l.ani.ethe ia i .ani.ente i .ani.ente
saasl a
through the as and B in ssame direction
saA saaslal sasl a l sasl a l
aad a
d aadad aad a
d apdaada apdaada
w.wp.p w.wp.p . The net magnetic
(z-direction) w.wp.p field w.wp. w .
w p. w
ww ww wmw ww ww ww
due to I1 at a distance e ‘r’.
‘r’
Ø; Ø;
t t +⃗7 = kGB r& ûu = & entet ̂ t t t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene a l ail.ani.kGB a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsas asa⃗s adsas ss
aada adsas
w .wp.apda w .apdad +7acts perpendicular
.wpHere perpe
w .wp.apdato plane of paper wand .wp.apdinwards. w .wp.apda w
ww ww Then Lorentzz forc force ww acts on the lengthww element ?Ä in conductor con ww ‘B’ ww
carrying current I2 due ue to tthis magnetic field +⃗7
t t ⃗il.an tet Ø; entet t t t t
a l ail.ani.ene a ?w
l a =i.en¥k ?Ä⃗ x +⃗7 = &¥k ?Ä ûÔalxailkGB
.ani. ̂
adsa s adsa s asa s asa s adsa s
w.wp.apda w .wp.apda ?w⃗ =& Ø; ô ° ( w px.apd̂)a;d?w⃗ =& Ø; ô ° ̂ w.wp.apdad
ûÔ.w w .wp.apda w
ww ww GBww
kGB kGB ww ww ww
By Fleming’s left hand rule, this force acts leftwards. The
he force
forc per unit
t t B. q⃗ = & Ø; ô ̂− −n.en −te−t − − (1) etet etet
.ani.ente length of the conductor .ani.entetor B ail.ani.n ail.ani.n
Padasalai.Net
a l a i
l a l ail £ kGB alail.ai a l a l
s
ada s s
aa s s
aa s s
ada s Ø; s
ada s
w.wp.apda w .apdad
.wpSimilarly, net magnmagneticw .apdaddue to I2at a distance
field
.wp w .wp.apda‘r’ is +⃗k = kGB k
̂ w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
Here +⃗kacts perpe perpendicular to planeof paper and outwards.
t Then Lorentz z t forc
force acts on the elength t element ?Ä in econductor cont ‘A’ t
i .ani.ente i.ani.ente i .ani.nte i .ani.nte i .ani.ente
l a l l a l l a l ⃗ l a l l a l
sas sas I1 due daadsas field +k .
carrying current ue to tthis magnetic a sas sas
.p.apdaada . p.apdaada . pØ.ap . p.apdaada . p.apdaada
ww ?w⃗ = ¥7 ?Ä⃗ x +⃗k = ¥7w ?ÄwûÔwx kGB ̂
w w w w w ; w w w w w
ww ww ww ww
Ø; ô ° Ø; ô °
?w⃗ = kGB ( ûÔ x ̂) ; ?w⃗ = kGB ̂
t t t t t
.ani.ente acts rightwards.laThe et
.ani.entforce t t
a la il.ani.ene By Fleming’s
a l a il.ani.eneleft hand rule, thisa l a ilforce a ilhe for per unit a l a il.ani.ene
adsas ss
aada
ss
aôad°a adsas adsas
w .wp.apda length
w .wpof.apdthe conductor tor A
A.
q⃗ .p
=
w w ;pd
Ø.a
̂ − − − − − − (2)
ww ww ww£ kGB ww ww ww
Thus the force e experienced
expe by two parallel current carrying ng con conductors is
t t attractive if they.ncarry t ryt cur
current in same direction. t t On the other hand hand,t t the force t t
l a il.ani.ene l a ilai.ene l a il.ani.ene l a il.ani.ene l a il.ani.ene
a
adsa s experienced a
adsa by
s two para
parallel current
adsaas carrying conductors adsais
as repulsive
repuls if they adsaas
w.wp.apda carryw .wp.apda in opposite
current site d .wp.apda
direction.
w w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
Definition of ampere:
One amperetist defined
t
.ani.ente two infinitely long e defi
.ani.enparalle
as that current t when it is passed nthrough
.ani.ente a distance of one
throu each of
.entet apart in etet
s asl a il s asl a il arallel conductors s asl a ilkept s asla i l.aimetre
metr s asl ail.ani.n
ada daada ada aa ada
w .wp.apda vacuum
w .wp.apcauses each ch co .wp.apdaexperience a force
conductor
w w pdad2 x 10−7Newton
.wp.aof Ne w.wp.apda
per w
ww ww length of conduct
meter ww
ductor. ww ww ww
t t t t t
l a i
l.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
.
w p.apdaada .
wp.apdaada .
w papdaada
. .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
l asla l l l
p
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ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t .ni.ente
t
.ni.ente
t
.ni.ente IN PHYSICS
ww ww ww ww ww ww
UNIT- IV (ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION AND
etet etet t t
s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n ALTERNATING s asl aCURRENT) s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada adaTWO MARKS QUESTIONS ada AND ANSWERS ada ada
ww 1. ww magnetic flux. ww
Define ww ww ww
The magnetic flux through an area ‘A’ in a magnetic field is defined as
.ani.ente the number oflamagnetic .ani.ennormally. The
t t t tet t
l a i
l i
l.ani.ente field lines passing
l ail.ani.ente through that area l ail l a i
l .ani.ente
sas sas
S.I unit ofdamagnetic 2
flux is Tm (or) as
sweber sas sas
.
w p.apdaada .
w p.ap ada .
. .
w p.apdaada
w 2. Statew w w w w
ww ww Fleming’s right hand ww rule. ww ww ww
The thumb, index finger and middle finger of right hand are stretched out
t t in mutually perpendicular t directions. If index t t finger points the direction of
l a il.ani.ene l a i.ente
il.anand l a il.ani.enethe direction aoflail.amotion ni.entet l a
t t
il.ani.ene
a
adsas magnetic afield a the thumb points
a of the a
dsas asas
p.apdad will indicate the p.apdad
asas adsas
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda then the middlew.w
conductor, finger w .wdirection of the induced
w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
current. Fleming’s right hand rule is also known as generator rule.
3. t Define self inductance or coefficient of self induction.
i . ni.ente i . ni entet
. i . ni entet
. il.athe
t
ni.entecoil, t t
il.ani.ene
a sl a l a Self inductance
asl a l a of a coil is defined
asl a l a as the flux linkage asof
l a when 1 asl a
adsa adsa daadsais H (or) WbA-1(or) s
aada -1and its dimension adsa
w.wp.apda A current
w .wp.apda
flows through it.ItswS.I .wp.apunit w .wp.apdVsA w .wp.apda w
ww w
isw[ML2T-2A-2] ww ww ww ww
4. Define the unit of self inductance (one Henry)
etet etet t
i.ente if a current changing etet etet
ail.ani.n The inductance ail.ani.n of the coil issone ail.anHenry, ail.ani.n at the rate saslail.ani.n
Padasalai.Net
s asl s asl asl s asl
ada -1 ada aa ada ada
w.wp.apda of 1 A.s
w wp.apdainduces an opposing.pemf
w w .apdadof 1 V in it. w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww 5. ww is called mutual induction?
What ww ww ww ww
When an electric current passing through a coil changes with time, an
t ntet neighbouring coil. t t t
l ail.ani.ente emf is induced in
l a i
l
the
.ani.e l a il i.ente phenomenon islaknown
.anThis il.ani.ente as mutual l a il.ani.ente
sas inductionapdand sas sas sas sas
.p.apdaada . p. aada the emf is called.pmutually .apdaada induced emf..wp.apdaada . p.apdaada
w w w w w w w w w w
ww 6. ww mutual inductance
Define ww or coefficient of mutual ww induction. ww ww
Mutual inductance is also defined as the opposing emf induced in the
t t one coil, when the enrate
tet of change of current entethrough
t the other coil tet1 A s-1
enis t t
la il.ani.ene l a i
l .ani . -1 -1 ala l i .ani . i .a
2 la-2l -2
ni . l a il.ani.ene
a
adsas Its S.I unitdais as
s H(or) WbA (or) VsA sand
s its dimension is [ML a
s sT A ] ssa
.wp.apda .wp.apada .wp.apdaada .wp .apdaada .wp.apdaada
w 7. What w w w w w
ww ww the methods of producing ww induced emf? w
w ww ww
By changing the magnetic field ‘B’
By changing tthe
t t
il.ani.ene i .ani enet area ‘A’ of the coil
. t t
il.ani.eneof the coil with magnetic
t t
il.ani.ene field.
t t
il.ani.ene
a sl a By changingasl a l the relative orientation-
asl a asl a asl a
adsa daadsa adsa asa adsa
w.wp.apda 8. How w .wp.apemf
an is induced by .wp.apda
changing
w the magnetic w .apdad
.wpfield? w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
Change in magnetic flux of the field is brought about by,
(i) The relative motion between the circuitt and the magnet
etet e tet ete etet etet
s asl ail.ani.n (ii) Variation
s asl .
ailin ni . n
a current flowing through
s asl ail.ani.nthe nearby coil saslail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada 9. daada transformer?.p.apdaada ada ada
w.wp.apda Whatw.is wp.apcalled w w w .wp.apda w.wp.apda w
ww ww It is a stationary device ww used to transform ww electrical power from ww one ww
circuit to another without changing its frequency. The applied alternating
t tet t t t
l a i
l .ani.ente voltage is either l a i
l .ani.enincreased or decreasedl a il.ani.ente with corresponding l a il.ani.entedecrease or l a il.ani.ente
sas saas adsaas adsaas adsaas
.
w p.apdaada increase daadcurrent
.p.apin in the circuit..p.apda .p.apda .p.apda
w ww ww ww ww w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
l asla l l l
p
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t t .ni.ente
t
.ni.ente
t
.ni.ente IN PHYSICS
ww ww ww ww ww ww
10. Distinguish between step up and step down transformer.
etet tet
il.ani.entransformer etet etet etet
s asl ail.ani.n Stepaup
s asl s asl ail.ani.nStep down transformer
ada ada
If the transformer converts anp.apdaada If the transformerp.aconvertsada an ada
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w.w w .w pda w .wp.apda w
ww ww
alternating current with low ww alternating w w
current with high voltage ww ww
voltage in to an alternating current into an alternating current with low
t tet t et t
l a i
l .ani.ente with high voltage l a i
l.anisi.encalled step up
l a l.ani.ente is called
voltage
i l ail.ani.entstep l a i
l .ani.ente
sas transformer. sas sas sas sas
.
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada down transformer. .
w papdaada
. .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
11. State the principle of transformer.
t t The principle t tof transformer is .nthe t tmutual induction.ni.ebetween t t two t t
l a il.ani.ene l ail.ani.ene l a ilai.ene l a ila ne l a il.ani.ene
a
adsas coils. (i.e.)adswhen
as an electric current s spassing through a dcoil
a s schanges with time,dadsas
a a
.wp.apda apda a apdaada apaada aa
w . p.
andwemf is induced in the neighbouring
w w w .
w p. coil. w .
w p. w.wp.p w
ww w ww ww ww ww
12. Define the efficiency of the transformer.
t t The efficiency t t( ) of a transformer is t t defined as the ratio toft the useful t t
l ail.ani.ene l a il.ani.ene l aë .ene– ìî •B
il.ani–y l a il.ani.ene l a il.ani.ene
a
adsa s output power a
adsa s to the input power. a=
s
adsa µ y – ìî •B x 100% a
adsa s a
adsa s
ww 13. ww mean value or average
Define ww value of AC. ww ww ww
The mean or average value of alternating current is defined as the
etet average of all ivalues etet of current overi.anai.entpositive
et half cycle or enegative
tet half etet
ail.ani.n al.ani.n ail.ani.n ail.ani.n
Padasalai.Net
asl k µs
a l asl al asl asl
s
ada cycle.¥ avg =ada = 0.6371 ¥Ÿ .
s È s
ada s
ada s
ada
w.wp.apda w .wp.apda G w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww 14. ww RMS value of AC.
Define ww ww ww ww
The root mean square value of an alternating current is defined as the
t t ntet of the square ofi.anall t t t t t
i.ani.
lal
en e square root of the i.ani.emean
lal lal i.entecurrents over one cycle.
lal i.ani.ene i.ani.ene lal
a daadsaas a daadsaas¥ RMS =µÈ = 0.707¥Ÿ .adaadsaas a daadsaas a daadsaas
w.wp. p w.wp. p √k w.wp.p w.wp. p w.wp. p w
ww 15. ww are the applications
What ww of series RLC resonant
ww circuit? ww ww
RLC circuits have many applications like filter circuits, oscillators,
t t t t t
.ani.enteof series RLC resonant t t t t
a la il.ani.ene voltage multipliers a l a il.ani.eneetc., An important a la iluse a l a il.ani.enecircuits is in alail.ani.ene
adsas adsas asas s
daadsasignal adsas
w .wp.apda w .wp.apdacircuits of radio and
the tuning
w .apdadsystems. To receive
.wpTV w .wp.apthe .wp.apda
of a particular
w w
ww ww among various broadcasting
station ww w
stations at wdifferent frequencies, tuning ww is ww
done.
l a ni.entet Define Q - factor
il.a16. l a
t
ntequality
il.ani.e
or factor. i.ani.entet
la l l a
t t
il.ani.ene l a
t t
il.ani.ene
a
adsa s a
sas
Q -adFactor is defined as
as
adsa ratio of voltageadacross
the
a
adsa s L or C to the
a
adsa s
w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.pa w .wp.apda w
ww ww
applied voltage at resonance. ww ww ww ww
17. Define power factor.
etet Power factor t ê) of a circuit isndefined
ete(cos etet as the cosine.nof t angle of
etethe etet
asl ail.ani.n aslail.ani.n asl ail.ai.n asl ailai.n asl ail.ani.n
s
ada lead or lag. ada Power factor is also
s adadefined as the ratio
s aof
da true power to the
s s
ada
w.wp.apda w .wp.apdapower.
apparent w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w.wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
18. Define wattles current.
t If the power consumed
t by an AC circuit
t is zero, thenethe t current in t
l a i
l.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.nte l a i
l .ani.ente
sas that circuitais sassaid to be watt-less scurrent.
as This wattles acurrent
sas happens in a asaas
.
w p.apdaada purely .wp apdada or capacitive .circuit.
.
inductive wp.apdaada .wp.apdada .p.apda
d
ww
ww ww
ww ww
ww ww
ww ww w
ww ww
w
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
l asla l l l
p
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a
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w.w.apda
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ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t ntet
i.ente IN PHYSICS
UVANNAMALAI . t t
e
il.ani.en RAJENDRAN
RAJE M, a l a
TEACHER
adsa s ada s s s s
ada s s ada adsa s
ww ww THREE MAR ww
MARKS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ww ww ww
l ni.entet Obtain an expression

ail.a19. l
etet fo motional emf
ail.ani.n on for l
entet Lorentz force. i.ani.entet
ail.ani.from lal l
etet
ail.ani.n
s
ada as s as
ada from Loren s
ada as adsaas s
ada as
d Motional demf Lorentz force:
d d
a
w.wp.p
a a
w.wp.p
a a
w.wp.p
a a
w.wp.p
a
w .wp.apda w
ww ww Consider a straigh wwconductor rod AB of
traight ww ww ww
length ‘Ä’ in a uniform magnetic field +⃗, which is
m ma
t t in to plane of the et t t
l a i
l .ani.ente directed perpendicularly
l a i
l.ani.ente
larly
l ail.ani.entpaper. l ail.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
.
w p.apdaada .
w p. aada move with a .constant
Let the apdrod
wp.apdaada velocity ˜⃗ .wp.apdaada .
w p.apdaada
w w right side. When
towards ww rod moves, the free
henwthe w w w
ww ww ww ww ww
electrons present in it also move with same
⃗
il.ani.ene velocity ˜⃗in +a.lail.ani.ene
t t t t t t t t t t
a l a a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsas as
As aadsresult, the
he Lorentz
Lo adsasacts on free
force adsas adsas
ww electron
ww in the direction
ection
wwfrom B to A and it is ww ww ww
given by, w⃗à 6 &®r ˜⃗x +uu⃗ …….…… (1)
t t Due to this t
teorce, t t tet the end A t t
a l ail.ani.ene a l a il.ani.enforce, all the free electrons
a l a il.ani.ene are accumulate
a l a ilte
.ani.enat
a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s which produces s
adsa the potential poten difference s
asa across the rod awhich s
asa in-turn turn e establishes asa s
.wp.apda .wp.apda . p.apdad . p.pdad . p.apdad
electric field ⃗directed
w w w w w w w w w
ww ww
an ectedwalongw BA. Due to the electric ww field, the Cou oulombwwforce ww
starts acting on the free electron el along AB and it is given by,
etet w⃗Ži.an 6e&® tet ⃗ − − − − (2) etet etet etet
ail.ani.n al i.n ail.ani.n ail.ani.n ail.ani.n
Padasalai.Net
asl asl asl
a ˜⃗x +u⃗#= #&® ⃗ # adaada asl asl
s
apdaada
s
aada
Atapdequilibrium, # w⃗à # = # w⃗Žap#da;ad#®r
s
p
s s
apdaada
w.wp. w.wp. w.wp. w.wp. w.wp. w
ww ww B e v sin in 90w0w= eE ; Bv = E …………. ww(3) ww ww
The potential differe difference between two ends of the rod is,V = EÄ E = BvÄ
t t t et t
l ail.ani.ente Thus the Lorentz
l a il
ente
.ani. force
orce o on the free electrons
l a il.ani.ente is responsibleail.ato
l
nt
ni. ma
e maintain this
l a il.ani.ente
sas a
daadsas sas an emf sas sas
.
wp.apdaada potential
.
w p.apdifference and he
.w .apdaada
hencepproduces
.wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww = BÇv ww− − − − (4) ww ww ww
Since this emff is p produced due to the movement of the e rod, it is often
t t called as motional t t t t t t
il.ani.eemf.
t t
a la il.ani.ene a l a ne
adsas 20. An inductor asasof inductan uctance ‘L’daacarriessas an electric current asas ‘ ’. How H muchdaadsas
w .wp.apda w .
w p.apdad w .wp.ap d w .wp.apdad w.wp.p
a
w
ww energy
ww is stored while hile establishing
eww the current wwin it? ww ww
Energy stored in an sole solenoid:
t t Whenever aetcurren current
t is established eintethe t circuit, the inductanc ctance
t t opposes t t
l a il.ani.ene l a il.ani.ne la il.ani.n l a il.ani.ene l a il.ani.ene
a
adsa s the growthadsof as the current
urrent. To establish
a
adsa s the current, work has
adsaas to do
done against a
adsa s
.wp.apda ada a .wp.apda .wp.apda .wp.apda
w w.wp.p
thiswopposition. w w w w
ww w ww ww ww ww
This work done ne is stored as magnetic potential energy. Consider Co an
inductor of negligible resis
resistance, the induced emf ‘∈ ’ at any instant ‘t’ is
etet ee t t ee t t ee t t
ee t t
a l ail.ani.n ∈ = a&
hÛ i.ni.n
lala l ail.ani.n lail.ani.n l ail.ani.n
s
ada s dsaash– p.apdad
s
aa as s
aa
p.apdad
as s
aa
p.apdad
as
w.wp.apda w .apda
.wpLet ‘dW’ be the work
wo w .
w w .
w w.w w
ww ww ww done in moving a charge ww ‘dq’ in a time ‘‘dt’wagainst
w ww
the opposition, then
t ? = − ∈?'en= t− ∈é?¬ t t t
l a i
l .ani.ente l ail.ani.hÛte l a i
l.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas ?adaa= as
dsa−C& DDé?¬ = Lé?é adaadsaas sas sas
.
w p.apdaada .
wp . p h– .p.p . p.apdaada . p.apdaada
w ww www ww w w ww
w w
ww
w w
ww
w
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
l asla l l l
p
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ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t ntet
i.ente IN PHYSICS
UVANNAMALAI . t t
e
il.ani.en RAJENDRAN
RAJE M, a l a
TEACHER
adsa s ada s s s s ada s s ada adsa s
ww ww Total work done ww
ne in establishing the current ‘é’ is ww ww ww
Û
kÛ 7
etet =∫? =e∫teé?é
t = CkD = k é etet etet etet
s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n p
ada Thisadwork
a done ne is sstored aas admagnetic
a potential energy.ada (i.e) ada
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda 7 k w .wp.pda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww uB = é ww k
ww ww ww
21. Show that the mutual
al inductance
ind between a pair of coils is same
t t t t t
l a i
l .ani.ente (M12 = M21) lail.ani.ente l ail.ani.ente l ail.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas sas as
daadsaof sas sas
.
w p.apdaada Mutual
.
w p.apdaada
inductance between
betw .
w
a.ap
p pair coils: .wpapdaada
. .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww Consider two longwco-axial
cw solenoids of same ww length ww ww
Let A1and A2 be the
e are
area of cross section of the
t t nteAt 2 t t t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene solenoids. Here a l ailA
.ani1.e>
adsas dsasturn density
Let athe ensity of these s
adsasolenoids are‹1 adaadsas adsas
.wp.apda .wp.apda .wp.apda w.wp.p .wp.apda
ww ‹2respectively.Let
w and w w
Let ‘‘éw1’w be the current flowing w w
ww ww ww ww
through solenoid -1, 1, thenth the magnetic field
t t produced inside itn.eis,B t t = ™—‹1é1 t t t t t t
il.ani.ene il.ai ne 1 il.ani.ene il.ani.ene il.ani.ene
a
adsa sl a s ϕ = (™p ‹7 é7 u *k dadsa
a sl a asl a s asl a s asl a
.wp.apda .wp.apdaada k7 .wp.apa .
ww
w Then
ww total flux linkage
w e of wssolenoid
w w -2 of N2 turns w isw w
ww
w
ww
w
N2ϕk7 = ™p ‹7 ‹k Äé7 *k ……………. (1)
etet M21 = ™p ‹7e‹te k Ä*
t k − − − − (2) n.entet etet etet
ail.ani.n ϕ
.ani.n ail.ani.n ail.ani.n
Padasalai.Net
s asl s asl a
7k
il = (™ p ‹ k é k u * k s asl ail.ai s asl s asl
ada ada ada ada ada
w.wp.apda Thenw .wp.apdaflux linkage
total e of s
solenoid
w .wp.apda-1 of N1 turns is w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
N1ϕ7k = (‹ ‹7 Äu™p ‹k ék u *k
t N1ϕ7kt =t ™p ‹7 ‹k Äék *k ……………. tet (3) tet t
l ail.ani.ente So the l a il.
mutual
ani e
. n e
al indu
inductance of i .
solenoid
l a l ani e
. n
-1 with respect l ai .ani.ensolenoid
to
l sole -2 is l a il.ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
apdaada ada
.wp.apda12 = Ø;
aa
£Ûafdad adaada adaada
w w .
wp. given
w wby,M = w wÛ .wp.p w w.wp.p w w.wp.p w
w w Û w w w ww
M12 = ™p ‹7 ‹k Ä*k − − − − (4)
t t From equation tnt (2) and
a (4), M12 = .M ntet t t t t
a la il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a la ilani.e21 a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsas asas the
In general, e mutual
mut asas between two long
inductance s xial solenoids
asaco-axial s is asas
.wp.apda . p.apdad . p.apdad . p.apdad . p.apdad
ww by M = ™p ‹7 ‹k Ä*k ww
w w
given w w w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww
If the solenoid id is fifilled with a dielectric medium of relative tive pe permeability
‘™
t t B ’, thenM = ™ ™ n
p B entet n A Ç = Ýn n A Ç t t t t
l a il.ani.ene l a ni.
il.ainductan la .ani.ente
ilon(i) l a i.ente
il.ansolenoids l a il.ani.ene
a
adsa s Thus, asathe
as uctance depends a
asa s Geometry of
asaathe
s solen a
adsa s
w.wp.apda w .apdad Medium pres
.wp(ii) present w .apdad the solenoids w.wp.apdad
.wpinside w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
(iii) Proximity of the two solenoids
ada ada ada ada ada
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t
l a i
l.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
.
w p.apdaada .
wp.apdaada .
w papdaada
. .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
l asla l l l
p
w.w
a
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XII STD. PHYSICS
t t t t ntet
i.ente IN PHYSICS
UVANNAMALAI . t t
RAJE M, l a
M.Sc.,
TEACHER
ww 22. ww will you induce
How e anwew by changing the w
emf w enclosed by th
area ww
the coil. ww
EMF induced by changin
anging area enclosed by the coil
etet Consider et
entonducting etet etet etet
s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.aani.conduc rod of length
s asl ail.ani.n ‘Ä’ moving s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada ada
with ap.avelocity ‘˜’ towa
towards pleft a a rectangular adaada
adon ada
w .wp.apda w .w pda w .w.apda w.wp.p w .wp.apda w
ww ww
metallic frame work. The ww whole arrangement
Th ww is ww ww
placed in a uniform magnetic field +⃗acting
t t plane of the coilninwards. t t t
l a i
l .ani.ente perpendicular lailto .ani.entethe pl l ail.ai.ente As
l .ani.ente
sas sas saas ‘dt’, the area dadsaas sas
apdaada apdaada from AB to DC.wpin
the rod moves apdaaadtime aa apdaada
w .
w p. w .
w p. w . w.wp.p w .
w p. w
ww ww
enclosed by the loop op an ww hence the magneticww
and flux ww ww
through the loop decrease
reases.
t t The change t tin m
magnetic flux .nin t time
t ’dt’ t t t t
il.ani.ene il.ani.ene ilai.ene il.ani.ene il.ani.ene
is?ϕà 6 +daa?*
l a l a l a l a l a
a
adsas dsas6 +rÄ x ˜ ?¬u p.apdaadsas
a a a
adsas a
adsas
w .wp.apda w .wph .apÓ w .w w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww h– 6 + Ä˜ ww ww ww ww
This change in mag
magnetic flux results and induced emf and
d it is given by,∈
t t h t t t t t t t t
a l ail.ani.ene = Ó ; ∈ = + aÄ˜lail.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
s h– s s s s
adsa asa adsa s
aadainduced asa
w.wp.apda w .apdademf is called
.wpThis w.wp.apda emf. The direction
alled motional w.wp.apdof uced current w .apdad
.wpis w
ww ww
found to be clock wise
ww
ise ffrom Fleming’s right hand rule.
ww ww ww
23. Explain various energy
ergy losses
l in a transformer.
etet (i)Core loss ori.aIron etetloss: etet etet etet
ail.ani.n al ni.n loss ail.ani.n ail.ani.n ail.ani.n
Padasalai.Net
ada aa aada ada ore loss ada
w.wp.apda w .apdad
.wpHysteresis loss
w .wp.apdcurrent
ss and eddy .wp.apda as core
loss are known
w .wp.apda
lo or Iron
w w
ww ww When transformer
loss. mer wc w is magnetized or demagnetized
core ww repeate
epeatedly ww
by the ww
alternating voltage applie
applied across primary coil, hysteresis takes
akes place and
t t fo et ntet t
l ail.ani.ente some energy lost l a i
l ntethe
.ani.ein l i.entminimized
form of heat. aItil.anis by using
l ail.ani.esilicone
g silic steel
l a i
l .ani.ente
sas saas a
core. p.apdaadsas sas sas
.
wp.apdaada in making
.
w p.apdaadtransformer mer c
.
w .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada
w w w ww w w
ww ww Alternating magne ww flux in the core winduces
agnetic eddy currentscurr wwin it. ww
Therefore there is energ
energy loss due to the flow of eddy current
ent called
ca eddy
t t t t t t t t
a la il.ani.ene current loss.alItail.is
a nteinimized
ni.eminimi by using.nvery
a la ilai.ene thin laminations a l a i.entetransformer
il.anof tra
a l a il.ani.ene
adsas core. asas asas asas asas
w .wp.apda w .
w p.apdad w.wp.apdad w.wp.apdad w .
w p.apdad w
ww (ii)
ww Copper loss: ww ww ww ww
The primary and secondary coils in transformer have electrical
t t resistance. When an
t nt ele
electric current flows t t through them, some ome
i.ente
t amount of t t
a l a il.ani.ene energy is dissipated a l a il.ani.enedue tot Joule’s a l a il.ani.ene and it is knownalas
heating a il.ancopper
copp loss. It a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s adsas s s adsa s adsa s
.wp.apda .wp.apda by using aada
.wpof.apdlarger .wp.apda .wp.apda
w is minimized
w ing wires
w w diameter (thick
w wire) w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
(iii) Flux leakage:
tet The magnetict tflux linked l with primary tetcoil is not completely tely tetlinked with
n e n n en e n e n n e n entet
s asl aila. i . secondary. sEnergy a sl . i.
aila loss d due to thissflux a sl . i .
ailaleakage is minimize s asl ily
aby . i .
a winding
win coils saslail.ani.
adaada ada
.wp.apdathe other. adaada adaada adaada
w.wp.p one wover w.wp.p w.wp.p w.wp.p w
ww w ww w ww w ww w ww w ww
t t t t t
l a i
l.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
.
w p.apdaada .
wp.apdaada .
w papdaada
. .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
l asla l l l
p
w.w
a
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XII STD. PHYSICS
t t t t ntet
i.ente IN PHYSICS
UVANNAMALAI . t t
RAJE M, l a
M.Sc.,
TEACHER
ww 24. ww
Discuss the advantages tagesww
of AC in long distance wwpower transmiss mission. ww ww
Long distance power tra
transmission:
etet The etet isail.ani.entet etet etet
asl ail.ani.n asl ail.ani.n ic
electric power
a l a l ail.ani.n a l ail.ani.n
d s
ada generatedd s
a power
adin er sta
stations adas
s
using
d s
ada s s
ada s
a
w.wp.p
a a
w.wp.p
a a a
w.wp.p over w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww wwgenerators are transmitted
AC ww
trans ww ww ww
long distances through
ugh transmission
t
t et or cities. This i.ni.entet t t
l a i
l .ani.ente lines to reachlailtowns
.ani.entns lala l ail.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
a daadsaas a dsaas power
process isdaacalled wer tra
transmission.
a daadsaas sas
apdaada
sas
apdaada
w.wp. p w.wp.p .p. p . p. . p.
ww ww But during power wer w
trww w
transmission, ww
w w
ww
w w
ww
w
2
due to Joule’s heating ting (((I R) in the
t t transmission lines, , tsizable
siza fraction of electric tet power is lost. .This power
p loss
l a il.ani.ene l a .ani.ente
ileither l a il.ani.en(I) l a ni.entet
ilaistance l a
t t
il.ani.ene
a
adsas can be reduced a
asas er by reducing
r current
a or by reducing resistanc
a (R) a
.wp.apda .apdad the resistanc
.wpHere daadsas
.wp.apcan .wpthick
asas
.apdad wires
asas
.apdad
.wpor
w w istance w‘R’ be reduced with
w es of copper
w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
aluminium. But this increa ncreases the cost of production of transmission ission lines and
t t hence this method is not eeconomically viable.
il.ani.ene i .n i entet
. ni.entet is reduced by
il.acurrent ni.entet
il.astepped
t t
il.ani.ene
a sl a Thussa by
sl a lusing
a g tran
transformer, the
asl a asl a stepp up the asl a
adsa ada asa apdaadsa ter extent. adsa
w.wp.apda w .wp.apda voltage and
alternating nd the
thereby
w pdad
.wp.areducing power losses w.wp.to a greater ex w .wp.apda w
ww ww
Illustration: ww ww ww ww
Let an electric ic pow
power of 2 MW is transmitted through the tra transmission
etet e tet e tet e tet etet
ail.ani.n lines of resistance n . n 40 Ω at 10 kv and 100
n . n kv n . n ail.ani.n
Padasalai.Net
l l aila. i l aila. i l aila. i l
s
ada as s
ada as s as s as s as
.wp.apda (i) P =.p.ap2daMW, ü = 40 4 Ω,.p.apdaa ·da= 10 kv, then .p.apda
ada
.p.apda
ada
w ww ww ww ww w
ww ww I = ¸ = k \7p
= 200A
ww ww ww ww
7p \7pK
t t Power loss = I2R = (200) t 200)

t
2
x 40 = 1.6 x 106 te1.6 t x 106W t t
l ail
e
.ani.n e
l a i
l
en e
.ani.7. \7p7p l a i
l
e
.ani. n
l .ani.ente
sas % of Power as =
sloss = 0.8 =daadsaa%
s sas sas
.
wp.apdaada .
w p.apdaada k \7p
.
w p.ap .
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
(ii) • = 2 MW, R = 40
0 Ω, V = 100 kv , then
t t ¸ k \7petet t t t t t t
a la il.ani.ene I = = 7pp
a l a ni.nK= 20A
il.a\7p a la il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsas asas asas ss
6 ada adsas
w .wp.apda Power
w .apdad= I2R = (20)2x 40w=.wp0.016
.wploss .apdad x 106w 0.016 xw10 .wp.apdaW w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww
p.p7 \7p
7p ww ww ww
% of Power loss = k \7p
7p
= 0.008 = . %
t t Thus it is nclear t art tha
that, when an electric t t power is transmitte smitted t t at high t t
a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ai.ene a la il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s voltage, the s
asapower loss is reduced s
asa to a large extent.adaadsa s adsa s
w.wp.apda w .apdaatd transmitting
.wpSo itting p
point
w .apdadvoltage is increased
.wpthe w .wp.p and the e .wp.apda
corresponding
corr w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
current is decreased ed by using step-up transformer. At receiving ng point, the
t voltage is decreased t and the current ist increased by using singtetstep-down
etet
l a i
l .ani.ente transformer. lail.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente la i
l .ani.en l ail.ani.n
s
ada as s
ada as s
ada as s
ada as s
ada as
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t
l a i
l.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
.
w p.apdaada .
wp.apdaada .
w papdaada
. .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
l asla l l l
p
w.w
a
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w.w.apda
w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t ntet
i.ente IN PHYSICS
UVANNAMALAI . t t
e
il.ani.en RAJENDRAN
RAJE M, a l a
TEACHER
adsa s adas s s s
ada s s ada adsa s
ww ww ww ww ww ww
25. Obtain the expression
ion fo
for average value of alternating current.
etet t o
etealue etet etet etet
s asl ail.ani.n Average orsMean a sl ail.ani.nvalue of AC:
ada a
Theadaverage value of pAC adisa defined as the adaada ada
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w.w.apda w.wp.p w .wp.apda w
ww ww
average of all values es ofwwcurrent over a positive ww ww ww
half-cycle or negative
ive ha
half-cycle.
t t t t t
l a i
l .ani.ente Expression: lail.ani.ente l ail.ani.ente l ail.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas The sas
average or mean
me value saof
s AC over one dadsaas sas
apdaada apdaada apdaada aa apdaada
w .
w p. w .
w
complete
p.
cycle is zero. .
w p.
T ww the average or mean
ero. w
Thus w.wp.p w .
w p. w
ww ww ww ww ww
value is measured over ver one
on half of a cycle.
t t The alternating current tent
t at any instant is n.entet t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene a l ail.ani.ene é 6 é èé‹
al a il.a¬ i6 é èé‹- a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsas asas asas
Ÿ Ÿ ss
aada adsas
w .wp.apda w .apdadsum of allll curr
.wpThe currents
w .apdada half-cycle is given
.wpover w .wp.apdby area of po
positive .wp.apda
half-
w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
cycle (or) negative half- cycle. Consider an elementary strip of thickness thickn ‘?-’ in
t t positive half-cycle, Area t rea
t oof the elementary strip t t = é?- t t t t
a l ail.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.enGe G
a l a il.ani.ene G
a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s Then s
adsaarea of positiv s
adsa = < é ?- = < éaŸdèé‹-
positive half-cycle, adsa = éŸ ^& cos -ap adaadsa
s s
w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda p wp.wp.pa w.wp.p w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
&éŸ ^cos … & cos 0aa ; &éŸ ^&1 & 1a ; = 2éŸ
Then Averag
t verage value of AC, t t
etet t e
tB•t .îni.en il.ani.eí£• e etet etet
ail.ani.n n ail.ani.n ail.ani.n
Padasalai.Net
yîÚÛ–Û¯•
îÚÛ–Û¯• îB • t–Û¯• t£ así
asl ¥t¯ 6 alaila sla
adsaaí£• a l a l
.wp.apda
s
ada a daadsas
tÚ• £• – î t£ a dsí
a .wp.apda
s
ada s
.wp.apda
s
ada s
w w.wp.p kµ w.wp.p w w w
ww ww ¥t¯ 6 È ; = 0.637
.637¥wŸw
G
ww ww ww
For negative half--cycle ; Iavg = − 0.637¦Æ
l ail ni.entet Obtain an expression
.a26. l a i
l
t
.ani.enteon for
fo RMS value l a of
i
l ntet
.ani.ealternating current. l ail.ani.ente
t
l a i
l .ani.ente
t
sas saas AC (I sas sas sas
.
wp.apdaada RMS value
.
w p.apdaadof RMS ) : .
w p.apdaada .
w w ww w w w
ww ww The root mean ean wsquare value of anww ww ww
alternating current is de
defined as the square
t t t t ntet all t t t t
a la il.ani.ene root of thealamean il.ani.ene of the squares a la il.ani.eof a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsas adsas one cycle.
currentsadover adsas adsas adsas
w .wp.apda w .wp.pa w.wp.apda w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww
Expression: ww ww ww ww
The alternating g cur
current at any instant is
t t é 6 néŸ tèé‹
t ¬ 6 éŸ èé‹- t t t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ai.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s The sum dofadsa the squares
s ares oof all currentsadsa over one
s adsa s asa s
w.wp.apda cycle
w .wis
a
p.apgiven by the area
a w .apdaone
.wpof cycle of .wp.apda wave. Consider
squared
w Co w .apdad
.wpan w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
elementary area of thickn thickness ‘?-’ in the first half-cycle of the squared squar current
t wave. ntet etet etet etet
l a il.ani.ente Area of l il.ani.eelemen
athe lement = é 2
?- l ail.ani.n lail.ani.n l ail.ani.n
s
ada as s
aa as s
ada as s
ada as s
ada as
w .wp.apda w .apdadof one cycle
.wpArea ycle o
of .wp.apda wave,
squared
w w .wp.apda w.wp.apda w
w
ww w
ww kG kG www kG www w
ww ww
7s!"# kb
=< é k ?- = < k
¥Ÿ k
èé‹k - ?- ; = ¥Ÿ < C D ?-
k
t p etept eptet t t
i .ani.ente i .ani.n i.ani.n i .ani.ente2 i .ani.ente
sasl a l sasl a l sasl a l [∴ cos 2- a =s1as– 2 sin -]
l a l sasl a l
. p.apdaada .p.apdµaada kG kG
G . papdaada µ
. #& kG
. p.apdada . p.apdaada
ww
w w w w
ww = kÈ <p ?- & <p wcos ww2- ?- % ; = È C- & www
w ± kb
D
w
ww
w w
ww
w
k k p
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
l asla l l l
p
w.w
a
.pda p.apdad
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w.w.apda
w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t ntet
i.ente IN PHYSICS
UVANNAMALAI . t t
e
il.ani.en RAJENDRAN
RAJE M, a l a
TEACHER
ww ww #&± 8G ww #&± p ww ww ww
C2… &
µÈ
= k k
&0Y k
D[∴sin 0 = sin 4… 6 0]
^2…a
µÈ
tek t…
a l
etet
ail.ani.n
= k
a l ala i;.n=i.en¥Ÿ a l
etet
ail.ani.n a l
etet
ail.ani.n a l
etet
ail.ani.n
s
ada s s
aa s s s
adaî ÚE tB•h t¯• s
ada s s
ada s
w .wp.apda w .apdad IRMS = 'tB•t îwî.wp•.apídaí£•
.wpHence, w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww wwtÚ• £• – î î • í í£• ww ww ww
IRMS = ' kG = ' ÈI
µÈ G µ µ
= È = 0.707 Imtet
i .ani.ente
t entet k RMS √k
i.ani. en i .ani. i .ani.ente
t
i .ani.ente
t
sasl a l sasl a l sasl a l a l a l sasl a l
. p.apdaada .
Similarly
p.apdaada for alterna lternating voltage,
. p.apdaada it can be shown . p. pdaadsas
athat, . p.apdaada
w w w w Œ w w w
ww ww VRMS = Èk = w0 ww Vm
0.707 ww
w
ww
w
ww
w
√
RMS value off AC is also called effective value (¥®(()
l a ni.entet Find out the laphase
il.a27.
t t relationship between
il.ani.enee rela l a
t t
il.ani.ene voltage and acurrentl a ilrrent
t
.ani.ente in a pure l a
t t
il.ani.ene
a
adsas a
adsas a
adsas adsas a
adsas
resistive circuit.
ww wwcircuit containing
AC ng puww resistor:
pure ww ww ww
Let a pure resistor of resistance “R” connected
t t t t across an i.alternating tet voltage source t
.ani.ente “v”. The t t
a l ail.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a l ani.en a l a ilource a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s adsa s adsa
instantaneous s value of theadaa s
dsa ating voltage pis
alternating adsa s
w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w.wp.p w .w.apda w
ww ww wwgiven by ww ww ww
˜ 6 ˜Ÿ sin ¬ ……………..(1)
etet etet Let ‘é’ be tthe
t alternating current ntentflowing
flow
et in the etet
ail.ani.n ail.ani.n il.ani.ene aile.ani.potential ail.ani.n
Padasalai.Net
s asl s asl circuitdadue s asl ato this voltage, thens aslthe pote drop s asl
ada aa da dada dada
w.wp.apda across
w .apdad
.wp“R” is
aa
w.wp.p
aa
w.wp.p
aa
w.wp.p w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
VR = é R ………….. …….. (2)
t From Kirchhoff’s ff’s lo rule, ˜ & ˜¢ 6te0t (or) ˜ 6 ˜¢
t loop t t
ail.ani.ente a i
l.ani.ente e
¯È lail.ani.n ail.ani.ente a i
l .ani.ente
adsaas˜Ÿ sin ¬ = é R ; é =adsaassin ¬ ; é = ¥Ÿ sin ¬…………..
l l l l
sas
apdaada ¢ adsaas ….. (3) ( sas
apdaada
w .
wp. .apda ¯È
w.wpHere, w .wp.apda ada
w.wp.p w.wp. w
ww w w
¢
= ¥Ÿ → Pe
Peak
w value of AC
w w w ww ww
From equati
quation (1) and (3), it is clear that, the applied
lied vvoltage and
t t t
tehase t t t
i.entep t t
a la il.ani.ene the current are a l a ilin
.ani.enphase with each other.
a la il.ani.eneThis is indicatedalin a il.anthe phasor and
a l a il.ani.ene
adsas wave diagram. adsas adsas adsas adsas
ww 28. ww out the phase relationship
Find ww
rela between voltage ww and current rrent in wawpure ww
inductive circuit.
t t AC circuit containing t pu
tng pure Inductor: n.entet t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ai a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s adsa s Let daaadspure s inductor of inductance s e ‘L’ connecteddadsa
s s
.wp.apda .wp.apda .wp.ap a .
w p.apdaada .wp.apa
w w w w acro
across
w w an alternating w
voltage
w source ce ‘˜.
‘ .w wThe w
w w w w w ww
insta
instantaneous value of the alternating voltage tage is given by,
t t = sin ¬ − − −n−.ente(1) t .entet etet
l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente l i
ail.athe lailt.aniflow l ail.ani.n
s
ada as s
ada as Let ‘é’ s
adabe
as alternating current
s as flowing in the s as
.wp.apda .wp.apda .wp.apdato this voltage, which daada
.wp.apinduces .wp.apda
ada
w w circu
circuit due
w w a se
self inducted
w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
emf (back emf) across “L” and it is given by
∈ = − L h– etet
hÛ
t − − − − (2) etet t t
i .ani.ente i .ani.n ail.ani.n i .ani.ente i .ani.ente
ada ∈u = 0 (—@) ap=aad&a∈
l a l l a l l l a l l a l
sas From as lo rule,da˜–r&
daadaKirchhoff’s loop
s s as ˜d sas sas
apdaada a ap apdaada
w .
w p. w.wp.p .
w p.
ww L hÛ ) ; Vm sin ¬ w whÛ.wp. w .
w p. w
ww ww Vm sin ¬ w
=&(− h–
=Lw h– ww ww
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
l asla l l l
p
w.w
a
.pda p.apdad
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w.w
a
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w.w.apda
w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t ntet
i.ente IN PHYSICS
UVANNAMALAI . t t
e
il.ani.en RAJENDRAN
RAJE M, a l a
TEACHER
ww ww ∴ di =
ŒÈ ww
èéÅ ¬ ?¬ ww ww ww
‰
Integrate on tboth
oth
t ssides,
etet ee t t
i.ani.en)e–
t t
il.ani.ene etet
ail.ani.n ail.aŒniÈ.n Èla l–!"# ail.ani.n
=a * ) - ;
l l Œa l a l
s
ada as adaé = ‰ < èéÅ ¬ ?¬ ;aédaa
s as s s s
aa as s
ada as
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w.wp.p d ‰ w .
* & ¬ -D; é= È èé‹ * ¬ w & -
ww ww Œ Gw Œ wG ww ww
é= È C&èé‹
)‰
èé‹ w k )‰ k
t * ¬ & k -− − − − (3)
G
t é = ¥Ÿetèé‹ t t t
l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l.ani.ne Œ l ail.ani.entel ail.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
apdaadaWhere, )‰ 6 ¥Ÿ →apd
È
.
w p.apdaada .
w p. .
w p. aada value of AC
Peak
.
w papdaada
. .
w p.apdaada
w w w ww lags behind ww w
ww ww From equation aw (3), it is clear that, wcurrent
n (1)wand hind thet wapplied ww
G
voltage by k . this is indicat
indicated in the phasor and wave diagram.
l a ni.entet What are the ladvantages
il.a29. a
t t
il.ani.enetages and disadvantages l a
t t
il.ani.ene of AC overaDC? l a
t t
il.ani.ene l a
t t
il.ani.ene
a
adsas a
adsas a
adsas adsas a
adsas
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda of AC over DC:
Advantages w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww The generation w
n of wAC
A is cheaper than thatwof DC
w ww ww
When AC is supplied
ed at higher voltages, the transmission losses
osses are small
t t et
i.entnsmission.AC t t t
.ani.entewi t t
a l ail.ani.ene compared to aDC l a il.antransmis a il.ani.ene be converted into
canlaeasily
a l a ilDC with the help
a l a il.ani.ene
.wp.apda of rectifier.
w w w w w w
ww ww
Disadvantages of AC ww DC:
C over
ov ww ww ww
Alternating voltage
oltages cannot be used for certain applica
pplication. (e.g)
etet charging of batteries, et electroplating,
etes, ele etet traction etc., i.ani.entet
electric etet
Padasalai.Net
s
ada asl s
ada as
At high avoltages,
l
it is mo s
ada
more dangerous asl
to work withaAC aslaln DC.
adsathan s
ada asl
a da da a da da .wp.apda
w.wp.p w.wp.p w.wp.p w.wp.p w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
FIVE MARK ARKS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
30. t Show mathematically lly
t that
th the rotationentof t a coil in a magnetic netic t field over t
l ail.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani. e l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente
sas one rotation sasinduces es an alternating sas emf of one cycle.dadsaas sas
.
wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apa .wp.apdaada
w w
Induction of emf by ch w
changing relative orientation w of the e coil with wthe w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
magnetic field:
t t Consider a rectangularr coil of
o ‘N’ turns
. i .ani entet
. i .ani entet
. t t
il.ani.ene
a la a l a l a l a l kept in a uniform amagnetic
l a l gnetic field ‘B’. a l a
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda The coil wrotates .wp.apda in anti-clockwise
anti w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww w
directionw with an angular ular vvelocityww ‘ ’ ww
about an axis. Initially let th the plane of
t t t t t t t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene a l a n
il.ai e
. n e
a l a n .
il.atheen e
i coil be perpendicular
a l a n
illar .en e
.ai to the field (-
a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s adsa s adsa s asa s adsa s
w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda = 0) and the
w pdad linked with
.wp.aflux wi the coil
w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww
has its maximum value. ww ww
(i.e.) ΦÅ = +*
etet e te t etet In time ‘t’, let the ntet be rotated
ani.ecoil etet
s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s aslail.e s asl ail.ani.n
.apdad (= ¬), ¬ then the
ada ada ada through an p aa ada
w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wangle- w.wp.apda w
ww ww ww total fluxww linked is, ww ww
NΦà 6 + + * cos ¬ = NΦŸ cos ¬
t et t tet t t
i .ani.ente Accordingi.nto i.entFarad
Faraday’s law, the emf i.ni.ene
tinduced at that instant i.nt ni.enis, i.ni.ene
l a l ashlala aslala lala lala
.p∈.ap6da & h– +Φà = .p.ap+
sas adsa r u
h
dsaŸ cos ¬u
r daaΦ adsaas adsaas
p apdaada & h– .p.apda a pda
w .
w . ww ww ww w w.wp. w
ww ww ww &+ΦŸ r– sin ¬u w ww ww
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
l asla l l l
p
w.w
a
.pda p.apdad
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a
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w.w.apda
w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t ntet
i.ente IN PHYSICS
UVANNAMALAI . t t
e
il.ani.en RAJENDRAN
RAJE M, a l a
TEACHER
adsa s ada s s s s
ada s s ada adsa s
ww ww ∈ 6 +ΦŸ sin ¬ …………….. (1) ww ww ww ww
When - = 90°, °, then the induced emf becomes maximum m and it is given
etet by,∈Ÿ 6 +ΦŸ la;il.an=i.nN B A ……………..
e te t e te t etet etet
s asl ail.ani.n s as s asl ail.ani(2)
.n
ada aa aa ada ada
.wp.apda .wpTherefore
.apdad the value of .induced p.apdad emf at that instant .wp.apdais then given by, w.wp.apda
∈ 6∈Ÿ sin w¬¬……………..
w w w w w w
ww ww w (3) ww ww ww
Thus the induced ced eemf varies as sine function of the time e angangle and this
t t t t t
l a i
l .ani.ente is called sinusoidal
l a il.ani.entemf
emf or alternating emf.
sas a
daadsasalternating
Ifathis ting vvoltage adsaagiven
s sas uit, a sinusoidaldadsaas
apdaada p apdais to a closed apdaadacircuit, aa
w .
w p.
varying
.wp .
w current flowss in itit.wThis .wp.
w current is called alternating w .wp.
currentrrent a an w w.wp.p
iswgiven w
ww ww w ww ww
by, = Im012./ − − − − − (4)
t t Where, Im n→ t peak
t value of induced current
t t t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ai.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsas 31. Explain the s
adsaprinciple, co
construction adsasand working of transformer. adsas mer. adsas
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda :
Transformer w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
It is a stationary nary d device used to transform electrical power from one
t t circuit to another tewithou without changing its tefrequency. It is done onetetw with either
il.ani.ene i .ani en t
. i .ani en t
. i .ani en
. t t
il.ani.ene
a sl a increasing or asl decreasing
a l asing the applied asl a l alternating voltage with
asl a h
l corresponding
corr asl a
w.wp.apda w .wp.apdaor increase
decrease e of current
cu w.w pdathe
p.ain circuit. w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww If the transformer mer w
w
converts an alternating wwcurrent with low voltage ww in ww
to an alternating current urrent with high voltage, it is called step-up up transformer.
tra
ail.ani.n n . n n . n n . n ail.ani.n
Padasalai.Net
a l If the transformer a l aila conver
. i onverts an alternating a l aila current with high
. i
a l ailvoltag
voltage
.a i in to an a l
s
ada s s
ada s s
ada s s s
ada former. s
ada s
w.wp.apda w .wp.apda current with
alternating .wp.apda it is called step-down
ith low voltage,
w w .wp.apdatransformer w .wp.apda w
ww ww
Principle: ww ww ww ww
Mutual induction tion bbetween two coils.
t t t t t
l ail.ani.ente Construction:ail.ani.
l
e nte
sas sas sas sas sas
.
wp.apdaada .wp aada
It.apdconsists off two coils
.wp. aadahigh mutual
apdof .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada
w w ww same transformerwww w w
ww ww
inductance wound over wthe ww ww
core made up of silicone ilicone steel. To avoid eddy
t t current loss, the t is generally laminated. t t t t t t
il.ani.encore
ore
t
a la il.ani.ene a l a
e
adsas The alternating asas voltage
oltage is applied asas across asas asas
w .wp.apda w .wp.apdad w. wp.apdad w .wp.apdad w .wp.apdad w
ww primary
ww coil (P), and d thewoutput
w is taken acrossww ww ww
secondary coil (S)
The assembled entet core
cor and coils are ekept
a
t t
il.ani.ene a il.ani . a il.ani . ntet in a container which a il
hich
.ani enteis
. t filled with
a
t t
il.ani.ene
a sl suitable medium asl for better insulation asl
and cooling purpose. asl asl
Working: w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
The alternating ting voltage given to the primary coil,, set s up an
alternating magnetic tic flux in the laminated core. As the e result
resu of flux
s asl ail.ani.n change, emf s ais
sl . ni
aiinduced. n
la ced in both primary s asl . ni . n
ailaand secondary coils. s aslaila . ni . n
s asl ail.ani.n
ada aa aa adaada aa
w.wp.apda w.wpThe.apdademf induced ced in the .apdad
w.wpprimary coil ‘∈•’ is almost
w.wp.p equal and o opposite .apdad
w.wpto w
ww ww w ww w ww w ww w ww
and is given by, VP = ∈• = &+ì
h Ó
the applied voltage ‘·•’’ an h–
--------- (1)
t The frequencyenteoft alt alternating magnetic tflux is same as the heentfre
frequency
t of t
l a i
l .ani.ente l ail.ani. l a i
l.ani.ente l a i
l .ani. e l a i
l .ani.ente
sas applied voltage.
sas Therefore refore inducedadsain
as secondary will alsoadhave sas same frequencydadsaas
apdaada apdaada apda apda a
w .
w p. as w .
thatp.
w of applied voltage,
w ltage, w .
The p.
w emf induced in the wsecondary
w w .
w p. coil ‘∈0’ is, VwS w=.w
p∈.aSpa w
ww w h w w w ww
= &+ã h–
Ó
--------- (2)
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
l asla l l l
p
w.w
a
.pda p.apdad
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w.w
a
. pda p
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w.w.apda
w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
XII STD. PHYSICS
t t t t ntet
i.ente IN PHYSICS
UVANNAMALAI . t t
RAJE M, l a
M.Sc.,
TEACHER
ww ww
Dividing equating (1)) by (2 ww Œ• 6 • --------- (3) ww
(2), ww ww
Œ 1 1
t Where, K → Transformatio rmation ratio

ni.entet ni.entet etet etet
l ail.ani.ente For an l a
ideali
l .
a transf
transformer, Input l ail.a
Power = Output Power l ail.ani.n l ail.ani.n
s
ada as s
ada as s
ada as s
ada as s
ada as
w .wp.apda w .wp·.apéda 6 · é ; Œ• 6 Û1w--------- .wp.apda (4) w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ì ì ã ã Œ1 ww
Û• ww ww ww
From equation
n (3) and
a (4), we have
t Œ• Û tet t t t
l a i
l .ani.ente Œ
6 • la =il.aÛn1i.en
= K ----
--------- (5) l ail.ani.ente l ail.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas 1 1
dsaas adsaas sas sas
•
.
w p.apdaada (i) If K .
w>p ap1daa
. (or) N S >N P , the
then · ã >·
.
w p.apìdaand s < P .wpapdaada
. .
w p.apdaada
w w ww ww w w
ww ww This is step up wtransformer in whichw voltage increased eased andww the ww
corresponding current
nt is decreased.
t t .entePt, the i.entPe
t t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene (ii) If K < 1 (or) a l Nil.aSni<N
a then VS<VP and a l a il.asn> a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsas asas adsas in which voltage adsas reased and the adsas
w .wp.apda w .apdadis step down transformer
.wpThis w .wp.apda w .wp.apda decrease w .wp.apda w
ww ww
corresponding current
w
nt iswincreased. ww ww ww
Efficiency of a transform
sformer:
t t t t tet defined as the ratio et the useful
ni.entof t t
a l ail.ani.ene The efficiency
a l a il.ani.ene ( ) oof a transformer
a l a il.ani.enis a l a il.atio a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s output ppoweradsa s p p.apdaadsa
s asa s asa s
w.wp.apda w .w.apdaë –yto–the ìî •B
input power.
w .
w w.wp.apdad w .
w p.apdad w
ww ww = µ y – ìî •B x 10 ww
100% ww ww ww
32. t Derive an expression
e
n te enteion
t for
fo phase angle between
e ntet the applied ed voltage
e ntvo
e t and
etet
n . n . n . n . ail.ani.n
Padasalai.Net
l .
aila i current in a a series
l . i
aila RLC circuit.
c l .
aila i l .
aila i l
s
ada as s
aa s s
ada as s
ada as s
ada as
w.wp.apda Series
w .apdad circuit:
.wpRLC w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww Consider a circuit ww containing r w
g a resistor
w
of ww
resistance ‘R’, a inductor of inductance tance ‘L’ and a
t t t t t
l.ani.ente .ente
capacitor laofil.anicapacitance ‘C’ connected
l ail .ani.ente across an
ected l a il.ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
.
wp.apdaada .
w p.apdaada .wp.apdaada voltage source.
alternating .wp apdaada
. .wp.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww ww The applied alternating ww voltage is given iven by,b ww ww
˜ 6 ˜Ÿ sin ¬− − − − − (1)
t t t t ntet ‘é’ be the currentain .entet circuit at t t
a la il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a la il.ani.eLet a l iln.anithe a l a il.ani.ene
adsas adsas adsas
thatapinstant. adsas adsas
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp. da w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww Hence the vvoltage ww developed across wwR, L and C ww ww
·¢ 6 éü (VR is in phase ph withé )
G
t t
il.ani.ene ·‰ 6 éÕ‰ (V et éby k )
teads
i.niL.enleads i.ni.ene
t t
i.ni.ene
t t
i.ni.ene
t t
a a a a
a
adsa sl a saslal
a (V lags é by ) adaada G saslal ada saslal ada saslal
.wp.apda aadéÕ
.wp·.japd6 j C p.p .wp.apda .wp.apda
w w wk.w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
The Phasor hasor diagram is drawn by representing current urrent along )¥⃗ ,
tet VR along )*⃗, VL .along)+ tet )+⃗ and VC along)ç ⃗, t
t ni.entet etet
a l .
aila ni e
. n
If V > V
a l ni.e
aCilathenn
n the net voltage a l ila .eneacross LC combination
.
adrop ni
a lail.ation is (V – V ) a l ail.ani.n
s
ada s L s
daada s s
ada s s
ada s L C s
ada s
w.wp.apda which
w .wp.aprepresented
is by * 5
⃗ w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
By parallogram law, the diagonal ) ⃗ gives the resultant voltag
m law voltage”v”
.ani.ente
t ˜ 6 2V²k Y
.ni.ernV
te3t & Vl uk ; .ani.ente
t
.ani.ente
t
.ani.ente
t
l a i
l l ail a l a i
l l a i
l l a i
l
apdaada˜ 6 2i R Y riX.w apdaiaXdlau
sas sas sask sas sas
3p&
k k
.
w p.apdaada .
wp. . .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w w
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t t t t t t t t t t
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t t t t ntet
i.ente IN PHYSICS
UVANNAMALAI . t t
e
il.ani.en RAJENDRAN
RAJE M, a l a
TEACHER
ww ww ¯ ww ww ww ww
é6 (or
(or)
2² vr67 s68 u
¯
t é69 etet etet etet etet
ail.ani.ente ail.ani.n k ail.ani.n ail.ani.n ail.ani.n
ada Z = R Y rX 3 &aXdaladu a is called impedance
s asl s asl k
s asl s asl s asl
ada Where, adaof the he circuit,
circ which ada
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.p w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww refers
ww to the effective e oppo
opposition
ww to the circuit current
ww by the series ies RLC
RL w circuit.
w ww
From the Phasor
asor d
diagram, the phase angle between ‘˜’’ and ‘é’ is found
. ni e
. ntet out by tan ϕ = 7.sni.en8te=t 67 s68 .ani.ente
t
.ani.ente
t
.ani.ente
t
l a i
l a l a i
l a: ² l ail l ail l a i
l
sas a
daadsas sas sas sas
.
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.
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cases: .
. .
w p.apdaada
w ww X >X , the phase w w w w
ww (i)wWhen L C wwangle ϕis positive ww ww ww
lead by ϕ.
It means that © leads
a
t t
il.ani.ene ( . . ) a©il.a=ni.en; t 12./
teÆ01 =te¦tÆ012(./ − ϕ) ail.ani.entet
& ail.ani.en a
t t
il.ani.ene
a l a l a l l l
d adsas This d sas is inductive.
adcircuit induc d adsas d adsaas a
adsas
p
w.w.ap a p
w.w
a
. p a p
w.w
a
. p a p
w.w
a
. p a .wp.apda
wwangle < =a/ © . ww
w w
ww ww
(ii) When XL<XC, the phas phase ww ww
It means that © lags behind by ϕ.
t t
il.ani.ene ( . . ) ©i.=ni.en; t 12./
teÆ01 & =te¦tÆ012(./ + ϕ)
il.ani.en
t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
a sl a a sl a l a asl a asl a a sl a
adsa This sa
adaadcircuit is capacitive
capac s
adaada
s
adaada adsa
w.wp.apda w.wp.p w.wp.p w.wp.p w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
(iii) When XL=XC the phase pha angle ϕ > O?.
etet It means that t ©t in-phase
in with etet etet etet
ail.ani.n i.ani.ene ail.ani.n ail.ani.n ail.ani.n
Padasalai.Net ( . da.ds)aasla©l = ;Æ012 2./ ./

s asl & s asl = ¦ Æ 012 s asl s asl
ada ada ada ada
w.wp.apda w .apa circuit is resistive
.wpThis resist w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
UNIT - V (E (ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES)
TWO MARK etARKS QUESTIONS AND t ANSWERS
l ail ni.entet
.a1. l a il.ani.entnt l a i
l .ani.ente l a il.ani.ente
t
l a il.ani.ente
t
sas Define displacement saas cur
current.
p.apdaada p .apdaaddisplacement p. dsaas
apdaacan p.
saas
apdaadcurrent p.
sas
apdaada
w .
w w .w The ment current
w .w be defined as
w .wthe nt which
wh comes
w .w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
into play in the region gion iin which the electric field and the electric electri flux are
changing with time. That is whenever the change in electric field ield takes
ta place,
t t entet entet entet t t
a la il.ani.ene displacementascurrent l a il.ani . t is produced.
pr a l a i
l .ani .
a l a il.ani .
a l a il.ani.ene
adsas daadsa pointing adsas adsas adsas
w .wp.apda 2. Whatw.is wp.apcalled ting v .wp.apdaGive its unit.
vector?
ww ww The rate of flow w of
w
o energy crossing a unit ww area is known own as a w
w
pointing ww
vector for electromagnetic gnetic waves. The pointing vector at any point gives the
t t t t t t t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene direction of energy
a l a n
il.ai e
. e
transpo
n ransport from thatlapoint.
a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s asa s s
adsa -2 adsa s adsa s
w.wp.apda w .apdadunit for pointing
.wpThe ointing vector
w .wp.apdais Wm . w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww 3. ww the modified form
Give ormwo ofw Ampere’s circuital w w
law. ww ww
If IC and ID are tthe conduction and displacement current urrent, then the
etet modified Ampere’s e te t e te t ⃗ ⃗
ni.n∮ + . ?Ä 6 ™p r¥j Y ¥l@auil.an(or) i.ente
t etet
s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.ncircuita
ircuital law is given
s asl ail.aby, s as s asl ail.ani.n
ada ada adha ada ada
w.wp.apda ww .p.apda ∮ +⃗ . ?Ä⃗ 6 ™p ¥j Y.™pp.ap•dap < ⃗ . ?*⃗
ww h– ww .p.apda ww .p.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
This is also known nown as Ampere - Maxwell’s law.
4. Define Fraunhofer lines.
. ni e
. ntet t
.enteectrum
.anispectru
t
.ani.ente the Sun is examined, ni.entet it consists
.ained, .ani.ente
t
l a i
l a When the
l ail obtained l a i
from
l l a i
l l a i
l
sas a
daadsas of dark lines sas sas sas
.
w p.apdaada of large
.
wp apnumber
. .
w p. aada absorption spectrum).These
apd(line .
w p.apdaada se da dark lines.
w p apdaada
in
.
w w w w w w
ww wwsolar spectrum are known
the ww as Fraunhofer lines.
kno ww ww ww
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
l asla l l l
p
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t t t t ntet
a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.eneRAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., a l a il.ani.eB.Ed., l
ww 5. ww are the uses of Fraunhofer
What ww lines? ww ww ww
The absorption spectra for various materials are compared with the
etet t solar spectrum,n.enwhich
.entethe tet etet elements etet
s asl ail.ani.n Fraunhofer slines asl ail.aniin s asl ail.ai helps to identifying
ada presentp.ain da Sun’s atmosphere.
athe ada ada ada
w .wp.apda w .w pda w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww THREE MARKS ww QUESTIONS AND wwANSWERS ww ww
6. Write a note on Radio waves.
t t t t t
l a i
l .ani.ente Radio waves:lail.ani.ente l ail.ani.ente l ail.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas sas
It isdaaproduced by oscillators saselectric circuits. dadsaas
in sas
apdaada ap da apdaada aa apdaada
w .
w p. w .
w p . w .wp. w.wp.p w .
w p. w
ww ww They obey reflection wwand diffraction ww ww ww
It is used in,
t t (i) Radio enteand
t television communication systems
il.ani.ene ntet
il.ani.evoice ni.entet t t
il.ani.ene
a l a lail.ani. phones to transmit
(ii) asaasCellular a l a communication a l a il.ain the ultra high a l a
adsas d adsas adsas adsas
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda frequency band w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
7. Write a note on infra microwaves. Microwaves:
t t It is producedt by electromagnetic oscillators in electrical circuits
. i . ni entet
. t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
a sl a Theysobey a sl a l a reflection and polarization
a sl a l a asl a asl a
adsa ada adsa adsa adsa
w.wp.apda w .wp.apdain,
It is used w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww (i) Radar system ww for aircraft navigation, ww ww ww
(ii) Speed of the vehicle,
etet etet oven for cooking etet etet etet
ail.ani.n (iii) ail.ani.n
Microwave ail.ani.n ail.ani.n ail.ani.n
Padasalai.Net
s asl s asl s a sl s asl s asl
ada aa aada ada ada
w.wp.apda w .apdad Very long distance
.wp(iv) w .wp.apdwireless communication
w .wp.apdathrough satellites w.wp.apda w
ww 8. ww a note on infraredwrays.
Write w Infrared rays: ww ww ww
It is produced from hot bodies and also when the molecules undergo
t t transitions. t t t
l ail.ani.ente rotational and vibrational
l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente
sas a
daadsas electrical energy
Itapprovides sas dsaasolar
s sas
.
wp.apdaada .wp . . wp.apdaadtoa satellites by means .wp.
of
apdaa cells
.wp.apdaada
w w
Itwiswused w w w w
ww in, ww ww ww ww
(i) Producing dehydrated fruits
t t (ii) Green t housed
t to keep the plants t t warm, t t t t
adsas (iii)dadsasHeat therapy for muscular asas pain or sprain adaadsas adsas
w .wp.apda w .apa TV remote as aw.signal
.wp(iv) wp.apdad carrier, to look through w .wp.p haze off or mistw.wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
(v) Night vision or infrared photography
9. tet Write a note visible light. Visible light: tet
en entet il.ani.en and also it is aradiated
t t
il.ani.ene by excited alail.ani.ene
t t
s asl ni.
a i
l .
a It is produced
asl a il.ani .
by incandescent a sl abodies sl a s
a
adad a daadsa
.wpin.apgases. .wp.apda
adsa
.wp.apda
adsa
.wp.apda
adsa
w w.wp.p atoms w w w w w
w ww ww ww ww ww
It obeys the laws of reflection, refraction, interference, diffraction,
polarization, photo -electric effect and photographic action.
etet t t
il.ani.ene etet etet etet
s asl ail.ani.n It can be used
s asl ato, s a sl ail.ani.n s aslail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada ada a
aadmolecules ada ada
w.wp.apda w .wp(i).apda Study the structure w .wp.apdof w .wp.apda w.wp.apda w
ww ww (ii) Arrangement wwof electrons in eternalwshells w
of atoms and w
w ww
(iii) Sensation of our eyes
t t t t t
l a i
l.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
.
w p.apdaada .
wp.apdaada .
w papdaada
. .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
l asla l l l
p
w.w
a
.pda p.apdad
www.Padasalai.Net
w.w p
w.w
a
. pda p
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w.w.apda
w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t ntet
a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.eneRAJENDRAN M, M.Sc.,
a l a il.ani.eB.Ed., l
ww 10. ww a note on ultra violet
Write ww rays. Ultra violet rays: ww ww ww
It is produced by Sun, arc and ionized gases.
etet It has less i.ente
t power ail.ani.entet etet etet
s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.anpenetrating s asl s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada It canadabe absorbed by atmospheric ada ozone and harmful ada to human body. adaada
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w.wp.p w
ww Itwiswused to, ww ww ww ww
(i) Destroy bacteria (ii) Sterilizing the surgical instruments,
t (iii) Burglar t .entetinvisible writing, lfinger t t
l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l.ani.ente alarm (iv) Detect l ail.anithe ail.ani.enteprints and l a i
l .ani.ente
sas (v)daadsaasStudy of molecular dstructure sas sas sas
.
w p.apdaada .
w p ap
. .wp.apaada .
w papdaada
. .
w p.apdaada
w 11. w
Write Xw- Rays: w w w
ww ww a note on X - rays.ww ww ww ww
It is produced when there is a sudden deceleration of high speed
t t electrons at high atomic number target, also t tby electronic transitions t t among the
l a il.ani.ene l a ni.entet
il.aof l a il.ani.ene l a il.ani.ene l a
t t
il.ani.ene
a
adsas innermost a orbits
a atoms. a a a
.wp.apda dadsas
.wpIt.aphas .wppower
asas
.apdad than UV - rays. .wp.apda
adsas
.wp.apda
adsas
w w more penetrating
w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
It is used in,
t t (i) Studying structures of innert atomic electron shellt and crystal
il.ani.ene i . ni entet
. i . ni enet
. i . ni enet
. t t
il.ani.ene
a sl a astructures.
sl a l a asl a l a asl a l a asl a
adsa asa adsa asa adsa
w.wp.apda w .apdad Detecting fracture,
.wp(ii) w .wp.apdadiseased organs,w.wpformation .apdad of bones wand .wp.apda w
ww ww stones, observing ww the progress of healing ww bones ww ww
(iii) Detect faults, cracks, flaws and holes in a finished metal product
ni.entet ni.entet ni.entet ail.ani.n
etet
ail.ani.n
etet
Padasalai.Net
s asl ail.a12. Write a note on
s asl ail.agamma rays. Gamma
s asl ail.arays: s asl s asl
ada aadaproduced by transitions ada of atomic nucleiadaand ada decay of certain ada
w.wp.apda w .wpIt.apdis w .wp.apda w .wp.p w .wp.apda w
ww ww
elementary particles. ww ww ww ww
They produce chemical reactions on photographic plates, fluorescence,
t t t t t
l ail.ani.ente ionization, diffraction.
sas Its adsaas
penetrating power is higher sas saas sas
.
wp.apdaada .wp .apda .wp .apdaada than X-rays and.wpUV .apdaadrays. .wp.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww It has no charge but wwharmful to human body. ww ww ww
It is used in,
t t (i) Providing t t information about the
t t structure of atomic.ninuclei t t t t
a la il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a la il.ani.ene a l a ila .ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsas (ii)dadsasRadio therapy for the adstreatment
as of cancer and s tumour
s ss
.wp.apda .apa Food industry to
.wp(iii) .apdapathogenic
.wpkill . wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada
ww
w
ww
w
ww
w micro
ww organism
w
ww
w
ww
w
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww ww ww ww

ada ada ada ada ada
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t
l a i
l.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
.
w p.apdaada .
wp.apdaada .
w papdaada
. .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
l asla l l l
p
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w.w.apda
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t t .ni.ente
t
.ni.ente
t
.ni.ente IN PHYSICS
ww ww ww
FIVE MARKS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ww ww ww
13. Write down Maxwell equations in integral form. Maxwell equations -
e te t etet etet etet etet
s asl ail.ani.n Integral form: s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada ada
Electrodynamics can be ada
summarized into fourp.ap ada equations, known
basic ada
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w.wp.apda w .w da w .wp.apda w
ww aswwMaxwell’s equations. w w
Maxwell’s equations completely ww ww
explain the behaviour ww
of charges, currents and properties of electric and magnetic fields.
t t t waves. .ni.entet t
l a i
l .ani.ente This equation lensures a i
l.ani.ente the existence of l ai
electromagnetic
l.ani.ente l ail a l a i
l .ani.ente
sas Equationda-ad1 sas: sas sas sas
.wp.apdaada .wp.ap a .wp.apdaada .wpapdaada
. .wp.apdaada
w The w ww w w w
ww wwnet electric flu to netwelectric charge enclosed wwin a surface. ww ww
eA ñòB°
Gauss law is expressed as,∮ ⃗ . ?*⃗ 6 H;
……..(1)
t t t t t t t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene il.ani.ene
Here, a⃗la→Electric a il.ani.ene enclosed alail.ani.ene
field,ij£îÚ•hal→Charge a l a il.ani.ene
w .wp.apda w .wp. .apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww
Equation -2: ww ww ww ww
It has no name. But this law of similar to Gauss law in electrostatics.
t t t
i.ente be called as Gauss’s t t t t t t
a l ail.ani.ene Hence this law a l a il.ancan a l a il.ani.ene law in magnetism.
a l a il.ani.eneThe surface alail.ani.ene
adsa s of a
integralp.a dsa s
magnetic field over p s
adsa surface is zero. adaadsa
a closed s adsa s
w.wp.apda w .w pda w .w.apda w.wp.p w .wp.apda w
ww ww Mathematically, this wwlaw can be expressedww as,∮ +⃗ . ?*⃗ 6 0……..(2) ww ww
+⃗ → Magnetic field.
etet etet .ani.ente
t etet etet
ail.ani.n This equation ail.ani.n implies that the ailmagnetic field lines formail.ani.na continuous saslail.ani.n
Padasalai.Net
s asl s asl s asl s asl
ada aa ada monopole existsadaada ada
w.wp.apda w w .apdad (i.e.) no isolatedwmagnetic
closed.ppath. .wp.apda w .wp.p w .wp.apda w
ww ww
Equation -3: ww ww ww ww
This is Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction.
t h t t etet t t
l ail.ani.ente ,∮ ⃗ . ?Ä⃗ a6il.ani.enÓe…………...(3)
l l ail.ani.n l ail.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas
apdaada d adsaasa h– d adsaasa sas
apdaada
sas
apdaada
w.wp⃗. →Electric field ww.wp.
.p. ap a ap a . p. . p.
w w w w w w w
ww ww w ww ww ww
The electrical energy supplied to our houses from electricity board by
using Faraday’s law of induction.
i .ani.entet i .ani entet
. il.ani.ene
t t t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
a la l Equation - 4 a:l a l a la a l a a l a
adsas ss
aadamodified Ampere’s
ss
aada adsas adsas
w .wp.apda w .wpIt.apdis w .wp.apdcircuital .wp.apdacalled as Ampere
law and walso w .wp.ap-da w
ww ww
Maxwell’s
w
law. This lawwrelates the magnetic field ww around any closedwpath w
to ww
the conduction current and displacement current through that path.
te t t t t t t t t t
a l a n
il.ai e
.n Mathematically,
a l a il.ani.ene ∮ +⃗. ?Ä⃗ 6 ™p r¥jalY a il.a¥n@i.eune(or) a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
s s s s s s s s s s
adaada adaada h apdaada adaada adaada
w.wp.p w.wp∮.p+⃗ . ?Ä⃗ 6 ™p ¥j Y ™p •p w.w p. ⃗ . ?*⃗. Here, +⃗ →Magnetic
< w.wp.p field. w.wp.p w
ww w ww w w
wwh– ww w ww w ww
It implies that both conduction and displacement current produces
t magnetic field. n.entet etet etet etet
l a i
l .ani.ente lail.ai l ail.ani.n lail.ani.n l ail.ani.n
s
ada as s
ada as s
ada as s
ada as s
ada as
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t
l a i
l.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
.
w p.apdaada .
wp.apdaada .
w papdaada
. .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
l asla l l l
p
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t t .ni.ente
t
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t
.ni.ente IN PHYSICS
ww ww ww ww ww ww
14. Explain in detail the emission spectra.
etet t
.ani.enteself luminous source
The lightailfrom etet etet etet
s asl ail.ani.n s asl s asl ail.ani.ngives emission spectrum.
ada Each source adahas its own characteristic ada emission spectrum. ada ada
ww wwemission spectrum can
The ww be divided in to threeww types; ww ww
(i) Continuous emission spectra :
t Incandescent t t spectra. .ni.entet t
l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l.ani.entesolids, liquids gives l ail.ancontinuous
i.ente l ail a l a i
l .ani.ente
sas It consistsdaadsaswavelengths containing
of sas all the visible colours sasranging from violetdadsaas
apdaada ap a apdaada apdaada aa
w .
w p.
ww
towred..
w p. w .
w p. w.wp. w.wp.p w
ww ww ww ww ww
(e.g.)Spectrum obtained from carbon arc, incandescent filament lamp, etc
t t (ii) Line emission spectra:
l a il.ani.ene l a .entet
il.aniexcited l a .ani.ente
illine
t
l a .entet
il.anialso l a
t t
il.ani.ene
a
adsas Light from
a
adsas atoms givesa
adsas spectrum. They a
adsasare known as a
adsas
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda spectra.
discontinuous w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
The line spectra are sharp lines of definite wavelengths or frequencies.
t t It is different for different elements
il.ani.ene i .ani .entet t t
il.ani.ene etc il.ani.ene
t t t t
il.ani.ene
a sl a (e.g.) spectra asl a
of l atomic hydrogen,ahelium, sl a asl a asl a
w.wp.apda w .wp.apdaemission spectra:
(iii) Band w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww The light from excited ww molecules gives wband w
spectrum. It consists ww of ww
several numbers of very closely spaced spectral lines which overlapped
etet i.ente
t etet ntet edge at
.ani.esharp etet
ail.ani.n together forming ail.anspecific coloured bands. ail.ani.nThis spectrum shas aila ail.ani.n
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s asl s asl s asl asl s asl
ada one end daadafades out at the other ada ada ada
w.wp.apda w .wp.apand w .wp.apda end. w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww spectrum is the characteristic
Band ww of the molecule. ww ww ww
(e.g.) spectra of hydrogen gas, ammonia gas in the discharge tube, etc
l ail ni.entet
.a15. Explain in detail
l a il .entetabsorption spectra.
.anithe l a il .ani.ente
t
l a il.ani.ente
t
l a il.ani.ente
t
sas When sas a
daadsasthrough an absorbing sas sas
.
wp.apdaada .wp .apdaadalight is allowed to .wp.apass
p .wp.apdaadasubstance, then .the wp.apdaada
w w
spectrum obtained is known w w It is characteristic wofw the w
ww ww ww as absorption spectrum. ww w ww
absorbing substance.
t t Absorption spectrum t tis classified into three t types;
t t t t t
adsas (i) asas
Continuous absorption spectrum:adsas adsas adsas
w .wp.apda w .apdad the light is passed
.wpWhen w .wp.apda through a medium, w .wp.apdita is dispersed bywthe .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
prism, we get continuous absorption spectrum. For instance, when we
pass white light through
t t
il.ani.ene i .ani .entet a blue glass plate, i .ani entetit absorbs everything
. i .ani .enteexcept
t blue. t t
il.ani.ene
a sl a This is an example asl a l for continuous asl a
absorptionl spectrum. asl a l asl a
adsa asa adsa adsa adsa
w.wp.apda (ii) w.w .apdadabsorption spectrum:
pLine w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
When light from incandescent lamp is passed through cold gas, the
spectrum obtained through the dispersion due to the prism is line absorption
etet etet when light from etet et
ni.entpass etet
s asl ail.ani.n spectrum.Foralexample,
s s ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.ncarbon arc is made s asl ail.ato through
s asl ail.ani.n
ada a a a continuous spectrum ada of carbon arc with ada aa
w.wp.apda sodiumw pdad
.wp.avapour, w .wp.apda w .wp.apda two dark lines inw.the wp.apdad w
ww ww region of sodium vapour
yellow ww is obtained. ww ww ww
iii) Band absorption spectrum:
t ntet light is passed et ntet t
l a i
l .ani.ente When the
l a il.ani.ewhite
l a il .ani.entthrough the iodine
l a il.ani.evapour, dark
l a il.ani.ente
sas dsaas sas adsaas is known as band sas
.
w p.apdaada bands pon
.w .apdaacontinuous .w .apdaada
brightpbackground is obtained.
. wp.apdaThis .wp.apdaada
w w w ww light is passed wthrough ww w
ww ww
absorption spectra. It isww also obtained when wwhite ww
diluted solution of blood or chlorophyll or through certain solutions of organic
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
l asla l l l
p
w.w
a
.pda p.apdad
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w.w.apda
w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
XII STD. PHYSICS
t t t t ntet
i.ente IN PHYSICS
UVANNAMALAI . t t
RAJE M, l a
M.Sc.,
TEACHER
ww wwinorganic compounds
and ww
ounds. ww ww ww
UNIT - VI (OPTICS)
etet t THREE MARKS QUESTIONS
i.enteD THR etet i.ente
t etet
s asl ail.ani.n TWO MARKS
s asl ail.anAND s asl ail.ani.n AND ANSWER
s asl ail.anWERS s asl ail.ani.n
ada 1. State the ada of reflecti
laws flection. papdaada ada ada
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .w. w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww (1) The incident wwray, reflected ray andwwthe normal to
cident o the surfaceww all ww
are coplanar
planar.
t (2) The t o of incidence (é).niis t to angle of reflect t (@). t
l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l .entegle
.aniangle l aila .enteequal l ail.ani.ente
eflection
l a i
l .ani.ente
apdaadaThat is = O
sas sas sas sas sas
.
w p.apdaada .
w p. .
w p.apdaada .
w papdaada
. .
w p.apdaada
w 2. w
What w due to reflection? w w w
ww ww is the angle off dev deviation
ww ww ww ww
The angle betwee etween the incident and deviated ray is called angle of
t t deviation (d) of the light
tight
t ra
ray. t t t t t t
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww ww ww ww
From figure (a),
ail.ani.n = 1800 − ail(é.ani+.n@) [é = @] ail.ani.n ail.ani.n ail.ani.n
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ada ada 0 − ada ada ada
w.wp.apda w .wp.ap=da w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww The angle between wwthe incident ray and wthe
tween w reflecting surfac surface is wwcalled ww
glancing angle (C). From figure (b),
e
.ani.ntet ? = ∠+)ö tet ç = C + C = E .ni.entet
.an+i.en∠ö)ç .ani.ente
t
.ani.ente
t
l ail l a i
l l a i
l a l ail l a i
l
sas adsaascharacteris adsaasimage formed byadthe sas ne mirror? sas
.
wp.apdaada 3. What are
.wp.apdathe cteristicspof
.w .apdathe .wp. p aadaplane m
. wp.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww
Characteristics of the im ww of the plane mirror:
image ww ww ww
D p; D p;
1) If C b
D even,, then ; ‹ 6 C b
& 1D for objects placed symm
symmetrically or
t t entet t t t t t t
a la il.ani.ene un-symmetrically.
a l a i
l .
a ni . ally. a la il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsas ss
aDpdapa;da asas
pp;dad
Dp.a
ss
apdaada
ss
apdaada
.wp.apda p. p. p.
ww2) IfC b D odd, then en ; ‹ w
w 6 C b & 1D for objectsww
w w .
w w .
w w.
placed symmetrical
w etrically. w w .
w w
ww w ww
D p; D p;
3) IfC
b
D odd, then
en ; ‹ 6 C
b
D for objects placed un-symmetrical
etrically
i .
ani entet
. i .
ani entet
. t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
asl a l asl a l a sla a sl a a sl a
adsa 4. asa adsa adsa adsa
w.wp.apda Define.w
w .apdad
prefractive index.
dex.
w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww Refractive index wwof a transparent medium
dex (n
(n) ww is defined d as the
w
t wratio of ww
í
speed of light in vacuum dium.‹ 6
uum ((or air) to the speed of light on that medium. ¯
ada ada ada ada ada
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t
l a i
l.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
.
w p.apdaada .
wp.apdaada .
w papdaada
. .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
l asla l l l
p
w.w
a
.pda p.apdad
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w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t ntet
i.ente IN PHYSICS
UVANNAMALAI . t t
e
il.ani.en RAJENDRAN
RAJE M, a l a
TEACHER
adsa s ada s s s s
ada s s ada adsa s
ww ww ww ww ww ww
5. Obtain the relation betw
between focal length (f) and radius of curvat
urvature (R) of
etet etet Relation between etet etet etet
s asl ail.ani.n the spherical s asl ail.ani.n r. Rel
mirror.
s asl ail.ani.fnand R : s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada ada ada ada ada
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t
l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
.
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada .
. .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t t t t t t
w .wp.apda w .apda‘C’
.wpLet be the centr
centre of
w .wp.apdad
curvature of the mirror.
ww ww ww ww ww ww
Consider a light rayy para parallel to the principal axis and incident nt at ‘M’ on the
mirror. After reflection, n, it will
w passes through principal focus ‘F’. The line
l ‘CM’ is
i . ni entet
. i .n i entet
. i . ni entet
. i. ni entet
. t t
il.ani.ene
a sl a l a the normal toa the
sl a l a mirrorrror at ‘M’. asl a l a asl a l a asl a
adsa asa asa adsa adsa
w.wp.apda w .apdad the figure
.wpFrom re (a), w.w p.apdad w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww Angle of incidence; ence;ww= ∠*Fç ww ww ww
Angle of reflection; ction; = ∠çFw
e tet e tet etet etet etet
n . n By the law n . n
aila reflection.
of reflec we have, ail.ani.=n O ail.ani.n ail.ani.n
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l .
aila i l . i l l l
as as as as as
.apdad , ∠Fç• = é &w.wp.apda∠dFw• = 2 é
s
ada aas s
aa s
ada s
ada
w .wp.apda w .wpThus, w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww From ∆Fç• and ∆wFww• ww ww ww
ìI ìI
tan é 6
ìj
; tan 2é 6
ìq
t ntet .entet tan 2é J 2é. Solail.ani.entet t
l ail.ani.ente As the angles lare a i
l.ani.e
small,
all, w
we have ta n é
l a J
i
l .aniéand l a i
l .ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
apdaada apdaaìdIa apdaada ìI apdaada apdaada
w .
wp. w é 6 ìj ………..(1)
.
w p. ..(1) w; w .
w p. 2é 6 ìq ………..(2)
w .
w p. w.wp. w
ww ww w ww ww ww
Put equation (1) in equatio
quation (2)
ìI ìI
t t 2 ìj = ìq (or) t t 2( =.niR t t t t t t
a la il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.en2e PF = PC (or) a la ila .ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsas ad¢sas adsas adsas adsas
w .wp.apda w .wp(.ap6da k ………..(3) w .wp.apda w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww 6.
ww
Define optical path.
ww ww ww ww
Optical path of a m medium is defined as the distance (?′)) ligh light travels in
t t t t t t t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene vacuum in the a l same
a n e
.n e
il.ai time it travels a adistance la n
il.ai e
.n e
(d) in the medium. a l a il.ai ne
n .e
a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s adsa s s s asa s adsa s
.wp.apda If ‘n’ is.w .apdarefractive
pthe index of the aada
.wp.apdmedium, then optical.w .apdad is;?′ = n d
ppath .wp.apda
w w w w w w
ww 7. ww is called refraction
What ww
ction? ww ww ww
Refraction is passing passin through of light from one optical medium dium to another
etet optical mediumlaithrough e te t e tet etet etet
s asl ail.ani.n s as l.ani.nugh a boundary.saslail.ani.n s aslail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada 8. ada fraction. p.apdaada ada ada
w.wp.apda State the
w .wp.apdalaws of refracti w .w w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww The incident ray, re ww
refracted ray and normalware w all coplanar. ww ww
The ratio of angle of incident ‘i’ in the first medium to the angle of
t et t t t t t
i
l .ani.ente reflection ‘r’ in the
lala
ntecond
i.ni.esecond medium is equal
a i.ni.eneto the ratio of refractive
la ni.enteindex
i.tive
lala
in of the i.ni.ene
d adsaas
l a
second d adsaas ‘‹2’ to tha
medium that of the d saaslal
adrefractive index of the d dsaaslamedium
afirst edium‘‹
#&± Û
6 d adsaas
a p a a p a a pa ap a 1’.
#&± a p a
w.wp. w.wp. w.wp. w.wp. w.Bwp. w
ww ww (or) 012 = 012O ww ww ww ww
.
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
l asla l l l
p
w.w
a
.pda p.apdad
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w.w.apda
w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t ntet
ww 9. ww is the principle ofwreversibility?
What w ww ww ww
The principle of reversibility states that, light will be following exactly
etet etet etet et for both
ni.enttrue etet
s asl ail.ani.n the same path s asl l ail.ani.n is reversed. This
ail.anifi.nits direction ofsastravel s asl ail.ais s asl ail.ani.n
ada reflection ada refraction.
and ada ada ada
ww 10. ww relative refractive
Define wwindex. ww ww ww
#&± Û
From Snell’s law, #&± B
6 . Here the term C D is called relative refractive
t t ntet first medium and t t
l a i
l .ani.ente index of second l a i
l i.ente
.anmedium with respect l ai
to
l.ani.ethe l ail.aitni.eniste denoted by l a i
l .ani.ente
sas a
daadsas
a
daadsas
a
daadsas
a
daadsas
.
w p.apdaada ‹ ré.
k7 w ®.
.
w pu
.a
p‹ k7 6 .
w p a
. p .wpa
. p .
w p.ap
w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
11. Define critical angle.
t t The angle of t incidence
t in the denser t medium
t for which the trefracted
t ray t t
a l a il.ani.ene graces theaboundary a l ail.ani.eneis called criticalaangle l a il.ani.enie a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsas sas adsas C adsas adsas
w .wp.apda 12. Define
w .apdad internal reflection.
.wptotal w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
If the angle of incidence in the denser medium is greater than the critical
t t angle, there is no refraction possible in the rarer medium. The entire light is
. i . ni entet
. i . ni entet
. t t
il.ani.ene
a sl a reflected back a sl in
a l a to the denser medium
asl a l a itself; this phenomenon asl a l a is called total asl a
w.wp.apda w .wp.a
internal pdad
reflection. w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww 13. ww are the conditionswto
What
w
achieve total internal ww reflection? ww ww
Light must travel from denser to rarer medium
etet etet t
i.ente angle (é>éC) lail.ani.ente
t etet
ail.ani.n Angle of incidence ail.ani.nmust be greater sthan ail.ancritical ail.ani.n
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s asl s asl asl s as s asl
ada 14. aa power. .p.apdaada ada ada
w.wp.apda w .apdad
Define.pdispersive
w w w w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww Dispersive power w( w) is the ability of thewmaterial w of the prism to wwcause ww
prism. It is defined as the ratio of the angular dispersion for the extreme
t t t t t
l ail.ani.ente colours to the deviation
l a il.ani.ente for any meani.ancolour.
l a l i.ente l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente
sas a
daadsas sas sas sas
.
wp.apdaada 15. What isapRayleigh’s
.wp .
scattering?
.wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada
w w w w ( w) wvery w
ww ww The scattering of light ww by atoms and molecules ww which have size w ww
less than that of the wavelength (•) of light is called Rayleigh’s scattering.(i.e)
t t condition for Rayleigh’s t t t t t t t t
a la il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene scattering is ala<<• il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsas 16. State Rayleigh’s asas scattering law. asas asas asas
w .wp.apda w .apdad
.wpThe w .wp.apdad w. wp.apdad w .wp.apdad w
ww ww intensity (I) of wwRayleigh’s scatteringwis w inversely proportional ww to ww
7
fourth power of wavelength (•). ¥ ∝ ˆ|
l a ni.entet Why does skylaappears

il.a17.
t t blue colour? .ni.entet
il.ani.ene la ila l a
t t
il.ani.ene l a
t t
il.ani.ene
a
adsa s a
adsas a
sa s a
adsa s a
adsa s
According to Rayleigh’s adscattering, shorter wavelengths (violet)
ww ww
scattered much more than ww longer wavelengths ww(Red). As our eyes are wwmore ww
sensitive to blue colour than violet, the sky appears blue during day time.
18. etet Why does sky and t looks reddish nduring
eteSun etet sunset and sunrise? etet etet
asl ail.ani.n aslail.ani.n asl ail.ai.n asl ail.ani.n asl ail.ani.n
s
ada During
daada sunset or sunrise,
s the
a alight from Sun travels
s s
aadaa greater distance
s
aa
w.wp.apda w .wp.apatmosphere. w .apdad
.wpthe w .wp.apdshorter w .apdad
.wpis w
ww through
ww Hence
ww blue light which
ww has wavelength
ww ww
scattered away and less scattered red light of longer wavelength reaches
t observer. This isn.ethe t reason for reddish appearance
t of sky and tSun during t
l a i
l .ani.ente l ail.ai nte l a i
l.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
asaas sunrise and asasunset.
as asaas asaas asaas
adad adad adad adad adad
w w w w w ww
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
l asla l l l
p
w.w
a
.pda p.apdad
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w.w.apda
w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
XII STD. PHYSICS
t t t t ntet
i.ente IN PHYSICS
UVANNAMALAI . t t
RAJE M, l a
M.Sc.,
TEACHER
ww 19. ww does cloud appears
Why wwas white colour? ww
pears ww ww
When size of partic
particles or water drops are greater than the
e wav
wavelength of
etet tet tet .ani.ente
t etet
s asl ail.ani.n light (,≫•), sthe asl il.ani.ennsity
aintensity of scattering
s asl ni.enequal
ail.ais for all the waveleng
s asl ailvelength. s asl ail.ani.n
ada Since clouds ada contains ns larg
large amount ada of dust and wateradroplets, ada s, all tthe colours ada
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.pda w .wp.apda w
ww wwequally scattered
get ww
d irrespective
irres of wavelength.ww ww ww
This is the reason
eason for the whitish appearance of cloud. But
Bu the rain
t tbecause of the condensation t t on dust t
l a i
l .ani.ente clouds appearlaidark l.ani.ente beca l ail.ani.ente of water drople
l ail
roplets
.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas particles that sas sas sas sas
.
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaadamake the he clo
cloud become
.
w p.apdaada opaque. .wpapdaada
. .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
20.t t Derive the mirroreequatio quation and the equation t t for lateral magnifica nification.
il.ani.ene ntet il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
a l a lsail.ani. n wh
Theasaequation
a which gives a l athe a l a a l a
adsas ad adsas adsas adsas
w .wp.apda w .wp.apdbetween
relation object .wp.apda
distance
w ( M ), w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
image distance (˜) and focal fo length (() is
t t of spherical mirror r is called mirror t t
il.ani.ene i .
an i entet
. .ani.ene
ilon
t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
a sl a equation. Let a s lan
a l objectject AB
A is placed asl a asl a asl a
w.wp.apda the w .wp.apda axis of a concave
principle w .wp.apda mirror w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww the centre off curvature
beyond ww ‘C’
curva ww ww ww
The real and inverted erted image *′+′ is
etet e tet etet etet etet
ail.ani.n n . n ail.ani.n ail.ani.n ail.ani.n
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a l formed between a l ailaC and
. i nd F a l a l a l
s
ada s s s
ada laws off reflection, s
ada s s
ada s s
ada s
w.wp.apda w .apdathe
.wpBy refle
ww ww Angle of incidence encew(é) w = angle of reflectionw(@) w ww ww
∠+•* 6 ∠+ ¿ •*¿
t t ntet triangles. Soail.ani.entet etet
l ail.ani.ente From figure, ete+•*
ail.ani.n∆+•* and ∆+ ¿ •*¿ a il.ani.esimilar
are ail.ani.n
sas sV
V asaìf
fV àd
ala adsaasa
l l
adsaasa
l
adsaasa
apdaada ad d d d
w.wp.p 6
p a …………..
…….. (1) ap a a p a a p a
w .
w . w.wp. w.wp. w.wp. w
ww ww fà ìf
ww ww ww ww
From figure, ∆5•w and ∆+ w* are similar triangles. So
¿ ¿
fV àV f q
t t 6 [PD
t Dt = A
AB] t t t t t t
a la il.ani.ene ì@ ìq i.ani.ene
lal la il.ani.ene l a il.ani.ene l a il.ani.ene
adsas fV àV adsaa
fs q a
asas a
adsas a
adsas
w .wp.apda w .apda6 ìq ………….
.wpfà w p.apdad
…….. (2).w
w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww wwìfV fVq ww ww ww
From equation (1) and
nd (2)
(2), ìf
6 ìq
;
t t ìfV ìfV sìq
ìq
t ……….(3) t t t t t t
l a il.ani.ene l
ìfa ni.enteìq
il.a6 la il.ani.ene l a il.ani.ene l a il.ani.ene
a
adsa s a
adsas a
asa s a
adsa s a
adsa s
w.wp.apda w .apdaapplying
.wpBy sign p.apdad •* = &M; •*¿ 6w.w
ign conventions,
co w.w &˜ ; •w
p.apda 6 &( w .wp.apda w
ww ww s© s©srsLu ww ww ww ww
sK
6 sL
(or)
¯ ¯s ¯ ¯
.ani.ente
t 6i.ni.entet (or) 6 & 1 etet etet etet
s asl a i
l s asla la
s asl ail.ani.n s aslail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada daada sides by ; 7 6 7.& 7 aa ada ada
w.wp.apda w .wp.apboth
Dividing w p.ap¯dad
w ; w .wp.apda w.wp.apda w
ww ww 7 7
ww
7
ww ww ww
Y 6 ……
………… (4)
¯
t t t t t
l a i
l .ani.ente This is called mirror
l ail.ani.enteequa
equation. It is also
l a i
l i.ente for convex mirror.
.anvalid l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
.
w p.apdaada .
wp.apdaada .
w papdaada
. .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
l asla l l l
p
w.w
a
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XII STD. PHYSICS
t t t t ntet
i.ente IN PHYSICS
UVANNAMALAI . t t
RAJE M, l a
M.Sc.,
TEACHER
ww ww Magnification: ww
Lateral ww ww ww
It is defined ass the ratio of the height of the image (h1) to the height
he of
etet etet fV à V V t
i.ente; s 6 s¯
ìf etet etet
s asl ail.ani.n the object (h). s asl ail.ani.n equation
From equat (1) fàasla6il.anìf
s s s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada aa aa aa ada
.wp.apda .apdad
.wpHence . p.apdad ¯ . p.apdad .wp.apda
ww Å 6 6 & …………
w w magnificatiofication, w w w w w w
ww ww ww(5) ww ww
s¯
Using equation
equat (4) Å 6 6s
6 ……… (6)
l a i
l ni.entet
.a21. l a i
l
et
.ani.entu’s l ail
t
.ani.ente speedof light.lail.ani.ente
t
l a i
l .ani.ente
t
sas Describe the
sasFizeau’s m
method to determine
sas sas sas
.
w p.apdaada .
Fizeau’s
w p. aada
apdmethod: .
. .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
The light from the source S
was first allowed to ffall on a
t t t
i.entess pla etet t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene partially silvered a l ail.anglass plate G kept alail.ani.n a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
.wp.apda p.apdad of 45 to th .wp.apda .wp.apda .wp.apda
0
at an .w angle the vertical.
w w w w w w
ww ww light then allowed
The
w
lowedw to pass ww ww ww
through a rotating tooth toothed-wheel
t t t t t t t t t t
a l ail.ani.ene with N -teeth and
a l a n
il.aiN.en e
-cuts.
cuts.
adsa s asa s s s adsa s adsa s
.wp.apda .wpThe
.apdadspeed off rotat rotation of aada
.wp.apdthe .wp.apda .wp.apda
w w w w w w
ww ww could be varied
wheel ried th ww
through an ww ww ww
external mechanism. The light
etet passing throughi.one etetcut iin the wheel get tet
ereflected by a mirror iM tet at a long
ekept
kep etet
ail.ani.n alani.n ail.ani.n al.ani.n ail.ani.n
Padasalai.Net
asl asl asl asl asl
s
ada distance d ‘d’(about
s
aa 8 km) from the a atoothed wheel. Ifadthe
s a atoothed
s thed wheel wasdaada s
w.wp.apda w .wp.apad w .wp.apdad w .wp.pad w.wp.p
a
w
ww not
wwrotating, the reflected lected wwlight from the mirror wwould w again pass ass th through
ww the ww
same cut and reach the observer ob through G.
t Working: t t t t
l ail.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente
sas Theadangular
sas speed of the arotation sas of the toothed adwheelsas l was increaseddadsaas
apdaada apda a apdada apda a aa
w .
wp. until . p .
light passing through
w w rough w one . p.
w cut would completely
w . p.
wbe blocked by th
w w.wp.p
the adjacent w
ww ww w ww ww ww
tooth. Let that angular ar spe
speed be
t t The total distance tance traveled by the tlight from the toothed ed twheel
wh to the
. i .ani enet
. i .ani enet
. t t
il.ani.ene
a la mirror and back a l a lto the e whe
wheel is ‘2d’ and
a la l the time taken be‘t’. a l a l a l a
adsas aada
ss aa ss ada ss adass
w .wp.apda Thenw .wp.apdspeed
the of light
ght in air,˜
w .apdak dh
.wp6 w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww – ww ww ww
b
But the angular speed
ed is, 6 –
t t et be
i.entgle tet the slot which is ntet t t
a l a il.ani.ene Here - laisil.anangle
a
between the tooth
a la il.ani.enand a l a il.ani.erota
rotated by the
a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s asas adsa s adsa s adsa s
w.wp.apda toothed
w pdad within that time
.wp.awheel t .p“t”.
w w .apdaThen, w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww - = Oî–t£ t £• î – •wíÛBí£• w Û BthÛt
; -=
kG wG
6
w ww ww
Ÿ •B î –••– v Ÿ •B î í –Ú k
P
* -G
t
.ani.ente Hence, angular .ani.ente
speed, t 6 – 6 – (or)Q tet G
.an¬i.en6 etet etet
s asl a i
l s asla i
l s asl a i
l )
s aslail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
p.apS.
ada ada a akh daada ada
w.wp.apda .wp.apdathe speed of lig
Therefore
w light w
in.w .apdad
pair, 6
kh
6 P ; ˜ 6w.w w.wp.apda w
ww ww ww – * - ww Þ ww ww
QR
The speed of light in air was determined as , © 6 2.99792 x 108 ms
m -1
t t t t t
l a i
l.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
.
w p.apdaada .
wp.apdaada .
w papdaada
. .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
l asla l l l
p
w.w
a
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XII STD. PHYSICS
t t t t ntet
i.ente IN PHYSICS
UVANNAMALAI . t t
RAJE M, l a
M.Sc.,
TEACHER
ww 22. ww the equation
Derive wwlateral displacementwwof light passing
n for sing through ww a ww
glass slab.
etet etet gla slab: etet etet etet
s asl ail.ani.n Refraction sthrough
a sl ail.ani.n a glass s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada ada
Thickness of the gl
glass slab ad=at ada ada
ww ww Refractive index w
ex ofwglass =n ww ww ww
The perpendicular
icular distance “CE” between refracted
t .entyetat C gives the llateral t t t
l a i
l .ani.ente ray and incident l a i
l.aniray ail.ani.ente displacement lail.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas (L). sas sas sas sas
. . p.apdaada
ww In∆+ç , sinré & @ uw6w àj ; +ç 6 #&± rÛsBu ww
w w w w w ‰w ‰ w w w w w
ww ww ww
In ∆+ç , cos r = àj ; +ç 6
– –
t t t t !"# B t t t t t
l a il.ani.ene l ail.an‰i.ene – #&±rÛs
l a i.ente
il.anBu l a il.ani.ene l a il.ani.ene
a
adsas Hence, a
adsas 6 ; L = atC a
dsas D a
adsas a
adsas
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda #&± rÛsBu !"# Bw.wp.apda !"# B w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww Therefore lateral eral diww
displacement depends on, ww ww ww
Thickness of the gl glass slab, Angle of incidence .
tet te t t t t t t t
a l a
23.
il.ani.en Obtain Lens
a
maker
l a il.ani.en form
formula and mention
a l a il.ani.eneits significance. a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s Lens maker’s s
adsa formula: ula: adsa s adsa s adsa s
ww ww A thin lens off refra refractive
ww index n2 is placed ww ww ww
in a medium of refractive active index n1. Let R1 and R2
t be radii of curvature tof tw
two spherical surfaces t ① etet etet
.ani.ente .ani.ente .ani.ente ail.ani.n ail.ani.n
Padasalai.Net ②
l a i
l l a il l a il l l
s
ada as and respectively
aas as aas as s
ada as s
ada as
w .wp.apda w .apdaPd be pole of the lens
.wpLet w pdad O be
.wp.aand the w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
Point object.
t Here ¥′ be the e imag
image to be formed due the
.ani.ente refraction at the .ani.entet ntet
.ani.ethe .ani.ente
t
.ani.ente
t
sas l a i
l sas l a il surface
rface ① and ¥
sas l a
beil final sas l a il sasl a i
l
.wp.apdaada image .wp .apdaada due the rrefraction
obtained .wp.apdaadaat the surface .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
②
We know that, equation tion fo
for single spherical surface
. ni.entet . nisentet
. il.ani.ene
t t t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
ssa l a i
l a & a6
ss ¢l a il a a
ss la a
ss l a a l a
ada ¯ ada ada ada adsas
ww ww ww ww ww ww
surface ①, the light goes from‹7 to ‹k , Hence
For refracting surfa
s
t t & ete6t ¢ ………….. (1)etet etet t t
a il.ani.ene ¯V
lail.ani.
n
lail.ani.
n
lail.ani.
n a il.ani.ene
②
a l a a a a l
adsa s For a
adad
sa s
refracting surfa
surface , the
a s
a s
light goes from‹ to ‹
a s
a, s
Hence adsa s
w.wp.apda w.wp.p p.apdad
s w.w w
k apdad
.wp.
7
w .wp.apda w
ww w w & 6 w ………….. (2)
¯
w
¯V ¢
w w ww ww
Adding equation tion (1)
(1 and (2), we get,
ete t e tet s estet etet etet
ail.ani.n a¯laV il&
a Y ¯ & ¯V 6 ¢ alY
. ni. n ail.ani.¢n ail.ani.n ail.ani.n
asl a l a l
.wp.apda
s
ada
. p.apdaadsas . p.apda7adsas 7 .wp.apda
s
ada s
.wp.apda
s
ada s
ww
w
ww
ww
¯
& 6 r‹wk w
&w‹w7 u C¢ & ¢ D ww
w
ww
w
ww
w
7 7 r s u 7 7
¯
& 6 C¢ & ¢ D
t entet t t t
i .ani.ente 7lail.an
7i. i.ani.ente i .ani.ente i .ani.ente
sas & 6 * & 1- C¢ d&ad¢saasD………..(3)
l a l l a l 7 7 l a l l a l
sas sas sas
.
w p.apdaada .
wp.apdaada¯ .
w papa
. .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
If the object
bject is at infinity, the image is formed at the fo
forcus of the
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
l asla l l l
p
w.w
a
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t t t t ntet
i.ente IN PHYSICS
UVANNAMALAI . t t
e
il.ani.en RAJENDRAN
RAJE M, a l a
TEACHER
ww ww lens. Thus,M 6 ∞,, ˜ 6 ( ww ww ww ww
&A6* & 1- C¢ & ¢ D
7 7 7 7
Then equation
n becomes,
beco
etet n.entet etet etet etet
ail.ani.n 7lail.ai ail.ani.n ail.ani.n ail.ani.n
ada 6 * & 1- C¢ & ¢adaD…………..(4)
a l a 7 7 a l a l a l
s
ada s s s s
ada s s
ada s s
ada s
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w.wp.p w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
Here first medium
dium is air and hence n = 1 and let the refractiv
fractive index of
t ni.entekt 6 ‹. Therefore 7la6il.anri.e‹nte&t 1u C 7 & 7 D…………..(5 ni.entet t
l a i
l .ani.ente second medium l a i
l.abe‹ l ail.a…..(5) l a i
l .ani.ente
sas saas sas ¢ ¢ sas sas
.
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaadabove
The equation
uation is p.apdaadalens maker’s formula.
called
.
w .
w papdaada
. .
w p.apdaada
w w w ww w w
ww ww ww 7 7 w7 ww ww
By comparing equation
equa (3) and (4) ¯ & 6
t t This equation t t kn t t t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene a l ail.ani.eneis known as lens equation.
al a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsas 24. Derive the sas
aequation for tthin lens as obtain its magnification.
asand asas adsas
w .wp.apda w .
w p.apdad w .
w p.apdad w .
ww Magnification
ww of thin in lens:
len
ww ww ww ww
Let an object ))′ )) is placed on
t t the principal axis t t with its height.ni.entet t t t t
l ail.ani.ene l a il.ani.ene l a ila l a il.ani.ene l a il.ani.ene
a
adsa s perpendicular sa s to the e principal
prin axis.The
adsaas adsaas adsaas
.wp.apda apdaada .wp.apdaof the .wp.apda .wp.apda
w w.wp.passing
rayw)′• through ugh tthe wpole w w w
ww w ww ww ww ww
lensgoes un-deviated.B ted.But the ray
parallel to principal taxis, after
a refraction t t
etet net
.ani.esecond e
.ani.enthe ni.enteoft these two etet
ail.ani.n ail.ani.n
Padasalai.Net
s asl it passes through s asl a il condary focus s‘F’.
asl ailAt point of intersection
s asl ail.aion s asl
ada daada ada ada ada
w.wp.apda .wp.apinverted,
rays,wan real al ima .wp.apisdaformed.
imagew¥¥′ w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww
Height of object; ))′ = ℎ7 ; Height of image; ¥¥′ = ℎk
ww ww ww
The lateral magnification ation ((m) is defined as the ration of the height ght of the image
t tet tet t t
l ail.ani.ente to that of the aobject.
lalai . ni e
. n
l a il.ani e
. n
l ai l.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente
sas ss daadsas
a ss a ss a
.
wp.apdaada .
w Å
p. aadaµµ¿ ……………
apd6 ………….. .
w p.a(1)
p .
w w ëë¿ w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
∆•)) and ∆•¥¥′ are similar triangles. So. ëë¿ 6 ìë
¿ µµ¿ ìµ
t t t t s ¯ t t t
ente sign conversion,i.anwe
ente t
la il.ani.ene Using Cartesian
lail.ani. ian sig
a lal i. get Å 6 6 s la(or)
il.ani.ene l a il.ani.ene
a
adsas a
adsas ¯ adsaasa adsaasa a
adsas
w .wp.apda a
w.wÅ 6
p. pda
6 ………… p
w.w
…………(2 .apda p
w.w.apda
w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
The magnification ation is negative for real image and positive sitive for virtual
t t image. Thus for.nconvex tnvex
t lens, the magnification t t is negative, and t fo
for
t concave t t
a l a il.ani.ene a l a ilai.ene a la il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s lens, the magnification
asas on is p
positive.dadsa s asa s adsa s
w.wp.apda w .apdad
.wpCombining thee lens .wp.apa and magnification
equation
w w .apdad
.wpequation, , we gget w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
s¯
Å6 6 v (or) Å 6 6
ada ada ada ada ada
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t
l a i
l.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
.
w p.apdaada .
wp.apdaada .
w papdaada
. .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
l asla l l l
p
w.w
a
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t t .ni.ente
t
.ni.ente
t
.ni.ente IN PHYSICS
ww ww ww
UNIT – VII (WAVE OPTICS) ww ww ww
1. State Huygens’s principle.
etet Each point t wave front is the
entethe etet i.ente
t etet
s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.of s asl ail.ani.nsource of secondary s asl ail.anwavelets which
s asl ail.ani.n
ada spreading a in all directions
adout ada speed of the wave.
with adaThe envelope to all ada
ww wwwavelets gives the position
this ww and shape of thewnew w wave front at a later wwtime. ww
2. Define interference.
t The phenomenon t of superposition et two light waves i.which ni.entet produces t
l a i
l .ani.ente l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.entof l a l a l a il.ani.ente
sas increasedain saintensity
s at somedapoints sas and decreasedaain sasintensity at somedadsaas
apdaada ap ada ap ada ap da aa
w .
w p.
otherw .wp. w .wp. w .wp. w.wp.p w
ww ww points is called interference ww of light. ww ww ww
3. Give the relation between phase difference and path difference.
t t Phase is the angular position
t of a vibration. t t t t t
il.anwave, l a i.ente
il.an•corresponds l a il.ani.enofe 2 … l a il.ani.ene
a
adsas In the pathaof a
sasthe one wavelength a
asas to a phase
a
asas a
asas
.wp.apda .apdad .wp.apda
d
.wp.apda
d adad
w.wp.p
Y ϕ Y ϕ
ˆ
w w Hence
w w.wpthe path difference w wcorresponds to a phase
wwdifference is 6 w w
w w w w wkG ww
4. What are called coherent sources?
t t t t are said to.nibe t t t t t
a l ail.ani.ene a l a ila ne
Two light.ni.esources
a l a ila .ene coherent, if they a l a il.anproduce
i.ente waves
a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s which have s
asasame phase or constant s
asa phase difference, s
asasame frequency or asa s
w.wp.apda w .
wp.apdad w.wp.apdad w .
w p.apdad w .
w p.apdad w
ww wavelength,
ww same waveform ww and preferably same wwamplitude. ww ww
5. Can two independent monochromatic sources acts as coherent sources?
etet Two independent t monochromaticn.esources t never be coherent, t because etet
ail.ani.n .ani.ente .ai nte .ani.ente ail.ani.n
Padasalai.Net
l l ai l l a il l a il l
s
ada as they may aemit saas waves of same frequency
s
ada as and same amplitude,
s
ada as but not with s
ada as
w.wp.apda same w .apdad Due to thermal
.wpphase. w .wp.apdavibrations, the atoms w .wp.apda while emitting wlight .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
undergoes this change in phase.
6. t t Give the methods ttot obtain coherent light tet waves. t t
l i . ee
alani.n Coherent l a il.ani e
.
waves
n e
are obtained by
l a il. ni e
. n
following
a three techniques.
s as sas saas sas sas
adaada (1)apdaadaIntensity or amplitude apdaaddivision apdaada apdaada
w w.wp.p w .wp .
ww
.wp. w .wp. w .wp. w
w ww (2) Wave front w division (3) ww
Source and images ww ww
7. Write a note on wave front division.
t t t t t t t t t t
a la il.ani.ene 1. It is the common
a l a il.ani.enemethod used foraproducing l a il.ani.ene two coherentala il.ani.ene
sources.
a l a il.ani.ene
adsas asas adsas asas adsas
w .wp.apda 2. We.pknow
w w .apdad all the points onwthe .wp.apdawave front are at the w .apdad phase.
.wpsame w .wp.apda w
ww 3.ww
If two points are chosen wwon the wave front bywusing w a double slit, the w w
two ww
points will act as coherent sources.(e.g.) Young’s double slit method
l a ni.entet
il.a8. What are calledi.anconstructive
l a l i.ente
t and destructive
l a il.ani.ene
t t interference? .ni.entet
l a ila l a
t t
il.ani.ene
a
adsa s Constructive as
adsa interference: adaadsa as adsaas adsaas
w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.p w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww During superposition ww of two coherent waves, ww the points where ww the ww
crest of one wave meets the crest of other (or) the trough of one wave
etet meets the trough toft the other wave,.nithe t t waves are in-phase. t t Hence the t t
a l ail.ani.n a l a il.ani.ene a l a ila .ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
s
ada s displacement ada is maximum and these
s s a a points appear as bright.
s s s
ada s s
ada s
.wp.apda .wp.apda pdad
.wp.ato .wp.apda .wp.apda
ww
w This
ww
wtype of interference is
ww said
w be constructive wwinterference.
w
ww
w
ww
w
Destructive interference:
t During superposition et of two coherent waves, the points where the
a i
l .ani.ente a il.ani.entmeets a il ntet
.ani.eother a il .entet
.anithe a il.ani.ente
t
sasl crest of one sas l
wave the trough sas l of (or) vice versa,
sas l waves are sas l
.
w p.apdaada . p .
out-of-phase.
w apdaada Hence the displacement .wp.apdaada is minimum and .wp. aada points appear.pas
apdthese w .apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
dark. This type of interference is said to be destructive interference.
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
l asla l l l
p
w.w
a
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w.w p
w.w
a
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w.w.apda
w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t ntet
ww 9 ww is bandwidth of interference
What ww pattern? ww ww ww
The band width (β) is defined as the distance between any two
s asl ail.ani.n consecutive s asl ail.ani.n or dark fringes.
bright
ada 10. What pare a conditions for
adthe a
adobtaining clear and a
adbroad interference ada
ww ww
bands? ww ww ww ww
(1) The screen should be as far away from the source as possible.
t t ntetlarger. t t
l a i
l .ani.ente (2) The wavelength
l a i
l.ani.ente of light used must l ail.ani.ebe l ail.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas (3) Two saas saas as close as possible sas sas
.
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaadcoherent sources must
.
w p.apdaadbe .wpapdaada
. .
w p.apdaada
w 11. w
Brilliant colours are exhibited w by the surface w w w
ww ww ww ww of oil films and wwsoap ww
bubbles. Why?
t t The coloursetexhibited t by the surface t t of oil films and soap t bubbles
t are t t
a l a il.ani.ene due to interference a l ail.ani.neof white light undergoing a l a il.ani.ene multiple reflections a l a il.ani.enefrom the top alail.ani.ene
w .wp.apda and .wp.apda surfaces of thin films.
bottom
w w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
The colourd depends upon,
(1) Thickness oftthe film
i . ni entet
. i . ni enet
. t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
a sl a l a (2) Refractiveasl a l a index of the film asl a asl a asl a
adsa asa daadsa adsa adsa
w .wp.apda (3) w.w .apdad of incidence of wthe
pAngle .wp.aplight w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww 12. ww is diffraction? ww
What ww ww ww
Diffraction is bending of waves around sharp edges into the
tet etet region. We observe etet t t t t
n e
. n geometrically ail.ani.n
shadowed ail.ani.n diffraction only il.ani.ene the size of alail.ani.ene
awhen
Padasalai.Net
l aila. i l l l
s
ada as s
ada as s
ada as s
ada as s
ada s
w .wp.apda the obstacle
w .wp.apda is comparable to w .wthe
p.apdawavelength. w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww 13. ww is diffraction grating?
What ww ww ww ww
Grating is a plane sheet of transparent material on which opaque rulings
t t t
ni.entediamond t .entet with equal t
l a il.ani.e n e are made with ai.afine
l a l
pointer. Thus
l a il.ani.entegrating has multiple l a il.anislits l a il.ani.ente
sas adsaas comparable to the dsaas as
daadsamodern sas
.wp.apdaada widths ofapdasize
.wp . .wp apdaawavelength
.
of light. a
.wp.
The
p commercial
.wp.apdaada
w w
grating w w w w
ww ww contains about 6000 ww lines per centimeter.ww ww ww
14. Distinguish between interference and diffraction.
t t Interference t t t t Diffraction n.entet t t
a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ai a l a il.ani.ene
adsas Superposition sastwo waves
aof s
asaBending of waves around asas edges asas
w .wp.apda w .wp.apdad w .wp.apdad w .wp.apdad w .wp.apdad w
ww Superposition
ww of waves fromww two Superposition wwwave fronts emitted from ww ww
Coherent sources. various points of the same wave front.
t Equally
t spaced fringes. t t Unequally t t spaced fringes .ni.entet t t
l a il.ani.ene l a il.ani.ene l a il.ani.ene l a ila l a il.ani.ene
adsaas Intensity of alladthesa bright fringes is dadsa
as as adsaas adsaas
w .wp.apda almost .wp.apda
same
w w .wp.apa Intensity falls rapidly w .wp.apdafor higher orders w.wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
Large number of fringes are obtained Less number of fringes are obtained
15. t What is polarizer and t analyzer?
.ani.ente Polarizer: .ani.ente etet etet etet
s asl a il s asl a il s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada aa aa ada ada
w .wp.apda w .apdadPolaroid whichw.plane
.wpThe wp.apdad polarizes the wun-polarized .wp.apda light .wp.apda
passing
w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
through it is called a polarizer.
Analyzer:
. ni e
. ntet t
.ani.ente which is used lto i.ente
t
.anexamine
t
.ani.ente of light is .ani.ente
t
l a il a The Polaroid
l a il a i l whether a l abeam
il l a il
.wp.apdaada polarized
.wp .apda
or not is called analyzer.
.wp apdaada
. .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww w ww w ww w ww w ww w ww
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
l asla l l l
p
w.w
a
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w.w
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w.w.apda
w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
XII STD. PHYSICS
t t t t ntet
i.ente IN PHYSICS
UVANNAMALAI . t t
RAJE M, l a
M.Sc.,
TEACHER
ww 16. ww
Discuss how a plane lanewwpolarized and partially ww polarized light ligh w w be
will ww
analyzed using analyzer
lyzer?
etet i.ente
t etet etet etet
s asl ail.ani.n Plane polarized s asl ail.anlight: s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada If theadaintensityy of lig light varies adafrom maximum to zero adafor every rotation of ada
w .wp.apda 0 w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww wwof the analyzer, the light
90 ww is said to be plane polarized.
lig ww ww ww
Partially polarized light :
t If the intensity et of light varies ifrom t ni.entet for every t
l a i
l .ani.ente 0 l a i
l.ani.entity l a l.ani.ente maximum to minimuml ail.aimum l a i
l .ani.ente
sas sasof the analy
rotation ofdaa90 analyzer, the sas is said to be partially
light saspolarized
larized. sas
.
w p.apdaada .
w p ap da
. .wp.apdaada .wpapdaada
. .
w p.apdaada
w 17. Statew ww w w w
ww ww and prove Malus’ lus’wllaw. ww ww ww
When a beam m of plane polarized light of intensityI0is incident incid on an
t t analyzer, the light etransm teansmitted
t of intensityeItefrom t the analyzer varies aries directly as
l a il.ani.ene l ail.ani.ncosine l a il.ani.nbetween the transmissio l a .entet
il.aniission l a
t t
il.ani.ene
a
adsas the squareasof a the osine of the a
angle3 a axis of a
das ss
aada adsas adsas
w .wp.apda w .wp.apdaand analyzer.. T
polarizer Thisw .wpis.apdknown as Malus’ .wp.apda6 þ \]0 }
law.þ
w w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
18. List the uses of Polaroid laroid’s.
t t Uses of Polaroid’s:t t
l ail.ani.ene Used in goggles l a ni.enecameras
il.aand cam to avoid l a ni.entet of light
il.aglare l a
t t
il.ani.ene l a
t t
il.ani.ene
a
adsa s asa a s adsaas adsaas adsaas
w.wp.apda Usedwin pdad
.wp.aholography .wp.apda
(thre dimensional
(three w motion pictures)w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww to improve contrast
Used
w
trastwin old oil paintings w
w ww ww
Used in optical stress ss analysis.
ana
etet e tet .entet i.ente
t etet
ail.ani.n Used as window n .n ail.aniintensity ail.anlight ail.ani.n
Padasalai.Net
l l aila. i
glasses sses to control the l of incoming l l
s
ada as s
ada a s s
ada as s
ada as aas as
w.wp.apda w .wp.apda needle
Polarized
w .wp.apdaacts as
beam needle
w .wp.apda to read/write read
w .apdad
.wpin w
ww ww
compact discs (CDs) ww ww ww ww
Polaroid produce polarize larized lights to be used in liquid crystall disp display (LCD)
l ail ni.entet
.a19. State and prove
l a il
e nte
Brewste
.ani.
t
ewster’s law
l a il.ani.ente t
l a il.ani.ente
t
l a il.ani.ente
t
sas saas of incide adsaas a beam of sas sas
.
wp.apdaada .w
The
p.apdaadangle incidence pat
.w .apdawhich .wp.apdaada .wp .apdaada
w w oww w w w
ww ww
un-polarized light falling lling won a transparent surface ww ww ww
is reflected as a beam am of plane polarized light is
t t called polarizing.niangle t gle
t o or Brewster’s angle t t (é ). t t t t
a la il.ani.ene a l a ila .ene a l a il.ani.ene • a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsas asas
Sir DaviddaBrewster found asas
ound that, atdapolarizing angle, asas asas
w .wp.apda w .wp.ap d w .wp.ap d w .wp.apdad w .wp.apdad w
ww the
ww reflected and d w transmitted
tw rays are ww ww ww
perpendicular to each other. Let, incident
t t polarizing angle = eé•tet t t t t t t
il.ani.ene il.ani.n il.ani.ene il.ani.ene il.ani.ene
a
adsa sl a
adsaa sl a
Angle of refr
refraction = @
adsaasla a
adsa sl a a
adsa sl a
w.wp.apda w .wp.apda From the he figure,
fig w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
é• + 900 + @• = 1800 ; r•= ^ 0 − _ − − − −(1)
#&± Û[ #&± Û[
ete t From Snell’s et #&± B 6 ‹ ; #&±Ì`p; sÛenÎte6t ‹
entlaw etet etet
s asl ail.ani.n s lail.ani.
as#&±
[
s
.ni.[
aslaila s aslail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada a Û a ada ada
6 ‹ ; ab2w_.w
ad [ ad
w.wp.apda ada
w.wp.p !"# Û[
p=.apda w .wp.apda w.wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
This relation is kn known as Brewster’s law. This law states that, the
t tangent of the polarizing arizing
t angle for a e transparent
t medium iseteeq equal
t to its t
l a i
l.ani.nte l a i
l .ani.n l a i
l .ani.ente
sas refractive index.
sas sas sas sas
.
w p.apdaada .
wp apdaada
. .
w papdaada
. .wp.apdaada .
w p.apdaada
w ww ww
w ww w ww w ww w ww
w
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
l asla l l l
p
w.w
a
.pda p.apdad
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w.w.apda
w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t ntet
i.ente IN PHYSICS
UVANNAMALAI . t t
e
il.ani.en RAJENDRAN
RAJE M, a l a
TEACHER
adsa s adas s s s
ada s s ada adsa s
ww ww ww ww ww ww
l ni.entet Write a note on

ail.a20. l ni.entetof p
ail.apile plates.
l
etet
ail.ani.n l
etet
ail.ani.n l
etet
ail.ani.n
s
ada as s
da as s
ada as s
ada as s
ada as
It aworks onn th the principle of
ww ww
polarization by reflection ww
ection. ww ww ww
It consists of a number
mber of glass plates
t t t t t
l a i
l .ani.ente placed one over l a i
l.athe
ni.enteother in a tube.
l .ani.ente
sas These sas platess are inclined saat
s an sas sas
.
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaa0da .
. .
w p.apdaada
w w
angle w w w w
ww ww 33.7 to the axis xis o
of
wwthe tube. ww ww ww
A beam of un--polarized light is
t t allowed to fall on ethe e pile of plates along
l a il.ani.ene l a .ntet
il.anitube. l a i.ente
il.anof
t
l a il.ani.ene
t t
l a
t t
il.ani.ene
a
adsas the axis of athe
adsas be. S
So the angle
asasa a
adsas a
adsas
.wp.apda .wp.apda of light will be 0ad
.wp.apd .wp.apda .wp.apda
w incidence
w b 56.3
w which is w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
the polarizing angle for glass. gla
t t The vibrations s perp
perpendicular to the t t
il.ani.ene i . ni .entet il.ani.ene il.ani.ene
t t t t
il.ani.ene
a sl a plane of incidencea sl a l a are r
reflected at asleach
a asl a asl a
w.wp.apda surface
w pdad those parallel
.wp.aand arallel towit.w .apdadtransmitted.
pare w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww larger the number
The ber wof
w
o surfaces, the greater wwthe intensity of the reflected ww ww
plane polarized light.
etet et is used as a polarizer
.entates etet and also as ani.aanalyzer. ni.entet etet
ail.ani.n The pilelaof il.aniplates ail.ani.n ail.ani.n
Padasalai.Net
s asl s as s asl s asl al analy s asl
ada 21. ada ada ada ada
w.wp.apda w .wp.apda between nea
Distinguish .wp.apdafocusing and normal
near point
w w .wp.apdafocusing. w .wp.apda w
ww ww Near PointwFocusing w w
NormalwFocusing ww ww
The image is formed d at n
near point The image is formed att infinity infin
t t t .entet t
l ail.ani.ente In this position,
l a il the
.a e te
ni. eye fe
n feel little strainail.anIn
l
e te
i. this position, the eye
n
l ai l.aniis l a il.ani.ente
sas asaas asaas most relaxed to adsaas the asaas
.p.apdaada p.apdad p.apdad p.apdaview he imageima p.apdad
w w w.w @ w.w w.w @ w.w w
ww ww w
Magnification ww1 w
is high Å 6 Y ww is low Å 6
Magnification ww ww
la ni.entet Why is oil immersed

il.a22. l a
t t
il.ani.ened obj
objective a
preferred
l
t t
il.ani.enein a microscope? l a
t t
il.ani.ene l a
t t
il.ani.ene
a
adsas a
asas a
ss a
asas a
asas
.wp.apda .apdadability of microscope
.wpThe micro w.w aada
p.apddepends not only win.w.apdad
pmagnifying p.apdad
g the objectw.but
w w w w
ww ww in resolving two point
also wwon the object separated
points ww by a small distance
distan w
w ww
1.22•
c?ŸÛ 6 entet e
il.an2i.èé‹d
t t t t t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a la a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s asas adsa s s
adsa resolving asa s
w.wp.apda w .apdadis, smaller
.wpThat w .wp.apdaof ′?Åé‹′ better willw.w
ller the value p.apdathe
be solving power.pof
w w .apdad w
ww wwmicroscope.
the ww ww ww ww
uce the
To further reduce t value of, the optical path of the light
ight is increased
etet t
tebjective t t
il.ani.ene .ani.ente
t t t
il.ani.ene
asl ail.ani.n by immersing aslathe
il.ani.enobjecti of the microscope
asl a in to a bath icontaining
asla contai
l oil of
asl a
.wp.apdaindex ‘n’. (i.e)*?ŸÛw.wp6.apkda ÚÛ f-
s
ada s
ada s
7.kkˆ
ada s
ada s
ada
w.wp.apda refractive
ww ww ww ww ww ww
Such an objective ctive is called oil immersed objective. The term ‘ 012g′ is
. ni e
. ntet called numerical.n aperture
i e
. nterture
t (NA)
.ani.ente
t
.ani.ente
t
.ani.ente
t
l a i
l a l ail a l a i
l l a i
l l a i
l
sas sas sas sas sas
.
w p.apdaada .p
w apdaada
. .
w papdaada
. .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada
w ww ww
w ww w ww w ww w ww
w
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
l asla l l l
p
w.w
a
.pda p.apdad
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w.w
a
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w.w.apda
w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
XII STD. PHYSICS
t t t t ntet
i.ente IN PHYSICS
UVANNAMALAI . t t
RAJE M, l a
M.Sc.,
TEACHER
ww 23. ww is astigmatism? ww
What ww ww ww
Astigmatism is the defect arising due to different curvatu
urvatures along
etet t eye lens. Astigmatic
i.entethe e etet t
ni.entesee etet
s asl ail.ani.n different planes s asl ail.anin s asl ail.ani.n person cannot
s asl ail.aot se all the
s asl ail.ani.n
ada directions a
adequally well. Lenses a different curvatures
adwith ada in different
differ planes ada
ww ww cylindrical lenss is us
called ww to rectify astigmatism
used ww defect. ww ww
FIVE MARK
ARKS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
l a i
l ni.entet Prove laws oflareflection
.a24. i
l
et
.ani.entction using Huygens
l ail
tet
.ani.enprinciple. l ail.ani.ente
t
l a i
l .ani.ente
t
sas sas
Laws of reflection - Proof:
Proo sas sas sas
. . p.apdaada
ww Õö − Reflecting
w w w w ting w ww w
surface, w w w w w
ww ww ww ww
*+ −Incident plane wave ave front.
f
t t The incident rays efrom tomt L and M t t t t t t
l a il.ani.ene l ail.ani.ne l a il.ani.ene l a il.ani.ene l a il.ani.ene
a
adsas are perpendicular a
asas to this incident
in asas a a
adsas a
adsas
w .wp.apda wave w wp.apdad Initially the p
.front. point w .apdad
.wp‘A’ w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
reaches reflecting surface urface.
t t Law (1):
il.ani.ene etet entet t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
a sl a The incidentsasrays, l ail.ani.nthe re reflected saslail.ani. a sl a a sl a
adsa ada aa adsa adsa
w.wp.apda .wp.apdathe normal
rays wand al are inw.w p.apdad
the w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww plane. Law (2): ww
same ww ww ww
Angle of incidence, ence, ∠é 6 ∠+* 6 90p & ∠+*+ 6 ∠+*+ ¿
etet t
il.ani.n ction, ∠@ 6 ∠+ ¿ +
t etet etet
aFla 6 90 & + + * 6sa∠*′+′*
e te ¿ i.¿ni.ente p ¿ ¿ ¿
ail.ani.n ail.ani.n* ail.ani.n
Padasalai.Net
a l Angle aoflareflection, a l l a l
s
ada s s s s s s s s
.wp.apda aada ¿ ,‹? ∆+′*
.wpIn.apd∆*++ *′*, ∠+ ada ¿
.wp.ap6da ∠* 6 90 ; ** w
p ¿
6.w p++′
aa
.apdadand .wp.apda
ada
w w w w w
ww ww Hypotenuse
w
nusew*+′ is common ww ww ww
Thus the two triang triangles are congruent. (i.e) ∠+*+ ¿ 6 ∠*′+′*
t ntet∠O t t t
l ail.ani.ente ∴la∠ il.ani.e6 l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas sas aas
daadsproved. sas sas
.
wp.apdaada .wp .apdaada laws off refle
Hence reflection. wp .are
ap .wp .apdaada .wp.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww 25. ww laws of refraction
Prove ctionww using Huygens’ Principle. ww ww ww
Laws of refraction - Proo Proof:
t t Let XY bei.nthe t t
refracting surface.i.ni.entet
i.enerefra t t t t
a la il.ani.ene a l a l a a la l a a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsas adaada**′= ˜k ¬ and ++′ = adaã7d¬a
ss ss ss adsas
.wp.apda p adaada .wp.apda
w w.wp.àà¿ ¯ w.wp.p w.wp.p w w
ww ww ∴ff¿ 6 ¯
ww w (1)
………
…………… ww ww ww
Law (1):
t t t t i.ente
t t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene The incident
a l a il.ani.enerays, refracted rays a la il.anand a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
w.wp.apda w .wp.apda are in the sam
the normal .wp.apda
same plane.
ww ww (2):
Law ww ww ww ww
Angle of incidence,
a i
l .ani.ente
t ∠é = ∠+a*il.ani= et 0− ∠+*+ = ∠+*+′i.ni.entet
.ent90 ala
etet
ail.ani.n
etet
ail.ani.n
ada ada
Angle pofapdrefraction, ada ada ada
.wp.apda .w. a .wp.apda ¿ ¿ ¿ .wp.apda .wp.apda
ww ∠@ 6 ∠+ + F 6 w90 w & ∠+ + * 6 ∠*′+′*
w w ¿ ¿ ¿ w
p w w w
ww ww ww ww
A
*
ÓÓV
- * -
*t *; ãÛ B 6
¿ ¿ ãÛ Û àà¿ ¯ ‡
t From ∆*++′ and n∆+ 6 ff¿ t6 t 6 -6
gÓV
ggV A t t
l a i
l .ani.ente l ail.ai.ente l a i
l
* -
.ani.ene ¯
gÓV l
*
a‡i
l .ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
. p.apdaada .p aada
In.apd
product form, ‹7 sin é.p6.apda‹adk a0é‹ @ . p.apdaada . p.apdaada
w w w w w w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
l asla l l l
p
w.w
a
.pda p.apdad
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w.w
a
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w.w.apda
w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
XII STD. PHYSICS
t t t t ntet
i.ente IN PHYSICS
UVANNAMALAI . t t
RAJE M, l a
M.Sc.,
TEACHER
Obtain rw
n forwresultant intensity due wwto interference ce of light.ww ww
Resultant intensity due tto interference:
etet Let S1 aand t t
il.ani.eneS2 are the two ni.entet waves etet etet
s asl ail.ani.n s asl s asl ail.alight s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada ada at a point ‘‘P’ adaada
meeting ada ada
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w.wp.p w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww At any instantt ‘t’, the wwdisplacement equations,
th ww ww ww
h1 = ,1 sin ¬ − − − − (1)
.ani.ente
t h2 = ,2 sin .ani.ent(e ¬ + ê)
t − − − .−ni.en(2) tet .ani.ente
t
.ani.ente
t
l a i
l l a il l a il a l a il l a i
l
sas Where, ê→ saas sas sas sas
.
w p.apdaada .wp.apdaadphase differen
ifference between
.wp.apdaada them . wp.apdaada .
w p.apdaada
w w ww w w w
ww ww Then the resultant ltantwdisplacement, ww ww ww
h = h1 + h2
t t h = ,1 sin e¬nte +t ,2 sin( ¬ + ê) t t t t t t
il.ani.ene il.ani. il.ani.ene il.ani.ene il.ani.ene
a
adsas
l a By solving l a
adsas this,
a s, we get,h 6ad *saèé‹r
asl a ¬ Y -u l a
− −ad−sa−s (3)
a a
adsas
l a
.wp.apda ada p.apda
w.wp.Ap = 2,k Y ,k Y 2,w,w.w .apda
p•†‡ .wp.apda
ϕ s7 wwt.w ï
w w w Where,
w w 7 k w7 k õ—è and - = ¬,‹ w t vt íîÚïD
C ww
w
ww
w
t t t
i.ente , ±4, … …. .the resultant t t ntet t t
a l ail.ani.ene (1) When, ê a=la0,il.an±2…, a l a il.ani.ene intensity becomes a l a il.asni.emax
maximum.
a l a il.ani.ene
s s s s s
pdad= 2r,7 Y ,k uk w.wp.apdad
w.wp.apda w .wpA.amax w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww wwWhen, ê = ±…, ±3…,, ±5…
(2) ww … …. the resultant intensity
±5 ww becomes min w
es minimum.
w ww
A = 2r, & , uk
7 k
tet min t t etet .entet etet
n .e
n il.ani.ene of light ail.ani.nproportional to sathe ail.anisqua ail.ani.n
Padasalai.Net
l a i
l .
a i The intensity
l a l is directly
l l square of the l
s
ada as s
ada as s as s s as
k apdaada ada ada
w.wp.apda .wp.apda¥ ∝ *k ; ¥ ∝ ,7k Yw,.w
amplitude.
w kp.Y 2,7 ,k õ—èϕ w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
¥ ∝ ¥7 Y ¥k Y 22 2¥7 ¥k õ—èϕ− − − − (4)
n e
.ntet 1) When, ê = 0, .±2…, n e
. nte,t ±4, … …. .the resultant n e
. ntet intensity becomes s maximum.
n
max
.entet .ani.ente
t
sasl ail.a i This is called sas
i a i
constructive
l a l uctive interference. l a
sas Ÿt-
i
l .
a ¥i ∝ r ,7 Y , k u k
sasl ail.a i
sasl a i
l
.
wp.apdaada .
w ¥
p apdaad∝a ¥ Y ¥ Y 2
. 22 ¥ ¥ .
−
w p.a−pda−ad−a (5) .
w w w w w w
ww ww Ÿt- 7 k
ww7 k ww ww ww
(2) When, ê = ±…, ±3…,, ±5… ±5 … …. the resultant intensity becomes es minimum.
min
t tr,7 & ,k u
k
ene t t This is called destructive t t e interference.¥ŸÛ ∝ t t t t
lail.ani. i.ni.ene i.ni.ene i.ni.ene ene
lail.ani.
saas¥la7 lY ¥k & 2
22¥7 ¥k − − −ad−
a ala a
saas ¥ŸÛ ad∝ saasl(6) saaslal saas
adaad d
aa aad aad a
d adaad
w w.wp.p w.wp.pcase:
Special w.wp.p w.wp.p w.wp.p w
w ww ww ww w w ww
If ,7 6 ,k 6 ,,, then resultant amplitude,
A =n2 en,tet Y , Y 2, õ—èê i;.anA ent=et22, Y 2, õ—èê i.ani.entet
k k k k k
t t t t
l a il.ani.ene al a i
l .
a i . la l i . lal l a il.ani.ene
a
adsa s dsaas,k r1 Y õ—èê adsaaska
da'2 k *ï-D
aa
daadsas
a
adsa s
w.wp.apda .
ww A
p.a=
pdaa22 õ—èêu ;
wwA
. p.=
ap , C2 õ—è .
k ww w
p.ap w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww w ww ww
A = 2, õ—è * k -− − − − (7)
ï
etet If ¥7 6 ¥ka6 t t
il.ani¥.epn,ethen the resultant
t t ¥ ∝ *k ;
s asl ail.ani.n s asl s asl aintensity, s aslail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
w.wp¥ .p∝ 4, õ—è * k - ; ¥ w
ada k *ï-……………..a(8)
adaadak k ï p4.ap¥dpaõ—è
ada 6.w daada ada
w.wp.apda k w.wp.p w.wp.apda w
ww ww w ww w ww w ww ww
When, ê = 0, ±2… …, ±4, … ….¥Ÿt- 6 4 ¥p and
ê = ±…, t±3…
. ni e
. ntet . ni e
. nte …, ±5… … ….¥ŸÛ.ni= e
. n
0t
te t
.ani.entethe .ani.ente
t
l a i
l a Thus the
l ail phase
a se dif
difference between
l a i
l a the two waves decides
l a i
ldes t intensity l a i
l
sas adsaas saas sas sas
.
w p.apdaada of light
.
w at
p.apda
the point, where the.wpapdaad
two
. waves meet. .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada
w ww ww
w ww
w ww w ww w ww
w
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
l asla l l l
p
w.w
a
.pda p.apdad
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XII STD. PHYSICS
t t t t ntet
i.ente IN PHYSICS
UVANNAMALAI . t t
RAJE M, l a
M.Sc.,
TEACHER
Obtain w
n forwPath difference and bandwidth ww in Young w
oung’swdouble ww
slit experiment.
etet
ail.ani.n Path difference (ij.en)te: t
ail.an
etet
ail.ani.n
etet
ail.ani.n
etet
ail.ani.n
ada a
Let addistance bet
betweenp.apdSad,‹?S
a ada ada
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w.w a 1 2
ww ww = ?, Distance e of w t w screen from
the ww ww ww
double slit = D, Wavelen
velength of coherent
.ani.ente light wave= • lail.ani.ente
t t t t t
l a i
l l ail.ani.ente l ail.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas path sas sas sas sas
.
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaadadifference
ce between
be
.
w p.apdthe
aada light .wpapdaada
. .
w p.apdaada
ww from S1,‹?S2to wthe
w wavesw t ww point ‘P’ is w w w
ww ww ww ww
Y 6 0k • & 07 • 6 èk • & F•
t t 6 0k F t t t t t t t t
il.ani.ene il.ani.ene il.ani.ene il.ani.ene il.ani.ene
a
adsas
l a From a l
adsathe
a
s figure,∠ ∠)ç• 6 ∠d0akds0a7sF 6 -
a l a a
adsas
l a a
adsas
l a
.wp.apda .wp.apda .wp.apao .wp.apda .wp.apda
ww In ∆0k 07 F , 0é‹ - 6 wwã ã 6 h ; ∴ Y 6 0é‹ -.w?w
w w Úwn w w w
ww ww ww
Here - is small. Hence, 0é‹ - J ¬,‹ - J -
ll. He
t t Yla6 t t t t t t t
l ail.ani.ene n-.
il.ai e
. n e
?……
……………. (1) lail.ani.ente l a il.ani.ene l a il.ani.ene
a s aa sa
dsaa6 a a
.wp.apda
adsa
.p daadsains ∆)ç• , - J tan -.p6
Also.
a
. p a
. p
ëì
daa .wp.apda
adsa s
.wp.apda
adsa s
w ww w w ëj @ w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
uation (1) Y 6
Put this in equation @
?--------------- (2)
t Point ‘P’ may be
t ap
appear either bright ort dark depending on thet etet
.ani.ente .ani.ente .ani.ente .ani.ente ail.ani.n
Padasalai.Net
l a i
l l ail l a i
l l a i
l l
s
ada as path difference.
s
ada as s
ada as s
ada as s
ada as
w.wp.apda w .wp.apda for brightt fring
Condition fringew .wp.apda
(maxima): w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
For constructive ive int
interference, the path difference will be,
t Y 6 ‹• t [‹ 6 0, 1, 2, … a ;n.e@nte?t 6 ‹• t t
l.ani.ente th l a i
l .ai l ail.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas Thus as distance
daadsathe ance o saas fringe from “O” disadsaas
of the ndaadbright sas
apdaada a .p.ap a a apdaada
w .
wp. w.wp.p @
h 6 h ‹•---- w w (3)
--------------- w.wp.p w.wp. w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
Condition for dark fringe (minima):
t t t t interference, the path t t t t t t
a la il.ani.ene For destructive
a l a il.ani.enee inte a la il.ani.enedifference will be,a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsas adsas asas ˆs s adsas
.p.apda Y 6 r2‹ & 1 pda1d, 2, … a ; @ ? 6 r2‹ &
ˆ
.wp.apda 1u k [‹ 6
.p.a apdaakda
.p.1u .wp.apda
w ww ww ww w w
ww ww wthw ww @ ww ww
Thus the distance off the n dark fringe from “O” is h 6 r2‹ & 1u
ˆ
------ (4)
h k
t t Band width (k) :.ni.entet t t t t t t
l a il.ani.ene l a ila la il.ani.ene l a il.ani.ene l a il.ani.ene
a
adsa s The band
a
adsas width
idth is defined a
asa s as the distance a
asa s
between een any two a
asa s
w.wp.apda w .wp.apda brightt or d
consecutive w
dark .apdad
.wpfringes. The distance
w .apdad
.wpbetween (n+1) th
and
w p.apdad
.nth
w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
inges from ‘O’ isd 6 h
consecutive bright fringes v7 &h
@ @ @
t d 6 ehnte rr‹t Y 1u• & ‹• ; d 6 ete•t ----------- (5) etet etet
l a i
l .ani.ente la i
l.ani. h
l ail.ani.nh th lail.ani.n l ail.ani.n
s
ada as s
Similarly as
ada the distan distance between s as th
ada (n+1) and n Consecutive s
ada as dark fringes s
ada as
ww ‘O’ is d 6 h v7 & h ww
w fromw w w w w
ww ww ww ww
@ @
d6 ^2r‹ Y 1u & 1a & r2‹ & 1u
ˆ ˆ
h k h k
t t tet t t
l a i
l .ani.ente gl a6
il a .nil.ente
m -------
----------- (6) l a i
l.ani e
. n
l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas sas saas sas sas
.
w p.apdaada .
wp apdaada (5) and (6
.
Equation (6) . p
shows
w apdaadthat
. the bright and.
w p.apdaadafringes
dark ges are
ar of .
same
w p.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
width equally spaced
d on either
e side of central bright fringe.
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
l asla l l l
p
w.w
a
.pda p.apdad
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XII STD. PHYSICS
t t t t ntet
i.ente IN PHYSICS
UVANNAMALAI . t t
RAJE M, l a
M.Sc.,
TEACHER
ww 28. ww the equations
Obtain wwconstructive and destructive
ns for ww interferencference w w
for ww
transmitted and reflecte
flected waves in thin films.
etet t
.ani.entefilms etet etet etet
s asl ail.ani.n Interference s a
inailthin
sl
films:
ada ada
Consider a thin film p.aof a
adtransparent ada ada
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w.w pda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww
material of refractive ww “™” and thickness ww
e inde
index ww ww
“t”. A parallel beam of lig
light is incident on the
t t t t t
l a i
l .ani.ente film at an angle l a
‘é’
i
l .ani.ente
sas sas surface,
At daaupper rface, the light sas sas sas
.
w p.apdaada .
w p.ap da .wp.apdaada wave is .
w papdaada
. .
w p.apdaada
w w in to two parts.
divided arts. wOww part is reflected www
One w w
ww ww ww ww
and other part is refracted racted.
t t Interference due e tot trans
transmitted
t light: etet t t t t
l a il.ani.ene l ail.ani.ne l a il.ani.n l a il.ani.ene l a il.ani.ene
a
adsas If we adsaapproximate
as imate the incidence adsas to be nearly normal
a adsas (é = 0),
a 0) then the adsas a
w .wp.apda pointsw .apdaand
.wp‘B’ ‘D’ are e very .wp.apdato each other. Thewextra
close
w .wp.apda distance nce travelled
tr .apda
w.wpby w
the wave transmitted d at ‘D‘D’ is (BC +CD). Hence the path difference nce between
be the
t t waves transmitted from om ‘B‘B’ and ‘D’ is
il.ani.ene entet entet t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
a sl a Y = ™s(+ç asl a i
l .
a+ ç5) = ™ (? + ?) saslail.ani.
n i .
a sl a a sl a
adsa ada aa adsa adsa
w.wp.apda w .wpj.ap=da Ý − − − (1)w.w p.apdad w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww
(1) The condition for cons
ww ww
constructive interference in transmitted ray is, Y = ‹•
ww ww
(—@) Ý = m − − − (2)
etet tet .ni.ente
t
.ni.ente
t
.ni.ente
t
aslailaitted ray is, j aslaila
e
ail.ani.n n . n
Padasalai.Net
(2) The condition . i
s asl aslaila n for destructive aslailainterference in transmitted
ada daadsa ˆ dadsa dadsa daadsa
.wp.apda 2 wwÝw = r2‹ & 1u k ……………..(3)
ˆ
.p a
w w ‹ & 1u k(—@)
.
=r p .p.apa .p.apa . p.ap
ww
w
ww ww ww w ww ww
ww
ww
w
Interference due to refle reflected light:
t When light e travellin
velling
t in a rarer medium and getting reflected cted by
b a denser
ail.ani.ente medium, undergoes a i
l.ani.ntea pha a i
l .
a ni.entet ail.ani.entet a i
l .
a ni.entet
sasl sasl phase change sasof….
l sasl sasl
.
wp.apdaada .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada ˆ .
w w w w w w
ww ww Hence an addition ditional
ww path difference of k is introduced.
ww ww ww
Again for normal incidenc
idence (é = 0), the points ‘A’ and ‘C’ are very
ry clo
close to each
t t t ntet coming out from t t t
la il.ani.ene other. The extra l a il.adistance
ni.enteance travelled by the
la
wave
il.ani.e l a il.an‘C’
i.ente l a il.ani.ene
a
adsas is (*+ + +ç) a
asa.sHence the path p a
asas between the waves
difference a
asasreflecte a
flected at ‘A’ anddaadsas
.wp.apda p.apdad p.apdad p.apdad a
w.wp.p
ww
w ‘C’
wwisY = ™ (*+ + +ç) = ™ w
w .
w w.
(?w+ ?) = 2 ™?
w
ww
w .
w
ww ww
w
ˆ
Since additional
nal path
pa difference k
is introduceddue to reflectio
flection at A, the
t t t t t t t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene total path difference,
a l a il.ani.ene= Ý + ˆ……………..(4) a la il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s s s k adsa s asa s adsa s
.wp.apda aada condition
.wp1).apdThe ion for .wp.apda
constructive interference .apdad
.wpreflected
in ray is Y = ‹• .wp.apda
w w w w w w
ww ww ww wˆw ww ww
(or) Ý + k = (or) Ý = r2‹ & 1u k ……………..(5)
ˆ
..(5)
etet 2) The condition
.ni.ention
et for destructive interference
.ni.ente
t in reflected ray
.ni.entis,
et etet
l ail.ani.n laila aslaˆ ila laila l ail.ani.n
s
ada as adsaasj =r2‹ Y 1u
1
ˆ
(or) Ý adsa+ 6 r2‹ Y 1u
ˆ
(or) adsaas s
ada as
w.wp.apda a
w.wp.p
da k a
w.wp.p
da k k .w
w
a
p.p d
a
w.wp.apda w
ww ww Ý = ‹•…… ww
………………(6) ww ww ww
Equation (5) and (6
(6) shows that the bright and darkfringes
ges are
ar of same
t t e t t t
l a i
l .ani.ente width equally spaced
l ail.ani.entde on either l i
l.ani.ente bright fringe lail.ani.ente
side of acentral
l a i
l .ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
.
w p.apdaada .
wp.apdaada .
w papdaada
. .wp.apdaada .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
l asla l l l
p
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a
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w
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t t .ni.ente
t
.ni.ente
t
.ni.ente IN PHYSICS
ww ww ww
UNIT - VIII (DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER) ww ww ww
TWO MARKS AND THREE MARKS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
l ni.entet
ail.a1. Define surfaceailbarrier.
l .ani.ente
t
l ail.ani.n
etet
l ail.ani.n
etet
l ail.ani.n
etet
s
ada as s
a as s as
adaprevents free electrons s as
ada from leaving the s
ada as
Theadpotential barrier which
ww ww
metallic surface is calledwsurface w barrier. It is created ww by the positive nuclei ww of ww
the metal.
l a i
l ni.entet
.a2. Define work function
l a il
t
.ani.ente of a metal. Give l a il .aits
t
ni.enteunit. l a il.ani.ente
t
l a il.ani.ente
t
sas The sas
minimum energy needed sasfor an electron to descape sas from the metaldadsaas
apdaada apdaada apdaada apaada aa
w .
w p. .wp .
w is called work function
surface w of that metal. It wiswdenoted by ϕp . Its w
.wp. .wp . w.wp.p w
ww ww ww w w unit is ww
electron volt (eV).
3. t t Define electron volt t t(eV) t tet t t
l a il.ani.ene l a il.ani.enevolt is defined as l a .ani.ente
ilthe l a il.ani.enby l a il.ani.ene
a
adsas Oneaselectron
a a kinetic energy gained
a a electron a
das daadsas asas
.apdad1.602 x 10-19J w.wp.apdad
asas
w .wp.apda when w .wp.apda
accelerated by a w .wp.apdifference
potential of 1 volt.w 1.wpeV= w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
4. What is photo electric effect?
t t The ejection toft electrons from a metal plate when illuminated by light or
il.ani.ene i . ni ene
. i . ni entet
. i . ni entet
. t t
il.ani.ene
a sl a any other electromagnetic
asl a l a radiation asl of
a l a suitable wavelength asl a l aor frequency is asl a
adsa asa daadsa electrons are.pcalled asa adsa
w.wp.apda called
w .wp.apdad electric effect. The
photo w .wp.apejected w w .apdad as photo electrons w .wp.apda w
ww wwthe corresponding current
and ww is called photo electric ww current. ww ww
5. How does photo electric current vary with the intensity of the incident
Padasalai.Net
l light? l l l l
s
ada as s a
a a the frequency (aqdaa)dand
s s as
a acceleration potential s as
ada (V) as constant, s
ada as
w.wp.apda w .apdad
.wpKeeping w .wp.p w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww wwintensity of incident wlight
the w is varied and thewwcorresponding photo welectric w ww
current is measured. A graph is drawn between intensity along X-axis and the
t t t t t
l ail.ani.ente photo current along
l a il.ani.enteY-axis. l a il .ani.ente l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente
.
wp.apdaada .wp .apdaadathe graph, the photo
From
.wp.
current
apdaad (i.e) the number
.wp .apdaadaof electrons emitted . wp.apdaada
w per w w wwincident light. w w
ww wwsecond is directly proportional ww to the intensitywof ww ww
6. Define stopping potential.
t t The negative t t or retarding potential t t given to collecting t t electrode t t
adsas which is d justs ssufficient to stop the smost
s energetic photoelectrons ss emitted anddadsas
.wp.apda apaada apdaada apdaada aa
make .wp . .wp. .wp . w.wp.p
ww the photo current zero ww is called stopping potential or cut - off potential.
w w w w w
ww ww ww ww
7. Define threshold frequency.
t t For a giver esurface, the emission e oftephoto electrons takes enteplace only if
a il.ani.ene a il.ani . ntet a il .ani . n t a il.ani . t
a
t t
il.ani.ene
a
adsa sl the frequency asa asl of incident light is greater
adsaasl than a certain minimum
adsaasl frequency adsaasl
w.wp.apda called
w .wp.apdad
threshold frequency. w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
8. What is photo electric cell? Give its type.
The device which converts light energy into electrical energy is called
s asl ail.ani.n photo electricascell
s l . ni . n
aila or simply photo cell. s asl aila . ni . n
s aslaila . ni . n
s asl ail.ani.n
ada aa aada ada ada
w.wp.apda It works
w pdadthe principle of photo
.wp.aon w .wp.apdelectric cell w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww cells are classifiedwinwto three types.
Photo ww ww ww
(1) Photo emissive cell (2)Photo voltaic cell(3) Photo conductive cell
t t t t t
l a i
l.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
.
w p.apdaada .
wp.apdaada .
w papdaada
. .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
l asla l l l
p
w.w
a
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. pda p
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a p
w.w.apda
w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t ntet
ww 9. ww is De Broglie hypothesis?
What ww ww ww ww
Due to the symmetry in nature, de Broglie suggested that if radiation like
etet i.ente
t entet .ani.ente
t etet
s asl ail.ani.n light can actsasas l ail.anparticles at times, then
s asl ail.ani.matter particles likeailelectrons
s asl
should
s asl ail.ani.n
ada also act adawaves at times. According
as ada to de Broglie ada
hypothesis, all matter ada
ww ww
particles ww
like electrons, protons, neutrons in motion ww are associated withwwaves. w ww
These waves are called de Broglie waves or matter waves.
l a i
l ni.entet Derive the expression
.a10. l a i
l
t
.ani.ente of de Broglielawavelength.
i
l .ani.ente
t
l ail.ani.ente
t
l a i
l .ani.ente
t
sas De Broglie as
swavelength: sas sas sas
apdaada apdaada apdaada apdaada apdaada
of frequency ′r′wis,
w .
w p. w .
w p. .
w p. .wp. .
w p.
ww ww The momentum ofwphoton ww ww ww
w
ww
w
Ž ¯
6 í
6 í
6 ˆ
[c = •ã
t t t Broglie, this equation
.entede t t .entet t t
a l a il.ani.ene According
a l ail.anito a l a il.ani.ene is applicablealatoil.animatter particle
a l a il.ani.ene
adsas also. Let adsasbe the mass and
‘m’ dsasbe the velocity pof
a‘©’ dsas particle, then the
athe adsas
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .w.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww
wavelength. • 6 6 ww ww ww ww
Ÿ¯ y
This wavelength of the matter waves ist known as de Broglie wavelength.
entet entet te
il.ani.enof etet t t
il.ani.ene
a sl ail.ani
11. . Why we do not
a sl a i
l .
ani
see . the wave properties asl a a baseball? aslail.ani.n a sl a
w.wp.apda w .apdadde Broglie wavelength
.wpThe w.wp.apdaof matter is ; • 6w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww Ÿ¯ ww ww
Thus the de Broglie wavelength is inversely proportional to the mass
t Since the mass of base
t ball is too largenas compared
t with the electron, t the de etet
.ani.ente .ani.ente .ai.ente .ani.ente ail.ani.n
Padasalai.Net
a l a i
l Broglie wavelength
a l ail of base ball is l a i
l
negligibly
a small. So we doa l a i
l
not see the wave a l
s
ada s s
daada s s
ada s s
ada s s
ada s
w.wp.apda w .wp.apof
property the baseball. w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
12. A proton and an electron have same kinetic energy. Which one has
ete t greater de Broglie wavelength. t Justify. t t t

ail.ani.n laila .ni.ente laila .ni.enteete
ail.ani.n
ete
ail.ani.n
asaas ; •y 6
l De Broglie l l
s
adaada
as asaas wavelength of proton
adad adad 2k Ÿ[ s adaada
s as s
adaada
as
w w De Broglie wavelength of electron;•• 6 k Ÿ s
w w w ww
2 B
Here the mass of the proton is greater thant the mass of the electron
entet entet enet t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
a la i
l.ani.
a l a i
l .
a ni . rÅ y >
a lÅ
a i
l .
a
•
n
ui .
a l a a l a
w .wp.apda Hence
w .apdadde Broglie wavelength
.wpthe w .wp.apda of electron is w .wp.apda than that of proton
greater w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
r•• > •y u
13.t t List the propertiest of X - rays.
i .
an i ene
. i .
an i enet
. t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
a sl a l Properties of
aslXa l - rays: a sla asl a a sl a
adsa adsa asa asa adsa
w.wp.apda .wp.apda in straight line with
Theywtravel w .apdadvelocity of light w.wp.apdad
.wpthe w .wp.apda w
ww ww are not deflected both
They ww by electric and magnetic ww field ww ww
X - ray photons are highly energetic
e ntet entet t
.ani.ente to visible light.lail.ani.ente
t etet
a laila . ni . They pass through
a lail.ani. materials which are lailopaque
a a a l ail.ani.n
. p.apdaadsas . p.apdaadsas . p.apdaadsas . p.apdaadsas .wp.apda
s
ada s
ww ww ww ww w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t
l a i
l.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
.
w p.apdaada .
wp.apdaada .
w papdaada
. .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
l asla l l l
p
w.w
a
.pda p.apdad
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w.w
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w.w.apda
w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
XII STD. PHYSICS
t t t t ntet
i.ente IN PHYSICS
UVANNAMALAI . t t
RAJE M, l a
M.Sc.,
TEACHER
ww 14. ww a note on characte
Write ww
racteristic X - ray spectra.ww ww ww
When the target
rget is hit by fast electrons, the obtained X - ray spectra
etet t
etepeaks etet etet etet
s asl ail.ani.n shows somesanarrow sl ail.ani.n peak at some well-
ada definedp.a ada
wavelength. ada ada ada
w .wp.apda w .w pda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww The line spectrum ctrumww
showing these ww ww ww
peaks is called characte
aracteristic X - ray
t .enteyt spe t t t
l a i
l .ani.ente spectrum. ThislaX i
l.ani-ray spectrum is due to
l .ani.ente
sas the electronic sas transitio
nsitions within sas the sas sas
.
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada .
. .
w p.apdaada
w w
atoms. w w w w
ww ww For example,, whe when
ww an energetic ww ww ww
electron penetrates in to the target atom
t t and removes the eelectro lectrons in K - shell etet
il.ani.ene ntet il.ani.n
t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
a l a and createaasaavacancylsail.ani. y in itit. a l a a l a a l a
adsas adsas adsas adsas
w .wp.apda w .apdad wavelengths
.wpSuch ngths, .wp.apda
characteristic
ww ww ww ww ww ww
of the target, constitute ute the line spectrum.
It is evident that K - serie series of lines in the t
t t entet t t t t t
a l ail.ani.ene X - ray spectrum a l a il.ani . aris
arise due toa l a il.ani.ene
the a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s adsa s asa s adsa s adsa s
w.wp.apda .wp.apdatransitionss from wL,.wp.aM.
electronic
w pdadN, O, w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww
…..shells to K - shell. ww ww ww ww
Similarly L - series originates due
etet etet il.ani.ene
t t etet etet
ail.ani.n to electronic ltransition ail.ani.nition ffrom M, sN, aO, ail.ani.n ail.ani.n
Padasalai.Net
s asl s as a sl s asl s asl
ada aa ada ada ada
w.wp.apda ……….pshells
w w .apdad to L - shell. hell.
ww 15. ww
Explain the applications tions wwof X -rays. ww ww ww
(1) Medical diagnosis nosis:
t nt pas et ni.entet t
l ail.ani.ente X - Raysi.ncan
l a l a i.ente pass through flesh
l a il.ani.entmore easily than ithroug
l a l.ahrough bones.
l a il.ani.ente
sas Thus X ap a
daadsasradiograph
-ray raph ccontaining sas adsaasbones sas
.
wp.apdaada .wp . .wp.apdaadaa deep shadow.wpof.apdathe nes a and a light
.wp.apdaada
w shadoww of flesh. So X -ra rays w w ww w
ww ww ww radiographs are used wwto detect fracture ctures, wforeign ww
bodies, diseased organs rgans etc.,
t t (2) Medical therapy: t
tapy: t t t t t t
la il.ani.ene l a il.ani.ene l a il.ani.ene l a il.ani.ene l a il.ani.ene
a
adsas X d - ray
s s can kill dis
a diseaseddtissues. a
ss So they are employed s s ed to cure skindadsas
a a
.wp.apda apaada apaada apdaada aa
w w .
diseases,wp . malignantt tum tumoursw .wp. etc., w .wp. w.wp.p w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
(3) Industry:
They are used
t t
il.ani.ene i .ani entedt to check for flaws
. i .ani enin
. tetwelded joints, motor
i .a
tor tetyres,
ni en tyt
.
tennis t t
il.ani.ene
a sl a balls and swood, as l a l At t the custom a sla
post, l they are used asl a
for l r detection
det of a sl a
w.wp.apda w .wp.apda goods.
contraband w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
(4) Scientific Researc search:
X - ray diffraction tion is important tool to study the structure of the crystalline
etet e tet .ni.ente
t
.ani.ente
t
.ni.ente
t
asl ail.ani.n materials (i.e)althe . ni . n
aila arrange rangement of atoms alaila and molecules inalcrystals ailystals. alaila
.wp.apda
s
ada
. p.apdaadsas . p.apdaadsas . p.apdaadsas . p.apdaadsas
w ww ww ww ww w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t
l a i
l.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
.
w p.apdaada .
wp.apdaada .
w papdaada
. .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
l asla l l l
p
w.w
a
.pda p.apdad
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w.w
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w.w.apda
w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t ntet
i.ente IN PHYSICS
UVANNAMALAI . t t
e
il.ani.en RAJENDRAN
RAJE M, a l a
TEACHER
ww ww FIVE MARK ww
ARKS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ww ww ww
16. What do you mean by el electron emission? Explain briefly various arious methods
etet e te t e te t etet etet
s asl ail.ani.n of electron emission.
s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada a
Theadliberation n of electrons
e a
adfrom any surface pof adasubstance stance is called ada
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .w.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww
electron emission. The ww
he minimum
m energy needed wwto liberate the electrons elec ww from ww
the metal surface iss calle called work function of that metal. Depending nding upon the
t energy source, .the t
ni.enteelect
electron emission .nis t t t
l a i
l .ani.ente l a il a l a il a i.enteclassified as fourlaitypes l.ani.ente which are l a il.ani.ente
sas explaineddabelow. sas sas sas sas
.
w p.apdaada .wp .ap ada .wp.apdaada .wp .apdaada .wp .apdaada
w (1) w w w w w
ww ww Thermionic emiss mission:
ww ww ww ww
When a metall is he heated to a high temperature, the free electr ectrons on the
t t surface get sufficient t t tenergy
ene in the form of t heat,
t so that they areete emitted
emt from t t
a l a il.ani.ene the metallic a l a il.ani.ene. This type of emission
surface. a l a il.ani.ene is known as thermionic a l a i.n
il.anionic emission. a l a il.ani.ene
adsas adsas aada
ss daadsas asas
w .wp.apda Theww .wp.apda of the therm
intensity thermionic
w .wp.apdemission depends w .wp.apthe
on metal tal used
us and
w .apdad
.wpits w
ww w ww ww ww ww
temperature.(e.g.) electron lectron microscopes, X-ray tubes
(2) Field emission:
t t t t tet t
i.ente this strong t t
a l ail.ani.ene Whensaa l il.ani.enestrong electric field
avery a l a il.ani.enapplied
is across the
a l a il.anetal,
metal, a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s ada s adsa s asa s asa s
w.wp.apda .wp.apdathe free electro
field wpulls lectronswand .wp.apdahelps to overcome w .apdadsurface
.wpthe ce ba barrier ofw.the
wp.apdad w
ww ww This type of emis
metal. ww of electron is called
emission ww field emission. ion. ((e.g.) wwField ww
emission display
etet etet em etet etet etet
ail.ani.n ail.ani.n emission: ail.ani.n ail.ani.n ail.ani.n
Padasalai.Net
l (3) Photo electric
l l l l
s
ada as aas as adas as s as
a a y is iincident on s
ada as
w.wp.apda w .apdad an electrom
.wpWhen ctromagnetic
w .wp.apdaradiation of suitable w pdad
.wp.afrequency w .wp.apda w
ww wwsurface of the metal,wwthe energy is transferred
the ww from the radiation radiat wto w free ww
electrons. Hence the e free electrons gets sufficient energy to cross ross tthe surface
t t t t t
l ail.ani.ente barrier and this type
l a il.ani.en teis cal
called photo electric
l a il.ani.e nteemission.
sas (e.g.) photo saas daadsas
a sas sas
.
wp.apdaada .wp .apdaadelectric cells, photoap
.wp.
diodes
.wp .apdaada .wp .apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww Secondary emissi
(4) ww
mission: ww ww ww
When a beam of fast fa moving electrons strikes the surface ce of the metal,
t t the kinetic energy tist transferred
tran to then.efree t t electrons on the e metal
met
t t surface t t
a la il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ai ne a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsas called secondary s s emission ission.(e.g.) dPhoto s s multiplier tube. dadsas ss
.wp.apda .wp .apdaada .wp.apaada .wp .apa .wp .apdaada
w 17. w
Explain the experimenta ental w w w w
ww ww wwset up for study of photo ww electric effect ww ww
Experiment for study dy of photo electric effect:
S is the e tesource
t t
. i .ani entet
. i .ani en so
. t of t t
il.ani.ene
a sl a asl a l asl a l electromagnetic asl a letic wave of asl a
adsa adsa adsa adsa asa
w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda .wp.apda ‘r’ and iintensity
frequency
w w .apdad
.wp‘I’. w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
C is the cathode ode made m up of
photo sensitive ive material
m and
s asl ail.ani.n s asl aila. ni . n
s asl aila. ni . n is used to
s asl .
aemit ni . n
ilamit electrons.
el A
s asl ail.ani.n
ada ada ada ada ada
w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda isw.w p.apdaanode
the e whicwhich collects
w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww wwthe emitted electrons electr w A and
w ww
C are placed laced in an
t t t ntet -light and t
l a i
l .ani.ente evacuated glass l a il
e te
.anienvelop
. elope with a quartz
n
l a il
e te
.ani. window that permits
n
l a il.ani.eUV l a il.ani.ente
sas sas sas saas ected through adadsaas
apdaada apdaadaPQ is a poten
visible.plight. apdaadaarrangement which
potential .divider apdaisadconnected aa
w .
w p. w w . w wp. w .wp . w.wp.p w
ww wwK and battery B.
key ww ww ww ww
The voltmeterr ‘V’ and a micro ammeter ‘™A’ also included d in th this circuit.If
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
l asla l l l
p
w.w
a
.pda p.apdad
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w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
XII STD. PHYSICS
t t t t ntet
i.ente IN PHYSICS
UVANNAMALAI . t t
RAJE M, l a
M.Sc.,
TEACHER
ww ww is no light incident
there ent wow the cathode C, no photoelectrons
on ww are e ww and
emitted ww
the micro ammeter reads zero. When UV - light or visible light is allowed
allo to fall
etet t
i.entectrons are emitted ni.entetare attracted towards t
ni.entea etet
s asl ail.ani.n on C, the photo s asl ail.anelectrons s asl ail.aand s asl ail.ards anode.As a
s asl ail.ani.n
ada da electric
the aphoto
result, p ctric ccurrent a up in the circuit which
isadset ada is measured
meas using ada
ww ww ammeter.
micro ww ww ww ww
The photo electric current curre depends following quantities,
t (1) The et t t t
l a i
l .ani.ente l a il.aniintensity
.enttensity of incident light
sas (2)daadsaasThe potentia tential difference sasbetween the electrodes sas sas
.
w p.apdaada .wp .ap .wp .apdaada .wp apdaada
. .wp.apdaada
w w w material w w w
ww ww (3) The nature ture w of
owthe ww ww ww
(4) Frequency ncy of incident light
18.t t Explain the effecteof teft pot
potential difference t on
t photo electric curren urrent.
t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene Effect of potential a l a il.ani.ndiffere
difference on a l a il.ani.ene
photoelectric current: a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
w .wp.apda w .apdathe
.wpLet frequency ncy a
and w .wp.apda
intensity of the incident
w .wp.apdaare kept
light ept co
constant. w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
Now, the potential of A is increased and the
t t corresponding photocuotocurrent is noted.
. i .
t
ni.enteis il.ani.ene
t t t t
il.ani.ene
a sl a Similarly, asanegativesl a l a e (re
(retarding) potential
asl a l a asl a asl a
adsa daadAa and again asa adsa adsa
w.wp.apda applied
w .wp.apto gain the w .apdad
.wpphotocurrent is w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww Plot a graph by tak
noted. ww anode potential ww
taking ww ww
along x -axis and photo oto cu current along y - axis
ail.ani.n From the graph, n . n ail.ani.n ail.ani.n ail.ani.n
Padasalai.Net
l l aila. i l l l
s
ada as s
ada as s
ada as s
ada as s
ada as
.wp.apda (1) When.wp.apdathe potential tial o .wp.apda
of A increases, the .wp.apda .wp.apda
w w w w w w
ww ww current also incre
photo ww
increases and ww ww ww
reaches a saturation value called
n val
t t t t t
l ail.ani.ente saturation current.
sas (2)Whenapd saas
aaadnegative poten
potential is aapplied a
daadsas to A, the photo
a
daadsas does n sas
.
wp.apdaada .wp . .wp . p .wp acurrent
. p not
.wp.apdaada
w w
immediately drop to zero,wbecause ww the photo electrons w are emitted ted witywi www w
ww ww ww ww
some definite and differen ifferent kinetic energies.
t t (3)If the negativenor t retard
retarding
t potential ofnA t gradually
t increased,,nthe t tp
photo t t
a la il.ani.ene a l a il.ai.ene a l a il.ai.ene a l a il.ai.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsas current starts s sdecreasing sing anda becomes s s zero at one particular s s negativ
egative ss
.wp.apda . p .apdaada . p .apdaada . p apdaada
. . p.apdaada
ww
w potential
ww
w w ˜p ww
w w
ww
w w
ww
w w
ww
w
(4)The value of negative ative o or retarding potential give to anode A which is just
t t sufficient to stop thetemost energetic photo electrons emitted and d make
mak
il.ani.ene i .ani en t
. i .ani entet
. i .ani .entet t t
il.ani.ene
a sl a the photo current asl a l zero ro is called
c stoppingasla l potential or cut - off
a a l
potentia
sl tential a sl a
w.wp.apda (˜pw
) w.w p.apdad w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww w ww ww ww ww
(5)Here the initial kinetic etic e energy of the fastest electron (0 is equal al to the t
k 7
opping potential to stopteit.t (i.e.)®˜p 6 k Å˜Ÿt-
work done by the stopping
etet n.entet n.en n.entet etet
s asl ail.ani.n s
.i
aslaila k • ¯; s
.i
a5slaila s
.i
aslaila s asl ail.ani.n
ada 6 ' Ÿ = 5.93 axda10 2˜p
adaã
d a a
d a ad a ada
w.wp.apda (or)
w.wp.p Ÿt- w.wp.p
ada
w.wp.p w.wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t
l a i
l.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
.
w p.apdaada .
wp.apdaada .
w papdaada
. .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
l asla l l l
p
w.w
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XII STD. PHYSICS
t t t t ntet
i.ente IN PHYSICS
UVANNAMALAI . t t
RAJE M, l a
M.Sc.,
TEACHER
ww 19. ww out the laws off phot
List ww
photoelectric effect. ww ww ww
Laws of photoelectric effect:
ef
etet For a given t
etefreque etet .entet etet
s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n frequency of incident
s asl ail.ani.nlight, the number s asl aofilf.aniphotoelectrons
phot
s asl ail.ani.n
ada emittedp.apis a
addirectly proportional
propo da the intensity ofp.apthe
ato adaincident ident light. The ada
w .wp.apda w .w da w .wp.apda w .w da w .wp.apda w
ww ww
saturation current is alsoww directly proportionalww to the intensity sity of ww
o incident ww
light.
t Maximum.nikinetic et
.entnetic energy of the tet ni.entet t
l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l a l ail.ani.enphoto electrons is .indep
l ail
independent
a
of
l a i
l .ani.ente
sas intensity d as incident
of sthe dent lilight. Maximum sas kinetic energy dof sathe
s photo electronsdadsaas
apdaada apaada apdaada apaada aa
w .
w p. from w .
w p. w .
w p. w .
w p. w.wp.p w
ww ww a given metall is directly ww proportional to wwthe frequency cy o of incident
ww ww
light.
t t For a givenesurface urface, the emission eoftephoto electrons takes s pl
place only if
a il.ani.ene the frequency a ntet
il.ani.incident a
t
il.ani.n than a certain minimum a .ani.ente
ilimum
t
a
t t
il.ani.ene
a l a l of cident light is l
greater
a a l frequency a l
adsas asas adsas adsas asas
w .wp.apda called
w .apdadthreshold
.wpthe d freq .wp.apda There is no timew.w
frequency.
w p.apdabetween
lag en incidence
in w .apdad
.wpof w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
light and ejection of p photoelectrons. (i.e.) photo electricc effect effe is an
instantaneous process
l a ni.entet
il.a20. Obtain Einstein’s l a
tet
il.ani.enphotoe
hotoelectric equation l a
t t
il.ani.enewith necessaryaexplana l a ni.entet
il.aplanation. l a
t t
il.ani.ene
a
adsa s a
adsa s adsaas asa s a
adsa s
w.wp.apda w .wp.apda explanation
Einstein’s tion o .wp.apda
of photoelectric
w equation:w.w p.apdad w .wp.apda w
ww ww When a photon of energy ‘ℎr ’ is incident
w ww on a metal surface, w ww
ton wo sur w it is
completely absorbed d by a single electron and the electron is ejected. cted.
etet e tet e tet etet etet
ail.ani.n In this lprocess, n .n ss, th
the energy of incident
n . n photon is ailani.nin two ways. saslail.ani.n
utilized ed
Padasalai.Net
l aila. i l aila. i l .
s
ada as aas as s as s as
.wp.apda .apdad Part off the p
.wp(1) photon daada is used for the
.wp.apenergy daada
.wp.apejection of the electrons.wp.apda
ada
w w w w w w
ww ww the metal surface
from anwwit is called work function
ce and ww (êp ) ww ww
(2) Remaining ning energy as the kinetic energy (K) of th the ejected
t t t t t
l ail.ani.ente electron.
l a il.ani.e nte
l a il.ani.en te
l ai l.ani.ente
l a il.ani.ente
apdaadaof energy,ℎ˜ 6 êpapYdaau
sas sas sas dsaa(or)
s sas
p apdaada apdaadathe law of con
From conservation apdaada
.
w . w.wp. w.wp. w.wp. w.wp.
ℎ˜ 6 êp Y w
w 7
w wk ……………….. (1)ww w w
ww ww Å˜ ww ww
k
Where m →mass of the electron and υ → velocity
ass o
t t t t t t .ani.ente
t t t
a la il.ani.ene At threshold
a l a il.ani.enefreq
frequency, the kinetic
a la il.ani.eneenergy of ejected a l a ilelectrons
electro will be
a l a il.ani.ene
adsas adsas = ˜ then u = a0daThus adsas equation (1) becomes adsas adsas
zero. (i.e.)when˜ p
w.wp.p w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ℎ˜p 6 êp …………… ww
………….(2) ww ww ww
Put equation (2) in (1)ℎ˜ 6 ℎ˜p Y k Å˜ k ……………….. (3)
7
t t t t t t t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene The equation
a l a il.ani.ene(3) is known as aEinstein’s
la il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
w.wp.apda w .wp.apda equation.
photoelectric w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww 7 ww ww ww
Kmax. Thenℎ˜ 6 ℎ˜p Y Ck Å˜ D k
Ÿt-
ni.n 6 ℎ˜ & ℎ˜p (or) lau

t 7 k etet t
.ani.ente (or) k Å˜i.a i.ente6 etet etet
asl a i
l aslal Ÿt- as
il.anŸt- aslail.ani.n asl ail.ani.n
ℎ˜ & ê
s
ada s
aa s
aa s
ada s
ada
w.wp.apda w pdad
.wpp.a……………….. ….. (4 p.apdad
(4) .w
ww ww A graph between tweenww maximum kinetic ww ww ww
energy Kmax of the photoelectron and
t t t t t
l a i
l .ani.ente frequency ν oflailthe
.ani.enteincident
incide
l l.ani.ente
light is a astraight
i l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas a
line. p.apdaadsas sas sas sas
.
w p.apdaada .
w .wpapdaada
. .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
l asla l l l
p
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a
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w.w.apda
w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t ntet
ww 21. ww
Explain photo electric cells ww and its types. ww ww ww
Photo electric cell:
etet Photo electric etet etet etet etet
s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n cell or photo cell s asl aisil.anai.ndevice which converts
s asl ail.ani.nlight energy saslail.ani.n
ada ada energy. It works
into electrical a the principle ofadaphoto
adon ada electric effect. ada
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w.wp.apda w .wp.p w .wp.apda w
ww ww light is incident onwthe
When w photosensitive materials, ww ww
their electric properties ww
will get affected, based on which photo cells are classified into three types.
t t t t t
l a i
l .ani.ente They are l a i
l .ani.ente
sas (1)daadsaasPhoto emissive celldaadsaas sas sas
apdaada a a apdaada apdaada
w .
w p. w .p
.wp w.wp.p w.wp. w .
w p. w
ww ww (2) Photo voltaic wwcell ww ww ww
(3) Photo conductive cell
t t (1) Photo emissive t cell: t
a il.ani.ene a i.ente
il.anworking a i.ente
il.anthe a ntet
il.ani.efrom a
t t
il.ani.ene
a l a l
Its depends on
a l electron emissiona l a metal a l
adsas asas aada
ss adsas adsas
w .wp.apda w .apdad due to irradiation
.wpcathode w .wp.apdof light or other .wp.apda
radiations.
w w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
(2) Photo voltaic cell:
t t Here tsensitive element made of semiconductor ist used which
. i . ni entet
. i . ni enet
. t t
il.ani.ene
a sl a generates a sl a l a voltage proportional asl a l a to the intensity asl a
of l a light or other asl a
w.wp.apda w .apdad
.wpradiations. w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww Photo conductiveww
(3) cell: ww ww ww
In this, the resistance of the semiconductor changes in
ail.ani.n accordance ail.ani.nwith the radiant energy ail.ani.nincident on it. saslail.ani.n ail.ani.n
Padasalai.Net
ada 22. aada ada ada ada
w.wp.apda w .wp.apdconstruction
Give the .wp.apda of photo emissive
and working
w w .wp.apdacell. w .wp.apda w
ww ww emissive cell: ww
Photo ww ww ww
It consists of an evacuated glass or quartz bulb in which two metallic
t t ntet The t t
l ail.ani.ente electrodes a cathode
l a il.ani.ente and an anode lare a il.ani.efixed. l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente
sas cathodeapdC sas dsaasshape and is p.apdaadsaas sas
.p.apdaada . p . aadais semi- cylindrical . p.apdaain . . p.apdaada
w w w
coated w w w w w w w w
ww ww with a photosensitive ww material. The anode wwA ww ww
is a thin rod or wire kept along the axis of the semi-
t t cylindrical cathode. t t t t t t t t
adsas A potential
ss difference is applied s s between the ss ss
.wp.apda .wp .apdaada .wp.apdaada . wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada
ww
w anode
ww and the cathode through
w
ww
w a galvanometer w G.w w
ww
w
ww
w
Working:
When cathode
t t
il.ani.ene i .ani entet is illuminated, electrons
. i .ani entet are
. il.ani.ene
t t t t
il.ani.ene
a sl a emitted fromsaait. sl a l asl a l asl a asl a
adsa a adsa adsa adsa
w.wp.apda w .apdad electrons are w
.wpThese .wp.apda by anode andw.wp.apda
attracted w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
hence a current is produced which is measured by
the galvanometer. For a given cathode, the
etet i.ente
t etet etet etet
s asl ail.ani.n magnitude ofathe
s sl ail.ancurrent depends on(1)the
s asl ail.ani.n intensity s aslail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada ada daada aa ada
w.wp.apda w .wp.apda radiation and(2)the
to incident w .wp.appotential differencew.w p.apdad w.wp.apda w
ww ww
between anode and cathode. ww ww ww ww
t t t t t
l a i
l.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
.
w p.apdaada .
wp.apdaada .
w papdaada
. .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
l asla l l l
p
w.w
a
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w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
XII STD. PHYSICS
t t t t ntet
i.ente IN PHYSICS
UVANNAMALAI . t t
RAJE M, l a
M.Sc.,
TEACHER
ww 23. ww the application
Give n of w
p w
photo cells. ww ww ww
Applications of photo cells:
ce
etet Photo cells etet etet especially as i.answitches
i.ente
t etet
s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n have many applications
s asl ail.ani.n s asl al swit and
s asl ail.ani.n
ada sensors. ada
Automatic c lights
ligh that da on when it gets
aturn ada use photocells,
dark ada
ww asww
well as street lights ts thawwswitch on and off according
that ww to whether w or
ther it is wnight ww
day.
.ani.ente
t Photo cells .ani.enare
tere
t us
used for reproduction t
.ani.ente of sound in lamotion ni.entet pictures.
.aotion .ani.ente
t
l a i
l l a i
l l ail i
l l a i
l
sas They aredaused sas as timers imers to measure sas the speeds of athletes sas duri
during a race.daadsaas
.
w p.apdaada .
w p.ap ada .
w p.apdaada .
w papdaada
. .wp.ap
w w
Photo ww w me wwwthe w
ww ww cells of exposure surewmeters in photography ww are used to o measure ww
intensity of the given n ligh
light and to calculate the exact time of exposur posure.
24.t t Derive an expression tont for de Broglie wavelength t t of electrons.etet t t
a l a il.ani.ene De Broglie wavelength
a l ail.ani.enegth o of electrons: al a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.n a l a il.ani.ene
adsas adsas ss
aada daadsas ss
apdaada
w .wp.apda w .apdaelectron
.wpAn off mass
mas m
w .wpis.apdaccelerated through
w .wp
a.appotential l diffe
differencew .wp.V
of w
ww ww ww ww 7 k
ww ww
volt. The kinetic energy acquired by the electron is given byk Å˜ 6 ®˜
rgy ac
t t etet etet etet t t
il.ani.ene ; ˜ 6 'asŸ il.ani.ene
.n eed o k•Œ k•Œ
lail.anispeed
Henceasthe of the electron .ani.,n˜ k 6 ni.n
lail.a………(1)
a
adsa sl a
adsa adsaaslailis Ÿ asa
……… a
adsa sl a
.wp.apda .wp.apda .wp.apda adad .wp.apda
w w The de Broglie
ie wav w
wavelength of electron is • 6 w.wp.6p w w
ww w w w w w w
Ÿ¯ B‘
ww ww
Ÿ'
È
etet •6 t
ente…….……(2)
……….… etet etet etet
ail.ani.n la•il.aŒni.
√k Ÿ ail.ani.n ail.ani.n ail.ani.n
Padasalai.Net
s asl s as s asl s asl s asl
ada ada ada ada ada
ww ww Where, h = 6.626 xw
.626 w 10 JS. e = 1.6 x 10 wwC. m = 9.11 x 10-
-34 -19 31
10 kg ww ww
7k.kv \7pw ;
Å
7k.kv
∴ •6 6
√eŒtet √Œ
l ail ni.entet
.a25. l a i
l .n
.aniDavisso l a i
l ni.entet
.aexperiment l ail.ani.ente
t
l a i
l .ani.ente
t
sas Describe briefly
sas avisson – Germer sas which demons
sas monstrated the sas
.
wp.apdaada wave . p.apdaada of electrons
nature
w ctrons. .wp.apdaada .
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
Davisson - Gerner experiment: exper
De Broglie hypot hypothesis of matter
t t entet i.ente
t t t t t
a la il.ani.ene waves was aexperimental
l a il.ani . entally confirmed a l a il.an
by a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsas asas asas adsas adsas
w .wp.apda Clinton
w pdad
.wp.aDavisson andnd Lester
Le w.w pdad
p.aGermer in w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww w w
1927.They demonstrated w w
strated that electron ww ww ww
beams are diffracted ed whenwh they fall on
t t t t
i.ente
t t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene crystalline solids.
a l a n
il.ai e
. n e
Since
ince crystal
c can act
a l a as
il.an a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s adsa s s
daadsa for adsa s adsa s
.wp.apda a three-dimensional
.wp.apda l diffra
diffraction
.wp.apgrating .wp.apda .wp.apda
w w w w w w
ww ww waves, the electro
matter wwwaves incident
lectron ww ww ww
on crystals are diffracte ffracted off in certain
etet specific directions. etet etet etet etet
s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s aslail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada Theadfilament
a F is heated by
ada a low ada ada
ww tension
ww (L.T.) batteryy so w that
w electrons are ww ww ww
emitted from the hot filament filame by thermionic
t emission. They are then
t accelerated due t t t
l a i
l .ani.ente l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas to the potential sas differen fference between sas the sas sas
. p.apdaada . p.apdaada . p.apdaada . p.apdaada . p.apdaada
w w filament
w and the anode
w de al
aluminium
w w cylinder w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
by a high tension (H.T.) .T.) ba
battery.
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
l asla l l l
p
w.w
a
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ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t ntet
i.ente IN PHYSICS
UVANNAMALAI . t t
e
il.ani.en RAJENDRAN
RAJE M, a l a
TEACHER
ww ww Electron beam ww
m is collimated by using two thin aluminium ww ium diaphragms
d ww ww
and is allowed to strike ike a single crystal of Nickel. The electrons scattered scatt by Ni
etet e t e t e te t e te t etet
s asl ail.ani.n atoms in different
s asl ail.ani.n direc
directions are received
s asl ail.ani.n by the electron s asl ni.n
ail.adetector
detec which
s asl ail.ani.n
ada measures a intensity
adthe sity of
o scattered ada electron beam. adaada ada
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.p w .wp.apda w
ww ww The detector is rot ww
rotatable in the plane ofwthe w paper so that the th w w
angle - ww
between the incidentt beam and the scattered beam can be changed nged at our will.
t t t t t
l a i
l .ani.ente The intensity of.nthe
l a il a i.entee scat
scattered electron
l a il nte
.ani.ebeam is measured as
l a il.ansi.enatefunction
fu of
l a il.ani.ente
sas θ.sas sas sas sas
apdaada ap da apdaada apdaada apdaada
the angledaa
w .
w p. w .wp . .wp. .wp. .wp.
ww ww The graph shows owswthe ww variation of intensity wwof
w
ww
w
ww
w
the scattered electrons rons with the angle θ for the
t t accelerating voltage t age
t of 54V.For ete at given t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene accelerating l a il.ani.eneV, the
voltage
a th scattered a l a il.ani.n shows a
wave a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsas asas daadsas0 adsas adsas
w .wp.apda peak wor pdad
.wp.amaximum at t an a
angle
w .wp.apof 50 to the incident
ww ww ww ww ww ww
electron beam. This peak in intensity is attributed to
t t the constructive interfere erference of electrons t diffracted
. .ani.ene
ilmaterial.
t
il.ani.ene
t t t t
il.ani.ene
a sl a from varioussaatomic sl a l a layers of the target asl a a sl a a sl a
adsa aa s
aada planar spacing.pof.apdaNickel, adsa adsa
w.wp.apda w .apdad the known
.wpFrom wn va valuew.wpof.apdinter w w the wavelengthw .wp.apda w
ww w
ofw the electron wave ave w
w
has
h been experimentally ww calculated as 1.65Å.The ww ww
wavelength can also o be calculated from de Broglie relation for V
ail.ani.n = 54 V as ms6aslail.an. i.ynÅ 6 . y Å = 1.67 Å ail.ani.n ail.ani.n ail.ani.n
Padasalai.Net
a l a l a l a l
s
ada s a a √; √zL s
aa s s
aa s s
aa s
w.wp.apda w .apdadvalue agrees
.wpThis rees well
w .apdadthe experimentally
.wpwith w pdad
.wp.aobserved d wavelength
wav w .apdad
.wpof w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
1.65Å.Thus this experime eriment directly verifies de Broglie’s hypothesis esis of o the wave
t nature of moving particles rticles.
t t t t
l ail.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas 26. Briefly explain sas the principle princ sas
andaworking sas cope.
of electron microscope sas
.
wp.apdaada .
Electronwp. aada
apdmicroscope: .wp.apdada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
Principle:
t t The wave t nature of the
. t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
a la electron is used a l a l ain the co
construction a l a a l a a l a
w .wp.apda of w .wp.apda
microscope called
alled w .wp.apda
electron w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww
microscope. The resolvi solvingww power ww ww ww
of a microscope is inversely
t t t
ni.entewavelength t t t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene proportional to
a l a il.athe wave of lail.ani.ene
adsa s s
adsa used. Thus asa s adsa s adsa s
w.wp.apda .wp.apda
the radiation
w
Th
w wp.apdad
.higher w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww
resolving power can be ob ww
obtained by ww ww ww
employing the waves ves o of shorter
etet wavelengths. i.ani.n e te t etet etet etet
s asl ail.ani.n s asl al s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada a
De adBroglie wave
wavelengthapdaaof da ada ada
w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp. w .wp.apda w.wp.apda w
ww electron
ww is very much less lesww than (a ww ww ww
few thousands less) s) that
th of the
t visible light. As at re
result, the t t t
l a i
l .ani.ente l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas microscopes sasemploying ying d de Broglie sas sas sas
.
w p.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .
w p.apdaada
ww
w waves
ww of electrons havewvvery
w ww much ww
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t t t t t t t t t t
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Electron wmicroscopes givingwwmagnification more ww than ww
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s asl ail.ani.n Working: saslail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada a
Theadconstruction and working ada of an electron microscope ada is similar to that ada
ww w optical microscope w
ofwan w
except ww
that in electron microscope focusing of w w
electron ww
beam is done by the electrostatic or magnetic lenses.
t The electron t tetsuitably arranged .eitherni.entet electric or t
l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l.ani.entebeam passing across l ail.ani.ena l ail a l a i
l .ani.ente
sas sas undergoes divergence
magnetic dafields sas or convergence dthereby sas focusing of thedadsaas
apdaada ap ada apdaada apaada aa
w .
w p. w
beam .
w p. w .
w p. w.wp. w.wp.p w
ww ww is done ww ww ww ww
The electrons emitted from the source are accelerated by high
t t potentials. The beam i.ente
tis made parallel bynmagnetic ntet
condenser lens. t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene When a l
theail.anbeam passes through
a l a il.ai.ethe sample whose a l a il.ani.ene
magnified image a l a il.ani.ene
adsas adsas ss
aada adsas asas
w .wp.apda is .wp.apda the beam carries
needed,
w w .wp.apdthe image of thew .wp.apda
sample. With the help
w .apdad
.wpof w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
magnetic objective lens and magnetic projector lens system, the magnified
image is obtained on the screen. These electron microscopes are being used in
i . ni entet
. i .ni entet
. i . ni entet
. i . ni entet
. t t
il.ani.ene
s asl a l a almost all branches
sasl a l a of science. s asl a l a
s asl a l a
s asl a
ada ada ada ada ada
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ada ada ada ada ada
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t t t t t
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t t .ni.ente
t
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ww ww ww
UNIT - IX (ATOMIC AN NUCLEAR PHYSICS) ww ww ww
TWO MARKS AND THREE MARKS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada 1. ada
Give theapdproperties of cathode ada
rays. ada ada
w .wp.apda w .wp. a w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww
Properties of cathode rays: ww ww ww ww
Cathode rays possess energy and momentum
. ni e
. ntet They travel in a straight
. ni e
. ntet line with high speed .ni.entet of the order of 10.n7ime
. ntest-1. .ani.ente
t
l a i
l a l a i
l a l aila l ail a l a i
l
sas It can be d sas
deflected by both electric sas magnetic fields. dadsaas
and sas
.
w p.apdaada .
w p.apaada .
w p.apdaada .wpapa
. .
w p.apdaada
w The w w ww w w
ww wwdirection of deflection wwindicates that they arewnegatively charged particles. ww ww
When the cathode rays are allowed to fall on matter, they produce heat.
t t They affect the photographic t t plates t t t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene They producealfluorescence
ail.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsas asas asas asas asas
w .wp.apda Whenw .apdadcathode rays fallw.on
.wpthe wp.apdaadmaterial of highw.atomic
p.apdad weight, x-raysw.are
w p.apdad
w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
produced. Cathode rays ionize the gas through which they pass.
t rays is up to *7p- nof
th 7
tet The speed of cathode te entethe
t speed of light. n.entet t t
il.ani e
. n i
l .
ani e
. n i
l .
a i . i.ai il.ani.ene
d ad
a
saasl 2. Give the dresults
ad
a
saasl of Rutherford d alpha
ad
a
saasl scattering experiment. d adsaaslal a
adsa sl a
a
w.wp.p
a a a
w.wp.pof alpha scattering
Results
a
w.wp.p
a a
w.wp.p
a
w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww experiment: ww ww ww
Most of the alpha particles are un-deflected through the gold foil and
etet went straight. Some of
t the alpha particles are
t deflected throughn.eantesmall t angle. etet
ail.ani.n .ani.ente .ani.ente ail.ani.n
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l l ai l l a il l a il.ai l
s
ada as A few alpha aas aparticles
s (one in s
ada a
thousands)
s are deflected aas a
through
s the angle s
ada as
w.wp.apda more w .wp.apdad900. Very few alpha
than w .wp.apdaparticles returned w .apdad (back scattered)
.wpback w .wp.a–pda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
that is, deflected back by 1800.
3. t t What are the conclusions tet made by Rutherford tet from the results tet of alpha t
l i . ee
alani.n l
scattering experiments?a il.ani e
. n
l a il.ani e
. n
l a il.ani e
. n
l a il.ani.ente
s as sas sas sas sas
adaada apdaada made in alpha aada
apdscattering apdaada(Rutherford atom apdaada
w w.wp.p w wp
Conclusion
. . w .wp. w .wp
experiment:. w .wp. w
w ww
model) ww ww ww ww
Rutherford proposed that an atom has a lot of empty space and contains
t t t t t t t t t t
a la il.ani.ene a tiny matter laknown
a il.ani.ene as nucleus whose a l a il.ani.enesize is of the aorder l a il.ani.eneof 10-14 m. alail.ani.ene
adsas adsas adsas adsas asas
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda is positively w
The nucleus .wp.apda and most of wthe
charged .wp.apdamass of the atom w .apdad
.wpis w
ww ww
concentrated in nucleus.wwThe nucleus is surrounded ww by negatively charged ww ww
electrons.
t t t t ntet t
tequilibrium, t t
a l a il.ani.ene Since static
a l a il.ani.enecharge distribution a l a il.ani.ecannot be in a stable
adsa s he suggested s
adsa that the electrons s
dsa not at rest andp.athey
aare s
adsarevolve around the adsa s
w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w.wp.apda w .w pda w .wp.apda w
ww ww
nucleus in circular orbits w w planets revolving around
like ww the sun. ww ww
4. Define impact parameter.
etet The impact eteparameter
t (b) is defined etet as the perpendicular etet distance etet
a l ail.ani.n a l ail.ani.n a l ail.ani.n a lail.ani.n a l ail.ani.n
s
ada s between dthe a acentre of the goldanucleus
s s s
ada s and the direction adaof velocity vector of
s s s
ada s
w.wp.apda alphaw wp.apad when it is at awlarge
.particle .wp.pdadistance. w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t
l a i
l.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
.
w p.apdaada .
wp.apdaada .
w papdaada
. .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
l asla l l l
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w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t ntet
ww 5. ww is distance of closest
What ww approach? Obtainwexpression w for it. ww ww
The minimum distance between the centre of the nucleus and the alpha
t t t ni.entet etet
.ani.ente particle just before .ani.ente it gets reflectedlailback
.ani.ente through 180 is
0
s asl ail s asl a i

l s as s asl ail.adefined as the
s asl ail.ani.n
ada distance adaclosest approach a(or)
of adacontact distanceOad.aada ada
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w.wp.pda w .wp.p w .wp.apda w
ww ww
Expression: ww ww ww ww
At this closest distance, all the kinetic energy of the alpha particle will be
t t 7t 7 rk•ur9•u t t
l a i
l .ani.ente converted intolaelectrostatic
i
l.ani.ente potential energy
l ail.ani.entek Å˜pk 6 8G{; B; lail.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas sas adsaas sas sas
p.apdaada p.apdaada7 k 9• 7 p.apkda9• papdaada
. p.apdaada
ww @p 6 8G{; * Ÿ¯; - ; @pw6w 8G{; Ž| …………….(1)
w .
w w .
w w .
w w .
w w .
w w
ww ww ww ww
Where EK→Kinetic energy of alpha particle.
l a ni.entet What are the ldrawbacks
il.a6. a
t t
il.ani.ene of Rutherford l a
entet model?
il.ani.atom l a
t t
il.ani.ene l a
t t
il.ani.ene
a
adsas a
asas of atom cannotadbe a
adsas a
adsas a
adsas
w .wp.apda (1) .p
w w .apdad
Stability
w .wp.pa explained: w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww According to classical ww electrodynamics, wany w accelerated charge wwemits ww
electromagnetic radiations which a result loses in its energy.
t t .entet sustain the circular t t t t t t
a l ail.ani.ene Hence, it canalno a il.anilonger a l a il.ani.ene motion and theala radius
il.ani.ene of the orbit alail.ani.ene
adsa s becomes adsa s
smaller adsa
and smaller (undergoes s spiral motion) s
adsa finally the electron
and adsa s
ww should
ww fall into the nucleus ww and hence the atoms wwshould disintegrate. w But
w this ww
does not happen. Hence, Rutherford model could not account for the stability of
etet atoms. etet t t etet etet
ail.ani.n ail.ani.n of atom could il.ani.ene ail.ani.n ail.ani.n
Padasalai.Net
s asl (2) asl
Lineadsspectrum s asl anot explain: s asl s asl
ada a daada apdaada ada
w.wp.apda w .apda
.wpAccording to this w .wp.apemission
model, of radiation
w .wp.must be continuous w .wp.apda
and w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
must give continuous emission spectrum. But experimentally we observe only
line (discrete) emission tet spectrum for atoms.
l ail ni.entet
.a7. State the postulates l a il.ani e
. n
of Bohr’s atom l a il.ani.ente
model.
t
l a il.ani.ente
t
l a il.ani.ente
t
sas dsaas sas sas sas
.
wp.apdaada .
Postulate
wp .apdaa(1): .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww The electron in anww atom moves around nucleus ww in circular orbits wwunder ww
the influence of Coulomb electrostatic force of attraction. This Coulomb force
t t ni.entet i.ente
t t t t t
a la il.ani.ene gives necessary a l a il.acentripetal force forathe la il.anelectron to undergoacircularl a il.ani.ene motion. a l a il.ani.ene
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda(2):
Postulate
w .wp.apda w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww Electrons in an atom ww revolve around the w w
nucleus only in certain w w
discrete ww
orbits called stationary orbits where it does not radiate electromagnetic energy.
t t etet etet in these stationary etet etet
l a il.ani.ene The angular momentum
l ail.ani.n (Ä) of the electron
ala ail.ani.nala ala ail.ani.n orbits are ail.ani.n
a
a
daadsa s
quantized a adsaasaintegral multipleaof
da(i.e.) daadsas; Ä 6 ‹ 6 ‹ℏ .p.apdaadsas a daadsas
.
ww p. p ww. p. p . p.
w w kG p kG ww .
ww p.p w
ww ww ww ww
Where n → principal quantum number. This condition is known as angular
ww ww
momentum quantization condition.
etet :ail.ani.en
tet etet etet etet
s asl ail.ani.n Postulate (3) s asl s asl ail.ani.n s aslail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada aa ada ada aa
w.wp.apda w .apdad of orbits arew.w
.wpEnergy p.apdacontinuous
not .wp.apda This is calledw.the
but discrete.
w p.apdad
w w
ww ww
quantization of energy. An wwelectron can jump from ww one orbit to another worbit w by ww
absorbing or emitting a photon whose energy is equal to the difference in
t t t t t
l a i
l .ani.ente energy (ΔE) between
l ail.ani.ente the two orbital levels.
l a i
l.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas sas sasí sas sas
. p.apdaada .p.apdaada∆ 6 & Û 6 .ℎp˜.apd6
aadℎaˆ ;Where c → speed . p.apdaadofa light . p.apdaada
w w w w ww w ww w w w w
ww ww λ → wavelength ofwthe radiation used and w~→ frequency of the radiation ww ww
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
l asla l l l
p
w.w
a
.pda p.apdad
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w.w p
w.w
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a p
w.w.apda
w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t ntet
ww 8. ww excitation energy.
Define ww ww ww ww
The energy required to excite an electron from lower energy state to any
s asl ail.ani.n higher energy s asl
state
ail.ani.nis known as excitation
s asl ail.ani.nenergy. s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada ada
Its unit pis.apdelectron volt (eV) ada ada ada
w .wp.apda w .w a w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww 9. ww excitation potential.
Define ww ww ww ww
Excitation potential is defined as excitation energy per unit charge.
t Its unit is volt t t t t
l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l.ani.ente(V) l ail.ani.ente l ail.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas 10. sas
Define ionization energy. sas sas sas
.
w p.apdaada .
w p apdaada
. .
w p.apdaada .
w papdaada
. .
w p.apdaada
w w w anww w w
ww ww The minimum energy ww required to remove w electron from an atom wwin the ww
ground state is known as binding energy or ionization energy. Ionization energy
of hydrogen atom e is/ = X. • ; etet
a ni.entet
il.a11. a ntet¦? > / ?
il.ani.potential. a il.ani.n a
t t
il.ani.ene a
t t
il.ani.ene
a l Define ionization a l a l a l a l
w .wp.apda w .apdad
.wpIonization potential is .wp.apda as ionization energy
defined
w w .wp.apdaper unit charge. w.wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
The ionization potential of hydrogen atom is, > ? = X. •;
12.t t What are the drawbacks in Bohr atom model?
ni.ene n entet entet t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
a sl ail.a Drawbackssof asl a il.
Bohra i . atom model: saslail.ani. asl a asl a
adsa aa daada for hydrogen atom s
aadahydrogen like-atoms adsa
w.wp.apda w .apdadatom model is valid
.wpBohr w .wp.aponly w .wp.apdor w .wp.apda w
ww wwnot for complex atoms.
but ww When the spectral wwlines are closely examined, ww ww
individual lines of hydrogen spectrum is accompanied by a number of faint
ail.ani.n lines. These closed ail.ani.npacked lines are ail.ani.n fine structure.saslail.ani.n
called ail.ani.n
Padasalai.Net
ada aa ada atom model. Bohr ada aa
w.wp.apda w .apdadis not explainedw.w
.wpThis p.apdaBohr
by
w .wp.apda atom model fails w .apdad
.wpto w
ww ww the intensity variations
explain ww in the spectral lines. ww The distribution of electrons ww ww
in atoms is not completely explained by Bohr atom model.
l ail ni.entet
.a13. Define atomic mass
l a il
t
.ani.ente unit. l a il.ani.ente
t
l a il.ani.ente
t
l a il.ani.ente
t
sas saas sas thsas sas
.p.apdaada . p
One
.apdaadatomic mass unit (u)
. p.apdaadisa defined as the .w p.apdaadaof the mass of .the
1/12
p .apdaada
ww of carbon.r7k Cu w Kw=w1.66 x 10-19 kg.
w w w w w w w w w
ww isotope ww ww ww
14. Define nuclear density.
t t Nuclear density t t is defined as the t of mass of then.enucleus
tratio t t to its t t
a la il.ani.ene aŸl a il.ani.ene a la il.ani.ene a l a il.ai ne a l a il.ani.ene
ada6ada| K 6 2.3 x 10 kgm
17 -3
adsas volume.À ss
adaada
ss
adaada
ss
adaada
ss
.wp.apda .p.p KG¢; .p.p w.wp.p w.wp.p
ww
w
w ww w w ww w ww ww ww
w
15. Define binding energy.
When Z protons and N neutrons are combine to form a nucleus, the
t t ni.entet tet tet t t
a l a il.ani.ene mass disappear a l a il.aequivalent to mass adefect la il.ani.en(Δ m) is converted lin
a a ni.enenergy
il.ato which a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s sas s s asa s adsa s
.wp.apda is used.wp.ato
abind
pdad the nucleons .w aadanucleus. This is.pknown
in.apdthe
p .apdad as binding energy .wp.apda
w w w w w w w
ww ww Ü/ = ∆Æ• = [(‚Æ w+w SÆ ) − ƒ ] •
(BE). ww ww ww
16. Give the symbolic representation of alpha decay, beta decay and
s asl ail.ani.n gamma decay. s aslail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s aslail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada ada decay: ada ada ada
.wp.apda
(1)
.wp.apda
Alpha
.wp.apda .wp.apda 8 .wp.apda
wwα-particle( kHe), its ww
w w w w w w
ww ww When unstable nuclei ww decay by emitting an ww
Atomic number (Z)decreases by2, the mass number(A)
t t t written as i.ni.entet t
a i
l .ani.ente decreases byla4.The i
l .ani.ente α- decay processlaisymbolically
l.ani.ente lala a i
l .ani.ente
úX úskY Y kHe . (e.g.) a Uad→ `pTh Y 8kHe
l › l
a daadsaas a d→
aadsa›s8
as 8 kDˆ saas kD8
`k d
a a daadsaas sas
apdaada
w.wp. p w.wp. p w.wp. p w.wp. p w .
w p. w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
l asla l l l
p
w.w
a
.pda p.apdad
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w.w p
w.w
a
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w.w . pda
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a p
w.w.apda
w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t ntet
ww ww Beta decay:
(2) ww ww ww ww
In β− - decay, the atomic number of the nucleus increases by one
l ail.ani.n but mass number l ail.ani.nremains the same. l ail.ani.n l ail.ani.n l ail.ani.n
.wpú.X
apa→ úv7Y Y s7e Y ˜̅ . (e.g.)
.wp.apda 8C → vN Y s7e Yw˜.wp̅ .apda
s
ada as s
› dada › as p s
a78 as
da 78 p s
ada as s
ada as
.wp.apda .wp.apda
ww In β+ - decay, theww
w w w w w
ww atomic number of thenucleus ww decreases by w w but
one ww
mass number remains the same.
úX → ús7 Yi.anY
i.ent7ee Y ˜ . (e.g.) 77Nala→il.an7p
i.enN
.ani.ente
t › › p t kk kk teet Y p7e Y ˜ .ani.ente
t
.ani.ente
t
l a i
l l a l l ail l a i
l
sas as
sdecay: sas sas sas
.
w p.apdaada (3) Gamma
.
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada .
w papdaada
. .
w p.apdaada
w w ww daughter nucleusww iswin the excited state w w
ww ww In α and β decay,wthe wwmost ww
of the time. So this excited state nucleus immediately returns to the ground
t t state or lower energy t tstate by emitting highly t t energetic photons.ncalled t t γ rays. t t
a l a il.ani.ene a l ail.ani.ene al a il.ani.ene a l a ilai.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsas Duringasasgamma decay there ais
sasno change in atomic s
asanumber and massdadsas
.wp.apda p.apda›d ∗ › p.apdad p.apdad aa
w.wp.p
úX → úX Ygamma ww rays (Ž u
w w
number..
w w .
w w .
w w
ww ww ww ww ww
(e.g.) 7k•B → 7kC ∗ Y s7pe Y ˜̅ ; 7kC ∗ → 7kC Y γ
17.t t State the properties etetof neutrino. t t t t t t
a l ail.ani.ene a l ail.ani.n a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s Propertiesadsof
da a s neutrino:
daadsa s asa s adsa s
w.wp.apda w .wpIt.aphas zero charge; It .wp.apan
has
w antiparticle called
w p.apdad
.wanti-neutrino. w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
Recent experiments showed that the neutrino has very tiny mass.
It interacts very weakly t with the matter. Therefore, it is very difficulttetot detect.
ni.entet i.ente
.anradioactive .ani.ente
t
ail.ani.n
e
ail.ani.n
etet
Padasalai.Net
s asl ail.a18. State the law s asl a
ofil decay. s asl a il s asl s asl
ada aada instant t, the number ada aa ada
w.wp.apda w .wpAt.apdany w .wp.apda of decays per unit w .apdad called rate of decay
.wptime, w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww
is proportional to the number of nuclei (N) at the same instant.
ww ww ww
19. Define activity. Give its unit.
t t .entet t t
l ail.ani.ente Activity l or
a i
l i.ente rate which is lthe
.andecay a i l.aninumber of nuclei decayed
l ai l.ani.ente per second l a il.ani.ente
sas a
daadsas as R. R = h .p. .aIts sas a adsas ass a
.
wp.apdaada and it is
.
w p.adenoted
p w pdaadunit is Becquerel (Bq)
.
w p.apdaand curie (Ci) .wp.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww wwh– ww ww ww
20. Define one Becquerel.
One Becquerel (Bq) is equal to one decay per second.
entet entet entet t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
• ‘ / •?
la i
l.ani. Ü = l a i
l .
a ni . la i
l .
a ni . l a l a
a
adsas a
asas a
adsas a
adsas a
adsas
w .wp.apda 21. Define
w .apdadcurie.
.wpone w .wp.apda w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww One curie was defined ww ww
as number of decays per second in 1 g of
ww ww
radium “ = X. y” • ‘/ •?
t t t t t t t
n
.i e
.n e
lail.aofn e
. n e
i nucleus? Give the .ni.ente .ni.ente .ni.ente
alaila22. What is half alife alailaexpression. alaila alaila
daadsas daadsas daadsas daadsas daadsas
w wThe half life c• e isww
. p.ap . p.ap . p.ap . p.ap . p.a
p
ww the
w time required for wthe
w wnumber of atoms initially
ww w
ww ww w w ww ww
p. `D7
present to reduce to one half of the initial amount.• 6 ˆ
e ntet entet e ntet etet etet
s asl . ni
aila23. . What is mean s asl . ni.
ila of nucleus? Givealthe
alife s s
. ni .
aila expression. s aslail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada aa daadanucleus is the ratio a
aadsum aa
w.wp.apda w .apdadmean life time (.)w.w
.wpThe p.apthe
of w .wp.apdof or integration
w .apdad
.wpof w
ww ww ww ww 7 ww ww
life times of all nuclei to the total number nuclei present initially." 6 ˆ
24. t What is meant byennuclear t fission? t t t
l a i
l .ani.ente l ail.ani. te l a i
l.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas Theadprocess
sas of breaking up saof
s the nucleus of adheavier sas atom into two adsaas
apdaada apda a apdaada apaada ada
w w .
w p.
w
.
smallerp .
w nuclei with the release
w w
. p.
w of a large amount
w w
. p.
wof energy is called nuclear
w w w.wp.p w
w w w w w ww
fission.
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
l asla l l l
p
w.w
a
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a
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w.w.apda
w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
XII STD. PHYSICS
t t t t ntet
i.ente IN PHYSICS
UVANNAMALAI . t t
RAJE M, l a
M.Sc.,
TEACHER
ww 25. ww is called nuclear
What ww
lear re
reactor? ww ww ww
Nuclear reactor
tor is a system in which the nuclear fission takes place in a
etet tet
il.ani.enrolled i.ente
t ni.entet either for etet
s asl ail.ani.n self-sustained s asl acontrolled manner.Theail.anenergy
s asl
produced isail.a
s asl
used
s asl ail.ani.n
ada research ada
purpose orr for p ada
powerp.ageneration.The first nuclear adareactor
ctor was
w builtpin ada
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w.w pda w .wp.apda w .w.apda w
ww wwyear 1942 at Chicago
the wwUSA.
hicago, ww ww ww
26. What is nuclear fusion?
ion?
t When two ter t mo ntet ni.entet a heavier t
l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l.ani.enor more light nuclei.ni.e(A<20)
l aila
combine to .form
l ail a l a i
l .ani.ente
sas nucleus, then sasit is called lled nuclear
n sas
fusion. sas sas
.
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada .
. .
w p.apdaada
w 27. w
Write ww w w w
ww ww a note on proton ton w- proton cycle. ww ww ww
According to Hans Bethe, the sun is powered by proton-proton n cycl
cycle of fusion
t t reaction. t t t t t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene This cycleaconsists a l ail.ani.ene of th three steps: a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsas dsas adsas adsas adsas
w .wp.apda Step w–.wp1.apd:a – Y – → – Y w.wpY.apd©a ; w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
Step – 2 : – Y – → X– Y ©
t t Step – 3 : X– Y Xe–tet → L– Y – Y – etet t t t t
l ail.ani.ene l a il.ani.n l a il.ani.n l a il.ani.ene l a il.ani.ene
a
adsa s In general,adthe as above thre
three steps can as be written as. as as
.wp.apda da sa L
.wp4.ap–
asa
pdad© Y y ƒ ; .wp.apda
adsa
.wp.apda
adsa
w w → – Y – Y w .wp.aY w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
28. What is radio carbon n da
dating?
Radioactive dating ating or carbon dating te is the technique to estimate estima the age
etet ni.entet ni.en t ni.entet i.ani.ene
t t
ail.ani.n saas isotope ( L“)
Padasalai.Net
of ancient object i .a i .a i .a
s
ada asl
ad
l a l
saas by using radio carbon ad
l a l saas
ad
l a l saaslal
ad
ww ww ww ww ww ww
FIVE MARK
ARKS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
l ail ni.entet Explain the J.J.

.a29. l a i
l.anThomso
t
i.enteomson experiment l a i
l .anito
t
.entedetermine the i
specific
l a ecific
l
t
.ani.ente charge of l a i
l .ani.ente
t
sas sas sas sas sas
.
wp.apdaada electron.
.
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada .
w w w w w w
ww ww
Specific charge of electron ww - J J Thomson Experiment
electr ww ww ww
arge *Ÿ-
•
Charge per unit nit ma
mass of an electron is called specific charge
i.ani.entet i .
a ni entet
. i .
a ni entet
. i .ani.ente
t t t
il.ani.ene
a la l Principle: a l a l a la l a l a l a l a
adsas asas asas ss
aada c and magnetic adsas
w .wp.apda w .apdad
.wpCathode a rayy (electron
(ele w pdad deflects by both
.wp.abeam) w.wp.apdelectric w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
fields is the principle e involved
invo in this method.
Set up:
t t tet ntet etet t t
a l a il.ani.ene It is highly
a l a il.ani.enevacua
vacuated discharge a l a il.ani.etube. Cathode rays i.n
nelectron
.(elect
aslaila beam) a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s adsa s asa s adsa adsa s
w.wp.apda w .wp.apda at cathode
produced ode ‘C’w.w .apdad
pare w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww
attracted towards anode
w
nodew disc A ww ww ww
which allow only a narrow beam
s asl ail.ani.n of cathode rays.
s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s aslail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada aa aa ada ada
w.wp.apda w .apdad cathode
.wpThese de ra
w w .apdad
rays .pare
w .wp.apda w.wp.apda w
ww ww allowed to passs through
now ww the
thro ww ww ww
parallel plates and d strstrike the
t t t t t
l a i
l .ani.ente screen coated iwith
l a l.ani.enteZnS, a light l a il.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas spot is observed sas sas sas sas
.
w p.apdaada .wp .apdaada at O .
w p .apdaada .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww The metal plates plate
ww are ww ww ww
maintained at high voltage oltage.
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
l asla l l l
p
w.w
a
.pda p.apdad
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w.w
a
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w.w.apda
w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t ntet
i.ente IN PHYSICS
UVANNAMALAI . t t
e
il.ani.en RAJENDRAN
RAJE M, a l a
TEACHER
adsa s adas s s sada s s ada adsa s
ww ww ww
Further, this gas discharge tube is kept in between pole pieces of ww ww ww
magnet such that both oth elelectric and magnetic fields are perpendicul ndicular to each
etet other. e te t e te t etet etet
ada Velocity a
ofadcathode rays (©):p.apdaada ada ada
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .w w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww Let ‘e’ be the charg chargeww of cathode ray ww ww ww
particle. The upward ard fforce acting on
t cathode rays due et electric t t t
l a i
l .ani.ente l a il.ani.entto ele field ‘E’ .nis;
l a il a i.ente l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente
sas wŽ 6 ® daadsaas sas sas sas
.
w p.apdaada .wp.ap .wp.apdaada . wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada
w The w w w w w
ww ww downward force ce acting
acww on cathode ww ww ww
rays due to magneticc field is ;
t t wà 6 ®+˜ entet t t t t t t
a il.ani.ene a il.ani. a il.ani.ene a il.ani.ene a il.ani.ene
adsas Ž 6
a l In un-deflected l
s s equilibriu
a ilibrium position,w a l a l a l
adsas apdaada adsas adsas
w .wp.apda wà w; w
® .wp.= ®+˜ w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww w Ž
w w w w w
w ww
˜6 à
……………..(
…..(1)
t t ni.entetspec
specific charge: i.ni.entet t t t t
a l ail.ani.ene Method (1) -aTo l a il.afind a l a l a a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s Let a ‘V’ s
dsa be the poten s
adsa between anodeadand
potential difference s
adsa cathodethode. adsa s
w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w.wp.pa w .wp.apda w
ww ww Since the cathode hodewrays
w (electron beam) are wwaccelerated from cathode ww to ww
anode, the potential al energy
ene ‘eV’ of the electron beam at the cathode c is
etet converted into kinetic c
t t energy
ene of the electron beam
t t at the anode. . Hence,
Henc
etet etet
ail.ani.n i.ni.ene • 7 ¯ 7 Ž alail.ani.ene ail.ani.n ail.ani.n
Padasalai.Net
asl 7asla la
k s asl asl
s
ada eV =adaÅ˜ ; ∴ Ÿ 6 k Œ = akpdŒà
s s
ada s
ada s
ada
w.wp.apda w .wp.apda k w .wp. a w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww The value of specif ww charge is , 61.7 x 10
specific ww11Ckg-1m ww ww
Æ
Method (2) - Deflection tion due
d to electric field:
.n i e
.ntet . ni e
. ntet .ani.ente
t
.ani.ente
t
.ani.ente
t
l ail a When l the
a i
l a magn
magnetic field is
l a i
l l ail l a i
l
sas adsaas saas sas sas
.
wp.apdaada turned.
w p.apda(+
off = 0), thee defl
deflection
.
w p.apdaadonly
is .
w w ww w w w
ww ww to electric field. Let
due Lew ‘m’ be the ww ww ww
mass of the electron,
tron, the upward
t t t t elec t t t t t t
a la il.ani.ene acceleration adue l a il.ani.entoe electric field ‘E’
a la il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsas 6.w
q— ads as
a •Ž adsas adsas adsas
w .wp.apda is,Ž w pŸ.apd6 Ÿ w .wp.apda w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
Upward initial velocity; = 0
t Let ‘Ä’ be the he
t le
length of the
n
il.ai e
.nte n e
.nte
i time taken to travel
il.athen .entet
il.aniin
t t
il£.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
a sl a deflecting plate,
asl a a sla electric field is,¬ a6
sl a a sl a
adsa adsa adsa adsa ¯ adsa
.wp.apda .wp.apda .wp.apda .wp.apda 7 k .wp.apda
wwh 6 M¬ Y k ,¬
w w w ¿
w w w
ww Hence
ww the deflection at th the
wwend of the electric field ww ww
£ k
= 0 + k ,Ž ¬ k ; ht ¿ 6 k Ÿ *¯- ; h ¿ 6 k Ÿ ¯t ; h ¿ 6 k Ÿ Ž
7 7 •Ž 7 •Ž £ 7 •Ž £ à
etet ete ete etet etet
ail.ani.n ail.ani.n ¿ 7 • £ à ail.ani.n ail.ani.n ail.ani.n
h 6 k Ÿ Ž ad
ada ada ……………….
ada (2) aa ada
.wp.apda .wp.apda .wp.pa .
w p.apdad .wp.apda
on the screen,h ∝ h ¿ rw —@wuh 6 çh′
w w w w w w
ww ww Then the deflection ectionww ww ww
C →Proportionality nality constant.
t t t tet t
l a i
l .ani.ente Using l a l.ani.enten (2), h 6 ç 7 • £ àlail.ani;.en•te6 k Ž ……………….
equation
i l a i
l .ani..en(3) l a i
l .ani.ente
sas sas k Ÿsaa
d Žs Ÿ j£ à a
daadsa-1s sas
.
w p.apdaada By .p apdaada the known
.
substituting
w nown . papdaawe
.
values,
w get 6 1.7 x 10.
w p
11.aCkg
p m .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww ww Æ ww ww ww
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
l asla l l l
p
w.w
a
.pda p.apdad
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w.w
a
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a p
w.w.apda
w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t ntet
ww ww
Method (3) - Deflection w w to magnetic field:ww
due ww ww
When the electric field is turned off ( = 0), the deflection is only due to
etet t t
il.ani.enemagnetic force aprovides etet etet etet
s asl ail.ani.n magnetic field. s asl aThe s sl ail.ani.n the centripetal
s as
force,
l ail.ani.n the electron saslail.ani.n
ada aa aa Ÿ¯ a a ada
w .wp.apda beamw p.apdad
.undergoes
w semi-circular
w .apdad Hence, ® ˜ + 6w.wp¢.apdad
.wppath. w .wp.apda w
ww ww w
—
w ww ww ww
Ÿ¯ Ÿ* - ŸŽ
®+6 ¢
;®+6 Ó
¢ à¢
;
t tet t t t
l a i
l .ani.ente •
6
Ž
……………….
l a i
l.ani e
. n (4) l ail.ani.ente l ail.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas Ÿ a
da¢dsas
à a sas sas sas
.
w p.apdaada The.
w p.apspecific charge is . p.apdaada of (1) Gas used
independent
w .wpapdaada
. .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
(2)Nature of the electrodes
30. t Explain the spectralt series of hydrogen atom.
ni.ente Spectral series ni.enthydrogen
e t t t t t t
a l a i
l .
a a l ail.aof atom: al a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsas asas ss
aada nth orbit to nth.porbit, asas adsas
w .wp.apda w .apdad an electron jumps
.wpWhen w .wp.apdfrom w w .apdad a spectral linewwas .wp.apda w
ww ww
obtained whose wave number ww (i.e.) reciprocal ofwwave w
length is, ww ww
˜̅ 6 ˆ 6 ü C
7 7 7
& D. Here, R →Rydbergt Constant
t t entet Ÿ t t t t t
l ail.ani.ene l a i
l .
ani . 7 -1 l a il.ani.ene l a il.ani.ene l a il.ani.ene
a
adsa s (R =ads1.097
aas x 10 ms ) a
adsas a
adsa s a
adsa s
w.wp.apda w .apda m>n, various spectral
.wpFrom w .wp.apda series are obtained. w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
(1) Lyman Series:
n = 1 and
t t m = 2, 3, 4, …..
etet i.ni.ene
t t
i.ni.ene7 etet etet
Padasalai.Net adsaasthe wave number, ˜̅ ad

lala 7 7
s
ada asl Hence 6saaˆsla6laü C7 & Ÿ D s
ada asl s
ada asl
w.wp.apda ada
w.wp.p
ada
w.wp.p w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww They lie in ultra violet
ww region. ww ww ww
(2) Balmer Series:
t n = 2enand
tet m = 3, 4, 5, ….. t t t
ail.ani.ente a i
l.ani. a i
l .ani.ente7 ail.ani.ente a i
l .ani.ente
ap˜da̅ ad
sasl sasl 7 l 7 l l
apdaada Hence
apdaada the wave number, 6saaˆs 6 ü Ck & Ÿ D sas
apdaada
sas
apdaada
w .
wp. w .
w p. .
w p. .
w p. .wp.
ww ww
ww They lie in visiblewregion. ww
w
ww
w
ww
w
(3) Paschen Series:
t t tet m = 4, 5, 6,….. .ni.entet
n =i.an3i.enand t t t t
a la il.ani.ene a l a l a laia
l a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
.wp.ap˜da̅ 6 ˆ 6 ü CD & Ÿ D w.wp.apda
adsas asas adsa7s 7 7 adsas adsas
w .wp.apda w .apdad the wave number,
.wpHence w w .wp.apda w
ww ww They lie in infra red wwregion. ww ww ww
(4) Brackett Series:
t t tet t t t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene nla=il.an4i.enand
a m = 5, 6,7,…..lail.ani.ene
adsa s asas adsa7s adsa s adsa s
.wp.ap˜da̅ 6 ˆ 6 ü C8 & Ÿ D w.wp.apda
7 7
w.wp.apda w .apdad the wave number,
.wpHence w w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
They lie in middle infra red region.
(5) Pfund Series:
etet t t
i.ani.ene
t t
i.ani.ene etet etet
s asl ail.ani.n saasnla=l 5 and m = 6, 7, 8,…..
saaslal s aslail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada a ad ada ada
w.wp.apda w .apdad the wave number,
.wpHence w .wp.ap˜da̅ 6 7 6 ü C 7 & 7 D w.wp.apda w.wp.apda w
ww ww ww ˆ 8 Ÿww ww ww
They lie in far infra red region.
t t t t t
l a i
l.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
.
w p.apdaada .
wp.apdaada .
w papdaada
. .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
l asla l l l
p
w.w
a
.pda p.apdad
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w.w
a
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w.w.apda
w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
XII STD. PHYSICS
t t t t ntet
i.ente IN PHYSICS
UVANNAMALAI . t t
RAJE M, l a
M.Sc.,
TEACHER
ww 31. ww
Explain the variation w
n ofwaverage binding energy ww with the mass ass n ww by
number ww
graph and discuss its fe
features.
etet i.ente
t etet etet etet
ail.ani.n Binding energy ail.ancurve: ail.ani.n ail.ani.n ail.ani.n
adaper nucleon r+̃˜˜˜u aisdathe
ada a
Theadaverage bindin
binding energy ada energy ergy requiredpto ada
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.p w .w.apda w
ww ww
separate single nucleon ww the particular nucleus.
leon fr
from ww ww ww
+̃˜˜˜ =
àŽ ËÌ9 Ÿ[ v Ÿ‡ ÎsIg Ïj
ft
6 f
t t ni.enteto t
l a i
l .ani.ente ˜
+̃˜˜ is l a i
plotted
l.ani.enteagainst
again A of all i
known
l a l.ani.ente nuclei and the lgraph
ail.aaph obtained is l a i
l .ani.ente
.
w p.apdaada called .
w p apdaada energyy curve.
binding
. curv From
.
w p.apdaadthe graph, .
w papdaada
. .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ˜˜˜ ww ww ww
(1) The value alue of o +̃ rises as the mass number A increas ncreases until it
reaches a maximum value valu of8.8 MeV for A = 56(iron) and then it slowly
t t tet t t t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene decreases. alail.ani.en a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsas adsas average asas per nucleon is about adsas 5 MeV for nuclei adsas
w .wp.apda w .apdaThe
.wp(2) ge bibinding
w pdad
.wp.aenergy w .wp.apda 8.5 w .wp.apda w
ww ww
having mass number ber w b
w
between A = 40 and ww 120. These elements w
elem w are ww
comparatively more e stastable and
t t t t t t t t t t
a l ail.ani.ene not radioactive.
a l a il.ani.en e
w.wp.apda w .apdad For highe
.wp(3) higher pmass
w .w.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww
numbers, the curve reduces reduww lowly ww ww ww
and for uranium is about 7.6 MeV.
etet They are i.niunstabl t
etestable and etet etet etet
ail.ani.n ala .n ail.ani.n ail.ani.n ail.ani.n
Padasalai.Net
ada radioactive. aa aa aa aa
w.wp.apda w .apdad
.wp(4) w .wp.apdad w .wp.apdad w . wp.apdad w
ww ww If two light w nuclei
nw with ww ww ww
A<28 combine to form heavier
t nucleus, the binding gt enenergy per t t t
l ail.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente
sas nucleon isadsmore as forr fina
final nucleus sas sas sas
.p.apdaada . p .apda a . p.apdaada . p apdaada
. . p.apdaada
w w than winitial nuclei.
w w w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
Thus, if the lighter ighter elements combine to produce a nucleus leus of medium
t t value A, a large amount ount of o energy will be released. This is the basis of nuclear
. i .ani entet
. i .ani entet
. t t
il.ani.ene
a la fusion and issathe l a l principle
nciple of the hydrogen
a la l bomb. a l a l a l a
adsas a as asas asas adsas
w .wp.apda w .apdad If a nucleus
.wp(5) cleus ofw.w p.apdad element is splitw.w
heavy p.apdad into
(fission) nto two tw or more
w .wp.apda w
ww ww of medium value
nuclei lue A, wwthe energy released would ww again be large large. The wwatom ww
bomb is based on this is prin
principle.
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww ww ww ww

ada ada ada ada ada
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t
l a i
l.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
.
w p.apdaada .
wp.apdaada .
w papdaada
. .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
l asla l l l
p
w.w
a
.pda p.apdad
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XII STD. PHYSICS
t t t t ntet
i.ente IN PHYSICS
UVANNAMALAI . t t
RAJE M, l a
M.Sc.,
TEACHER
ww 32. ww the law of radioa
Obtain ww
adioactivity (radioactive decay) ww ww ww
Law of radioactivity:
etet At any instant etet i.ente
t ntet etet
ail.ani.n t t, the number
ecall
a l ail.ani.n a l a
of
l ail.andecays per unit time,
a l ail.a,ni.called rate of
a l ail.ani.n
s s S ada
s s s s s s s s
.wp.apda
ada *p.apda
decay.w - is proportion ortional to aa
pdad number
.wp.athe .wp.apda
ada
.wp.apda
ada
w w / w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
of nuclei (N) at the sam same instant. This is
called law of radioactive active decay.
t tet t t t
l a i
l .ani.ente Expression:alala i . ni e
. n
l a il.ani.ente l ail.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas ss saas sas sas
.
w p.apdaada .wpLet
.apdaaNd0abe the number num .wp. daadnuclei
aof
p at .wpapdaada
. .
w p.apdaada
w ww ww w w w
ww w
initial time (t = 0) w ww ww ww
Let ‘N’ be the num number of un-decayed
t t t t t t t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene nuclei at any time
a l a
e
il.ai.‘t’
n n e
w .wp.apda w .wpIf.apda‘dN’ be the n number
w .wp.apda of nuclei w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww
decayed in time ‘dt’ then,ww ww ww ww
h
rate of decay = h–
t t entet ni.enteht ni.entet t t
a l ail.ani.ene Fromsalaw
a a i
l .
ani .
l of radioac
h
adioactivity, h– ∝ a+l a il.a(or) 6 &• + − − − −
a l −
a il.a(1) a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s a s adsas h– adsa s adsa s
w.wp.apda w .apdad • → decay
.wpHere, cay co .wp.apda
constant
ww ww ww ww ww ww
Decay constant nt (•
( ) is different for different radioactive sample samp and the
t negative sign in the equat
equation
t implies that the tN is decreasing with ithetimtime.
t etet
.ani.ente .ani.ente .ani.enteh .ani.nte ail.ani.n
Padasalai.Net
l a i
l l ail l a i
l l a i
l l
s
ada as By s
ada a
rewriting
s the
he equ
equation (1),s
ada a
we
s get 6 &•?¬ s
aa as s
aa as
w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda h–
w .
wp.apdad w .
w p.apdad w
ww ww ww – ww ww ww
6 &• <p ?¬ ; ^¥‹ +a ; 6 &•¬
h
Integrating on both sides, <
;
i .ani.ente
t ^¥‹i.n+i.en&
tet¥‹ +p a 6 &•¬ ; InC .ni6
i .ente&•¬D
t
i .ani.ente
t
i .ani.ente
t
l a l l a la l a l a
; l a l l a l
.
wp.apdaada .
w .apdaada exponential
Taking
p ential on both
.
w p.apdaadsides, 6 ® sˆ–
.
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ; ww ww ww
sˆ–
ˆ–
N = No® − − − − − (2)
t t Equation (2)eteist call called the law of radioactive t decay. Here ethe t t number of t t
la il.ani.ene l a il.ani.n exponentially l a .ani.ente
ilthe l a il.ani.ne l a il.ani.ene
a
adsas atoms is decreasing
a
asas expo over
ssa time. a
adsas asasa
.wp.apda .apdadimplies that the
.wpThis aada
.wp.apdtaken .wp.apda nuclei p.apdad
.will
w w th time
w for all the radioactive
w clei to decay w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
be infinite.
33. Describe the working ng of nuclear reactor t
t t etet t t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene (1) Fuel: aslail.ani.n a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s asa s s s s adsa s
.wp.apda .apdadcommonly
.wpThe ly use
used fuels aada kD•U and kD`•M .p.apdaada
.wp.apdare .wp.apda
w w w `k `8 w w w w
ww ww Naturally occurring urringwwuranium contains only ww0.7% of kD•™ and 99.3% ww are ww
`k
`kU. So the `k™tmust
only kDˆ kDˆ
mus be enriched such that it92contains at least lea 2 to 4%
etet te tet tet etet
of `kU.
e e e
s asl ail.ani.n kD•
s asl aila. ni. n
s asl aila. ni . n
s aslaila . ni . n
s asl ail.ani.n
ada aa ada ada ada
w.wp.apda (2) w.w .apdad
pNeutron source: rce: w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w.wp.apda w
ww ww A neutron source w
urcewis required to initiate w
w
the chain reaction tion ffor w
w
the first ww
time. A mixture of berylliu eryllium with plutonium or polonium is used d as the th neutron
t t t t entet
l a i
l .ani.ente source lail.ani.
ente
lail.ani.
en te
lail.ani.
en te
lail.ani.
sas
apdaada a daadsaasa a d
aadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa
w .
w p. w.wp. p w.wp. p w.wp. p w.wp. p w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
l asla l l l
p
w.w
a
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w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t ntet
ww ww Moderators:
(3) ww ww ww ww
The probability of initiating fission by fast neutron in another nucleus is
etet etet slow neutrons i.anare etet etet nuclear etet
s asl ail.ani.n very low. Therefore,
s asl ail.ani.n s asl al i.n preferred forsassustained
l ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada reactions. da moderator is pa.apmaterial
aThe ada used to convert adafast neutrons into ada
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w.w da w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww neutrons.
slow ww ww ww ww
Usually the moderators having mass comparable to that of
.ani.ente neutrons. Hence, .ani.entthese light nuclei undergo .ani.ente collision with la fast.ani.enneutrons and
t et t tet t
l a i
l l a i
l l ail i
l l a i
l .ani.ente
sas sasthe neutron is reduced.
the speeddaadof sas Most of the reactors sas use water, heavydadsaas
apdaada ap a apdaada apdaada aa
w .
w p. w
water .
w p. .
w p.
wwmoderators. w .
w p. w.wp.p w
ww ww (D2O) and graphitewas ww ww ww
(4) Control rods:
t t The controletrods t are used to adjust the reaction rate.During each
il.ani.ene .ani.ne ntet
il.ani.eare
t t
il.ani.eneto have the alail.ani.ene
t t
a l a fission, onasa an
a lsailaverage 2.5 neutrons a l a emitted. In l a
order
a
adsas d daadsas daadsas asas
w .wp.apda w .wp.apdachain reactions, only
controlled w .wp.ap
one neutron is allowed
w .wp.apto cause fission andw wp.apdad
.the w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
remaining neutrons are absorbed by the control rods. Usually cadmium or
t t boron acts as control rod material.
il.ani.ene i .
ani entet
. t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
a sl a (5) Coolants:a s l a l asl a asl a asl a
w.wp.apda w .apdadcooling system wremoves
.wpThe .wp.apda the heat generated w.wp.apda in the reactor core. w .wp.apda w
ww ww
Ordinary water, ww ww ww ww
heavy water and liquid sodium are used as coolant since they have
etet etet .entet large boiling lapoint t t
il.ani.ene under high alail.ani.ene
t t
ail.ani.n very high specific ail.ani.n heat capacity sand ail.anihave
Padasalai.Net
s asl s as l asl s as s s
ada pressure. ada daada ada ada
w.wp.apda w .wp.apdaThis coolant passes w .wp.apthrough .wp.apdaand carries awaywthe
the fuel block
w .wp.apda w
ww ww to the steam generator
heat ww through heat exchanger. ww The steam runs ww the ww
turbines which produces electricity in power reactors.
t t t t t
l.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
.
wp.apdaada .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada .
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww ww ww ww

ada ada ada ada ada
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t
l a i
l.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
.
w p.apdaada .
wp.apdaada .
w papdaada
. .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
l asla l l l
p
w.w
a
.pda p.apdad
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ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t ntet
i.ente IN PHYSICS
UVANNAMALAI . t t
e
il.ani.en RAJENDRAN
RAJE M, a l a
TEACHER
ww ww ww ww ww ww
X (ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION
UNIT-X TION)
ada TWOpa ada AND
MARKS D THR
THREEpMARKS ada QUESTIONS AND adaANSWER WERS ada
w .wp.apda w .w.pda w.w.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww 1. ww is called intrinsic
What sw
nsic w
semiconductor? ww ww ww
A semiconductor
ctor in its pure form without impurity is called
alled a
an intrinsic
.ani.ente semiconductor. Its
.ani.enconduc
teonduction is low. (e.g.)
t t t t t
l a i
l l a i
l l ail.ani.enteSilicon, Germanium. l ail.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas 2. Define Doping. sas sas sas sas
.
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada .
. .
w p.apdaada
w w w impurities to thewintrinsic w w w
ww ww The process of ad adding
ww w semicon ww is
miconductor ww
called doping. It increase reases the concentration of charge carriers s (electrons
(ele and
t t holes) in the semiconduct tenductor
t and in turn, itsetelectrical t conductivity.etet t t
a l a il.ani.ene The impurity a l a
atoms
il.ani.enare ca
called doping. a l a il.ani.ne a l a il.ani.n a l a il.ani.ene
adsas daadsas adsas adsas adsas
w .wp.apda 3. What w wp.apan
.is extrinsic c sem .wp.apda
semiconductor?
ww ww ww ww ww ww
The semiconductor ductor obtained by doping either pentavalent lent impurity
im or
trivalent impurity iss tcalle called extrinsic semiconductor.(e.g.) P - type tand a N-type
t t ente entet ente t t
a l ail.ani.ene semiconductor. a l a il.ani .
a l a il.ani .
a l a il.ani .
a l a il.ani.ene
w.wp.apda 4. Define
w .apdad
.wphole. w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww When an electron w
ctronwis excited, covalent bond ww is broken.. Now octet ww rule ww
will not be satisfied. Thus each excited electron leaves a vacancy ncy to complete
etet e tet e tet etet etet
ail.ani.n bonding. This l‘deficiency’ n . n ency’ of electron is termed
n . n as a ‘hole’ ailani.n ail.ani.n
Padasalai.Net
l aila. i l aila. i l . l
s as
ada 5. s as s as s as s as
.wp.apda What .is daada P-type
p.apcalled pe se .wp.apda
semiconductor? ada
.wp.apda
ada
.wp.apda
ada
w w w w w w w
ww ww A P - type semicon ww
miconductor is obtained bywdoping w a pure GermaniumGerm ww (or ww
Silicon) crystal with a d doping of trivalent elements (acceptor or impurity)
imp like
t t t t t
l ail.ani.ente Boron, Aluminium,
l a il.ani.e ntGallium
e and Indium.
l a il
In
.ani.e nteP-type semiconductors
l a il
tors,
.ani.e nte Holes are
l a il.ani.ente
sas sas carriers sas saas iers sas
.
wp.apdaada .wp. p aada
majorityadcharge rriers Electrons
.wp.apdaada are minority charge .wp.apdaadcarriers .wp.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww 6. ww is N-type semicond
What ww
iconductor? ww ww ww
A N - type semicon miconductor is obtained by doping a pure Germanium Germ (or
t t Silicon) crystal with t ta do doping of pentavalent t t elements (donor or tim impurity)
t like t t
adsas Phosphorus, s sArsenicc and Antimony. s sIn N-type semiconductors, ss Ele
Electrons aredadsas
.wp.apda .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.ap
a
ww
w majority
ww
w charge carriers iers H Holes
ww are minority charge
w
wwcarriers
w
ww
w
ww
w
7. Define junction potentia tential or barrier potential.
When P - type
t t
il.ani.ene i .ani entype
. et a and N - type semiconductors
i .ani entet
.
combine
i
ine teto
.ani en t form PN
. t t
il.ani.ene
a sl a junction, due asl a
to l diffusion
ffusion of majority asl a l charge carriers a asl a l
depletion letion region is asl a
w.wp.apda formed
w pdad the junction
.wp.anear nction. It
w .wp.apdad
prevents the charge .wp.apda to further
carriers
w furthe .wp.apda
diffusion
w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
across the junction.
Because a potenti otential difference is set up by the immobile bile ionsio in this
s asl ail.ani.n depletion region.
s asl . ni
ailaThis . n is diffe
difference in potential
s asl aila. ni . n across the depletion
s asl . ni .
ailan layern
laye is called
s asl ail.ani.n
ada ada aa a a l approximately ada
w.wp.apda w .wp.apdapotential or junction
the barrier jun
w .apdad
.wppotential. This barrier.w
w .apdad
ppotential appr
w .wp.apda w
ww ww
equals0.7 V for Silicon con w a
w
and 0.3 V for Germanium. ww ww ww
8. What is P-N junction dio diode? Give its symbol.
t t t ni.entet is fused t
l a i
l .ani.ente A P-N junction
l a il
e te
.ani. n diod
n diode is formedlailwhen .ani.ente a P -type semiconduct l a il.nductor
a l a il.ani.ente
sas sas saasa device with single sas N jun sas
.
w p.apdaada .w .apdaada semicondu
with a pN-type iconductor.p.apItdaadis
.w .wp.apdaada P-N junction. The
.wp.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww
Schematic representation tationww and circuit symbolis given ww below. ww ww
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
l asla l l l
p
w.w
a
.pda p.apdad
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w.w.apda
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ww ww ww ww ww ww
XII STD. PHYSICS
t t t t ntet
i.ente IN PHYSICS
UVANNAMALAI . t t
RAJE M, l a
M.Sc.,
TEACHER
ww 9. ww is meant by rectific
What ww
ectification? ww ww ww
The process of converting
con alternating current into direct curre
current is called
etet et u
i.entvice etet etet etet
s asl ail.ani.n rectification.sTheasl ail.andevice used for rectification
s asl ail.ani.n is called rectifier.
ada A P-N junctionada diode is used us as ada
rectifier. ada ada
ww 10. ww is called Zener
What ww Give its circuit symbol.
er dio
diode? ww ww ww
Zener diode is a rreverse biased heavily doped Silicon diode
diod which is
t toetbe operated t t t
l a i
l .ani.ente specially designed l a i
l.ani.ento o in the.nbreakdown
l aila i.ente l ail.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas region. The as
scircuit symbo
symbol of Zener sasdiode is given sas sas
.
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada .
. .
w p.apdaada
w w
below. w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
11. Give the applications ns of Zener diode.
t t Voltage regulators tators,
t Peak clippers,etCalibrating t voltages, eProvide Pro t fixed t t
l a il.ani.ene l ail.ani.enine a network l a il.ani.ne Meter protection l a .ani.nte
ilagainst l a il.ani.ene
a
adsas reference a voltage
a ne for biasing,
a a agains damage a
dsas p.apdad
asas adsas adsas
w .wp.apda from w .wp.apda
accidental application
lication of
w .w excessive voltage. w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
12. Write a note on bipolar olar jjunction transistor (BJT).
t t The bipolart t junc junction transistor t (BJT) t t t t t
a l ail.ani.ene ee
consists ofsaslaail.ani.nsemiconductor
semic a l il.ani.ene or
(Silicon
adsa s ada adsa s asa s adsa s
w.wp.apda w .wp.apda crystal in which
Germanium) wh w.w .apdaN-type
pan material w.w p.apdad w .wp.apda w
ww w
iswsandwiched between een wtwot
w
P-type materials ww ww ww
called PNP transistor istor or a P -type material
ail.ani.n sandwiched between n .n n two N-type materials ail.ani.n called ail.ani.n ail.ani.n
Padasalai.Net
l l aila. i l l l
s
ada as s
ada as s
ada as s
ada as s
ada as
.wp.apda NPN transistor.
w w w w w w
ww ww The three region regions ww formed are called ww ww ww
emitter (E), base (B) a and collector (C). The
t t ni.entet and t t
l ail.ani.ente schematic symbol
l a il.ani.e nt
and nd
e circ
circuit symbol ofi.aPNP
l a l l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente
sas NPN transistors sas sas sas sas
.
wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada are given below. . wp .apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada
w w w of common base w w w
ww 13. ww the circuit diag
Draw ww
diagram ww configurations tions of ww NPN ww
transistor.
t t Input terminal t –t EmEmitter, Output terminal t t –Collector, t t t t
adsas Commondterminal ss - Base,
Base ss ss ss
.wp.apda .wp.apaada . wp .apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada
ww
w Input
ww current = IE ; Output
w utput ww current = IC
w
ww
w
ww
w
ww
w
The input signal signa (VBE) is applied across emitter - base se junction.
jun The
output signal (VCB) is
ni.entet
il.a14. i .ani entsetmea
.
measured across collector
i .ani entet - base junction.i.ani.entet
. t t
il.ani.ene
a sl a Draw the scircuit asl a l diagr
diagram of common
asla l emitter l
configurations
as a lations of NPN asl a
transistor. w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
Input terminal – Ba Base, Output
terminal -Collector,,
etet t
eteEmitte etet etet etet
s asl ail.ani.n Common terminal
s asl ail.ani.-n Emitter, Input alail.ani.n
s s s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada ada ada ada ada
w.wp.apda w .wp.apIdBa; Output curre
current= current=I w .Cwp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww The input signal w
signaw (VBE) is ww ww ww
applied across base - emi emitter junction.
t t t t t
l a i
l .ani.ente The output signal l a il
e t e
.ani. (VCE) is
n i measuredlail.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente
sas asaas - emitter asaas asaas asaas
. p.apdaada across pcollector
.apdad itter jjunction. p.apdad p.apdad p.apdad
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
l asla l l l
p
w.w
a
.pda p.apdad
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t t t t ntet
i.ente IN PHYSICS
UVANNAMALAI . t t
e
il.ani.en RAJENDRAN
RAJE M, a l a
TEACHER
ww ww ww ww ww ww
15. Draw the circuit diagr
diagram of common emitter configurations
ations of NPN
s asl ail.ani.n transistor. saslail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada Input terminal ada – Base, Ou ada
Output terminal - ada ada
ww ww
Emitter, Common termina ww-
rminal Collector, ww ww ww
Input current=IB ; Output
tput ccurrent=IE
t The input t sig tet t t
l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l.ani.ente signal (VBC) .ni.enis
l .ani.ente
sas applied da sas
across base
ase - collector as
sjunction. sas sas
.
w p.apdaada .
w p.ap ada .
. .
w p.apdaada
w The w w w w w
ww ww output signal (VEC) is ww measured across ww ww ww
emitter - collector junction nction.
16.t t Give the relation ebetwee tetween
t E and β t t
il.ani.ene il.ani.ne il.ani.ene n.entet
šµð alail.ai
t t
il.ani.ene
adsas base mode,C 6adCašµ
l a l a l a l a
a
adsas a
adsas current
Forward nt ga
gain in common a adsaDs a
adsas
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.p — ŒA— w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww šµ ww ww
Forward current gain in common emitter mode,β 6 Cšµ ð D
nt ga
Ó ŒA—
t t t two equations, wen.ehave
ni.enteve t t t t t t
l ail.ani.ene From the
l a il.aabove l a il.ai ne l a il.ani.ene l a il.ani.ene
daadsfa (or) β 6 › .p.apdaadsa
a s as as a s a s
.wpC.ap6
adsa adsa adsa
w.wp.apda w 7vf 7
7s› w w w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
17. Distinguish between n ana
analog and digital signal.
Analog tSign
e
n tet ente Signal e ntetDigital Signal etet etet
n . n . n . ail.ani.n ail.ani.n
Padasalai.Net
l .
aila i It is continuously
l . i
aila sly va varying . i
Itlaicontains
la only two discrete l l
s
ada as s
aa as s
aa as s
ada as s
ada as
w.wp.apda w .apdad or current
.wpvoltage rrent w.w p.apdad values of voltages w .wp.apda (i.e.) w .wp.apda w
ww ww with respect to o timeww low (OFF)and ww high (ON) ww ww
t tet tet tet tet

l ail.ani.ente These alasignals il.ani.en ls are These
l
e
ail.ani.n signals are l ail.ani.n
e
l ail.ani.n
e
sas s s s as s as s as
apdaada adaada
employed in recti rectifying adaada employed in signal adaada adaada
w .
wp. w.wp.p w.wp.p w.wp.p w.wp.p w
ww w
w circuits and transist w
ansistor w w
processing.wcommunication w w ww
Amplifier circuits etc.,
la ni.entet
il.a18. State De-Morgan’s
l a n
il.ai. en te t
theor
theorems.
l a il.ani.ene
t t
l a il.ani.ene
t t
l a
t t
il.ani.ene
a
adsas a a a a
Theorem -ad1sa:s adsas adsas adsas
ww ww The complement ent o wwthe sum of two logical
of wwinputs is equal al to the w
t wproduct ww
of its complements.A ˜˜˜˜˜˜
Y ˜˜
B 6 Aœ . œB
t t Theorem - 2 : i.ni.entet t t t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene a l a l a a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s sa s
Theadcomplement ent o of the product s
adsa of two logical inputs s
adsais equal qual to the sum adsa s
.wp.apda .wp.apda ˜˜˜˜˜˜ œ .wpœ.apda .wp.apda .wp.apda
ww
w w complements.A. B 6wAw Y B
ofwitsw w
ww
w
ww
w
ww
w
19. What is an integrated ed cir
circuit?
An integrated t circu
circuit (IC) or a chip eor
l
etet
ail.ani.n l il.ani.ene
aof
t
l ni.nteta microchip is anlaielectro
ail.aof
lectronic
i.ente
t
l,.ancapacitors,
circuit,
l ail.ani.n
etet
s
ada as which consists adas as thousan
ousands to millions
s
ada as transistors, resistors,
s
ada as capa etc. s
ada as
w.wp.apda w .wp.apdaon a smallll flat p
integrated piece
w .apdaSilicon.
.wpof w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
20. What are the application ations of integrated circuits (ICs?)
t Low cost, great teatt performance,
per Very small tet in size, High reliability liability t t
l a i
l .ani.ente They can function l a il.ani e
. n
as an amplifier, i .ani
oscillator,
l a l
e
. n
timer, and i
microproc
l a l .ani.ente
roprocessor and l a il.ani.ente
.
w p.apdaada computer.wp.apdamemory. .wp .apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada
w w w w w w
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t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
l asla l l l
p
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a
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t t .ni.ente
t
.ni.ente
t
.ni.ente IN PHYSICS
ww ww ww ww ww ww
21. Distinguish between digital IC and analog IC Digital IC :
etet Digital ICs entet digital signals (logical etet t
.ani.ente find their etet
s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.uses s asl ail.ani.n 0 and 1). They s asl ailusually s asl ail.ani.n
ada applications ada in computers, networking ada equipment, ada most consumer
and ada
ww ww
electronics. ww ww ww ww
Analog IC:
t Analog (or) t
linear ICs work with et t t
l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l.ani.ente l ail.ani.entcontinuous values. .nLinear
l ail a i.ente ICs are l a i
l .ani.ente
sas typically used sasin audio and radio dfrequency sas amplification.daadsaas sas
.
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apaada .
w pap
. .
w p.apdaada
w 22. What w w w w w
ww ww is called modulation? ww Give its types. ww ww ww
For long distance transmission, the low frequency base band signal
t t (input signal) is superimposed t t on to a ehigh t t frequency carrier tsignal
t (radio t t
a l a il.ani.ene signal) by aasprocessa l ail.ani.enecalled modulation. a l a il.ani.ne a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsas as adsas adsas adsas
w .wp.apda (1) ww.w .apdad
pAmplitude Modulation w .wp.apda
(AM) w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww w ww ww ww ww
(2) Frequency Modulation (FM)
(3) Phase Modulation (PM)
l a ni.entet
il.a23. What is the necessity l a il.ani entet
. of modulation? l a
t t
il.ani.ene l a
t t
il.ani.ene l a
t t
il.ani.ene
a
adsa s asa as adsaas s as adsaas
.wp.apda .apdad the informationwsignal
.wpWhen .wp.apda of low frequency aada
.wpis.apdtransmitted .wp.apda
over a wlong
w w w w
ww ww
distances, ww
there will be information
w
loss occurs. wAs the frequency of thew carrier
w ww
signal is very high, it can be transmitted to long distances with less attenuation.
etet etet process, carrier etet .ani.ente
t etet
ail.ani.n Thus in the modulation ail.ani.n ail.ani.nsignal of very high ailfrequency signal ail.ani.n
Padasalai.Net
ada aa ada ada ada
w.wp.apda w wp.apdad is used to carryw.the
(radio .signal)
wp.apdabaseband signal (information)
ww 24. ww amplitude modulation
Define ww (AM) ww ww ww
If the amplitude of the carrier signal is modified according to the
t t t t t
l ail.ani.ente instantaneous amplitude
l a il.ani.ente of the baseband
l a il.ani.entesignal, then it islailcalled .ani.ente amplitude l a il.ani.ente
sas modulation saas sas sas sas
.
wp.apdaada .wp .apdaad(AM) .wp .apdaada .wp .apdaada .wp.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww 25. ww the advantages and
Give wwlimitations of amplitude ww modulation (AM) ww ww
Advantages of AM :
t t Easy transmission and
t t reception, lesser.nbandwidth t t requirementsn.entet t t
a la il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a ilai.ene a l a il.ai a l a il.ani.ene
adsas Low cost dadsas ss ss ss
.wp.apda .wp .apa .wp .apdaada .wp .apdaada .wp.apdaada
w w
Limitations of AM: w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
Noise level is high, Low efficiency, Small operating range
26.tet Define frequency modulation (FM)
en entet .entet t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
s asl ni.
a i
l .
a a il.ani .
If thesaaslfrequency of the carrier asl a il.anisignal is modified asl a
according to the a sl a
a
adad a ad adsa adsa adsa
w.wp.p w .wp.apda
instantaneous amplitude ofw .wp.apdabaseband signal wthen
the .wp.apdait is called frequency w .wp.apda w
w w ww ww ww ww ww
modulation (FM)
27. Define phase modulation (PM)
ete t etet et etet etet
l ail.ani.n l ail.ani.n
The instantaneous amplitude aoflailthe .ani.entbaseband signalamodifies
l ail.ani.n the phase saslail.ani.n
s
ada as aas as aas s s
ada s ada
w.wp.apda of the
w .apdad signal keeping
.wpcarrier w .apdadamplitude and frequency
.wpthe w .wp.apda constant is called w .wp.apda w
ww ww modulation.
phase ww ww ww ww
28. Give the advantages of phase modulation (PM)
t t t t t
l a i
l .ani.ente Advantages ofailPM
l .ani.ente: l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente
.
w p.apdaada FM signal
.wp .apdaproduced from PM signal
.wp .apdaadais very stable. .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada
w w w ww w w
ww wwcentre frequency called
The ww resting frequency iswextremely stable. ww ww
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
l asla l l l
p
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a
.pda p.apdad
www.Padasalai.Net
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w.w.apda
w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t ntet
i.ente IN PHYSICS
UVANNAMALAI . t t
e
il.ani.en RAJENDRAN
RAJE M, a l a
TEACHER
ww ww ww ww ww ww
29. Give the advantages
s and limitations of frequency modulation (FM)
(FM
etet .ani.ente:
t etet etet etet
s asl ail.ani.n Advantagessaof sl ailFM s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada Large adadecrease se in noise. ada leads to an increase
This adain signal
ignal-noise ratio. ada
ww ww The operating g rangeww is quite large. The wtransmission
rang w efficien w very
fficiencywis ww
high as all the transmitte
smitted power is useful.FM bandwidth covers
overs the entire
t t h t t t
l a i
l .ani.ente frequency range l a i
l.aniwhich
.enteich humans can hear.
l ail.ani.ente Due to this, FMlailradio
.ani.ente has better l a i
l .ani.ente
sas quality compared sas to AM radio. ra sas sas sas
.
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada .
w papdaada
. .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww Limitations off FMw:w ww ww ww
FM requires a muc much wider channel.
t t FM transmitters terst and
an receivers are more t t complex and costly. t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene In FM a l ail.ani.enon,
reception, les
less area is l a
covered
a il.ani.enecompared to AM. a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
w .wp.apda 30. Compare
w .wp.apdaFM and PM? M? w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
PM wave is similar imilar to FM wave.PM generally uses a smaller aller bandwidth
than FM. In other twords, words in PM, more information can be sent in a given
i . ni entet
. i . ni enet
. i . ni entet
. i . ni entet
. t t
il.ani.ene
a sl a l a bandwidth. Hence,
a sl a l a phase modulation asl a provides
l a high transmission
asl a l aion speed
s on a asl a
w .wp.apda .wp.apda
givenwbandwidth. w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww . ww ww ww ww ww
e ntet Draw the circuit.ndiagram e n e t
tagram etet t
.enteworking. etet
n . . ail.ani.nrectifier and explain ail.aniits ail.ani.n
Padasalai.Net
l aila. i
31. l aila i of a half wave l l w l
s
ada as s
ada as aas as s
ada as s
ada as
w .wp.apda w .wpIn.apdaa half wave e rect
w w .apdad either
rectifier.pcircuit,
ww w
awpositive half or the e neg ww
negative half of the ww ww ww
AC input is passed through throug while the other
t t t t t t t
l a il.ani.e n e half is blocked.
l a l.ani. e one half of the linput
Only
i e n a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
.wp.apdaada wave reaches
.wp .apdaada the outpu .w .apdaada it is
utput. Therefore,
p .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww half wave rectifi
called ww This circuit
ectifier. ww ww ww
consists of a trans
transformer, a P-N
t t junction diode and a
t tresis
resistor (RL)here, P-N t t t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsas junction diode s sacts ass a rectifying re diode.
ss ss ss
.wp.apda .wp .apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada
w During w w w w w
ww ww positive half cycle yclewof ow input During negative ww half cycle cle of input ww ww
AC AC
i .ani enteTerminal
. t A becomes positive
i .ani entesitive
. t Terminal
i .ani entet B becomes positive
. t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
asl a l with respect to
asl a l
terminal inal B a l a
with
s l respect to terminal asl
A.a asl a
w .wp.apda The diode
w .wp.apdais forward d bia
biasedw .wp.apda The diode isw.wpreverse .apdad biased and w.wp.apdad w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
and hence it conducts hence it does not conducts nducts
The
t current flows through tgh the load No current t passes through nR.eLnteand
.ani.enteresistor RL and laAC et
.ani.envoltage .ani.enisteno voltage the drop
t etet
s asl a il s as
il oltage s there
asl a il s aslaip l.aiacross
acro RL. s asl ail.ani.n
ada aa aa ada aa
w .wp.apda developedw .apdad RL constitu
.wpacross nstitutesw.the
wp.apdad (The reversewsaturation .wp.apda curren
urrent in w.w p.apdad w
ww outputwwvoltage ˜ ww a diode w
w
is negligible) ww ww
p
t t t t t
l a i
l.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
.
w p.apdaada .
wp.apdaada .
w papdaada
. .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
l asla l l l
p
w.w
a
.pda p.apdad
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ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t ntet
i.ente IN PHYSICS
UVANNAMALAI . t t
e
il.ani.en RAJENDRAN
RAJE M, a l a
TEACHER
ww ww The output wavefor ww
aveform is shown below. ww ww ww
The output of the half h wave rectifier is not a
t t t t t A etet etet
l
e e
ail.ani.n steady dc svoltage l
e e
ail.ani.n but a pulsating l i.ente
ail.anwave. l ail.ani.n l ail.ani.n
s
ada as as s as s as s as
constant oradaa steady volta voltage isprequired ada which can ada ada
ww bewwobtained with the he he ww of filter circuits and
help ww ww ww
voltage regulator circuits. cuits. Efficiency (•) is the
t ntcetpow t t t
l a il.ani.ente ratio of the output l a il.ani.edc power to the ac input
l a il.ani.entepower l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente
sas supplied dto as circuit.
sthe uit. Its
It value as half wave
sfor sas sas
.wp.apdaada .wp .apaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada
w w is 40.6 %
rectifier w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
32. Explain the construction ction and working of a full wave rectifier.
t t Full wave rectifier: t t ni.entet t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene The l a il.ani.eneand negative
positive
a n l
half
a a il.acycles of the a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsas aada
ss adsas adsas adsas
w .wp.apda AC w .wp.apdsignal
input pass s thro
through w .wp.apdacircuit
this and hence w .wp.apda
it w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
is called the full wave e rectifier.
rect
It consists oft two P
P-N junction diodes, a center
i . ni entet
. i . ni enet
. i . ni entet
. t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
asl a l a tapped transformer,
asl a l a and a load resistorasl a l(R
a L). asl a asl a
adsa asa s
aada as the ground.p.apdaada
s adsa
w .wp.apda w .apdadcentre (C)) is usually
.wpThe u w.w p.apdtaken w w w .wp.apda w
ww w
orwzero voltage reference
w
rencewpoint. Due to the centre wwtap ww ww
transformer, the output voltage rectified by each diode is only one half of the
e ntet .ani.ente
t etet etet etet
n . total secondary ailvoltage. ail.ani.n ail.ani.n ail.ani.n
Padasalai.Net
l aila. i l l l l
s
ada as s as
a a half cycle of input s as
ada During negative s
ada as s
ada as
w .wp.apda w w .apdad
During.ppositive
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda half cycle of w.wp.apda w
ww ww AC ww wwinput AC ww ww
Terminal M is positive,, G is at zero Terminal M is negative, G is at zero
t t t t t and N is attn.entpo et t
l a il
e n e
.ani. potential and N la isil.aat e e
ni. negativ
n egative
l a il.ani.ente
potential
l a il.ai positive l a il.ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
.wp.apdaada potential.
.wp .apdaada .wp.apdaada potential. .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada
w w w ww w w
ww ww D1 is forward biased.
Diode iased. ww Diode D1 iswreverse biased. ww ww
Diode D2 is reverse biased. iased. Diode D2 is forward biased.
t t t t t talong t t
l a il.ani.ene D1 conducts and l a ilcurrent
.ani.enent
e flo flows along D2i.nconducts
la l a i.ente and current flows
l a .ani.entea
illows l a il.ani.ene
a
adsas the path MD a
as
ad1sAGC a
adsasthe path ND2BGCadaadsas a a
adsas
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w.wp.apda w .wp.p w .wp.apda w
ww Thewwvoltage appears across wwRL in The voltage wwappears across ss RL in ww ww
the direction G to C the same direction G to C
t t t t t t t t t t
adsa s adsas adsa s Hence in a dfulladsawave
s ve rectifier
re bothdadsa s
w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w.wp.apda positive and negative w .wp.apa halflf cycles cyc of
w wp.ap
.the a
w
ww ww w w w w w w ww
input signal pass through the circuit ci in the
t t same tedirection. The output ut te waveform
wa is
a i
l .ani.ente a il.ani.ente a i
l .
a ni.en t a i
l .
a ni.en t ail.ani.n
etet
s asl s asl s shown
asl below. s asl s asl
ada ada ada ada ada
w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda Though w .wp.apdapositive
both ve and
an negative
w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
half cycles of ac input are re rec rectified, the
output is still pulsating in nature. na The
. ni e
. ntet . ni e
. ntet . n i e
. ntet . ni e
. ntet .ani.ente
t
l a i
l a l ail a efficiency
l a i
l a (η) of full wave l a i
l arectifier
rectifi is twice l a i
l
adsaas as
daadsawave sas
aada asaas adsaas
w .wp.apda that of.w
w pa.aphalf rectifi .wp.apdis
rectifier and
w found to be 81.2.w .apdad
p%. w .wp.apda
w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
l asla l l l
p
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XII STD. PHYSICS
t t t t ntet
i.ente IN PHYSICS
UVANNAMALAI . t t
RAJE M, l a
M.Sc.,
TEACHER
ww 33. ww
Transistor functions s aswawswitch. Explain. ww ww ww
Transistor as a switch:
itch:
etet The transistor etet t t .ani.ente
il.ani.enecut-off regions alfunction
t like an etet
s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.nor in saturation s asl aand s sailnctions s asl ail.ani.n
ada electronic ada
switch thatt help
helps to pturn a or OFF a given acircuit
adON ada byy a sm small control ada
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .w.apda w .wp.pda w .wp.apda w
ww ww
signal. ww ww ww ww
Presence of dc source
rce a
at the input (saturation region):
t When a.ni.enthigh et input t t t
l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l a l ail.ani.ente l ail.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas voltage (V s=as +5 V)) is ap
applied, daadsaas sas sas
. p.apdaada . p.apdainada p.ap papdaada
. p.apdaada
ww
w w the w w
ww base rent www(I.w
current B) ww
w.w
ww
w .
w
ww
w
increases and in turn
t t increases theetet collector col t t t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene current. The a l a .ani.n
iltransisto sistor will a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
w .wp.apda move w pdad the satu
.wp.ainto saturationw .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
region (turned ON).The
ON
increase in collector tor cu current (IC) increases the voltage drop rop a across RC,
t t entet entet entet t t
a l ail.ani.ene thereby lowering a l a il .ani . the e ou
output voltage, a l a il .ani .
close to zero. The a l a i
transistor
l.a ni .
sistor acts like a a l a il.ani.ene
w.wp.apda closedw .apdad and is equivalent
.wpswitch equiv w.w pdaON
p.ato condition. w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww
Absence of dc source rce at wwthe input (cutoff region): ww ww ww
A low input voltage oltage (Vin = 0 V), decreases the base current rrent (IB) and in
etet et
.ilani.entcollect
t
.ilani.ente transistor will move entet the cut-off etet
ail.ani.n turn decreaseslathe collector current (IlCa).The ailani.into
e ail.ani.n
Padasalai.Net
l l . l
s
ada as aas as adas as s as s as
.wp.apda .apdad OFF).The
region.p(turned .The decrease.wp.apda in collector current .wp.ap daadadecrease
(IC) reases the drop .wp.apda
ada
w w w w w w w
ww ww RC, thereby increa
across ww the output voltage,
increasing wwclose to +5 V. ww ww
The transistorr acts as an open switch which is considered red as a the OFF
t t t t t
l ail.ani.ente condition. It is manifested
l a il .ani.e nt fested
e that, a high
l a
input
il .ani.e nte gives a low output
l a il nt
.ani. a low input
and
e e
l a il.ani.ente
sas gives a aphigh a
daadsasoutput. The Therefore, sas a
daadsas ass an inverter.pin sas
.
wp.apdaada .wp . .wp.apdaaadatransistor can be . wp.apused w .apdaada
w w
computer logic circuitry. www w w w
ww ww ww ww ww
34. State and prove De Morg Morgan’s First and Second theorems.
t t De Morgan’s First t
tTheor
Theorem : t t t t t t
adsas The complement
ss ent o of the sum sofs two logical inputsdis sequal
s al to the t productdadsas
.wp.apda apdaada ˜˜˜˜˜˜ ˜˜ œ œ
apdaada apaada aa
w . p .
w complements.A Y Bw6wA . B
ofwitsw w w .wp. w . wp. w.wp.p w
ww ww ww ww
Proof:
˜˜˜˜˜˜˜
t t
il.ani.ene
The Boolean enteequat
equation
t for NOR gate enteist Y = A Y B aBni.en
tet t t
il.ani.ene
œ il.œ
i .ani . i .ani .
a
adsa sl a TheadBoolean
asl a l equat
equation for a l
bubbled
as a l AND gate is Y = A
asl a. asl a
da sa daadsa
.wp.ap˜˜˜˜˜˜˜˜
asa
p.apdad Aœ . œB
adsa
w.wp.apda w .wp.apA B A+
A+B w Y ž œ w .œž
w w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
0 0 0 1 1 1 1
etet 0 1 t 1 0 1t 0 0 etet etet
l ail.ani.n l a il .ani.ente l a il .ani.ente l a il.ani.n l ail.ani.n
s
ada as 1asaas 0 1 0
adas as 0 1 s
ada as 0 s
ada as
d
w.wp.apda w .wp.apd1a 1 1 w .wp.apda 0 0 w .0wp.apda 0 w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
Thus De Morgan’s gan’s First Theorem is proved. It also says that a NOR gate
t is equal to a bubbled tdetAND gate. t t t
l a i
l .ani.ente The corresponding
l a il .ani e
. n
nding logic circuit l i .ani.ente
diagram.
a l l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
apdaada adaada adaada adaada adaada
w .
w p. w.wp.p w.wp.p w.wp.p w.wp.p w
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
l asla l l l
p
w.w
a
.pda p.apdad
www.Padasalai.Net
w.w p
w.w
a
. pda p
w.w . pda
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a p
w.w.apda
w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
XII STD. PHYSICS
t t t t ntet
i.ente IN PHYSICS
UVANNAMALAI . t t
RAJE M, l a
M.Sc.,
TEACHER
ww wwMorgan’s Second the
De ww
theorem: ww ww ww
The complement
ent o
of the product of two logical inputs is equal
qual to the sum
etet et˜˜˜˜˜
et ˜ œ œ etet etet etet
s asl ail.ani.n of its complements.A.
s asl ail.ani.n B 6 A Y B saslail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada ada ada ada ada
Proof:
ww for NAND gate is Yw=w˜˜˜˜˜
w w w w w w
ww ww The Boolean equat equation A. B ww ww
The Boolean equat equation for a bubbled OR gate is Y = *œ Y œ +
i .ani.ente
t A Bi
t
.ani.ente A.B ˜˜˜˜˜
. ž i.ani.enteœ t œž Aœ Yi.anœBi.entet i .ani.ente
t
sasl a l sas l a l sasl a l a l a l sasl a l
p.apdaada p.a0pdaada 0 0 p.apda1ada 1 1 p.apdaadsas 1 p.apdaada
w .
w w .w w .w w .w w .w w
ww ww 0 1 0ww 1 1 ww 0 1 ww ww
1 0 0 1 0 1 1
t t 1 t t t t 0i.ni.entet t t
a l a il.ani.ene a l a il1.ani.ene 1 0
a l a il.ani.ene0 0
a l a l a a l a il.ani.ene
adsas Thus s Morgan’s
adsaDe gan’s First Theorem adsas is proved. It also sas a NAND
adsays, NA gate is adsas
ww equal
ww to a bubbled OR R ga
gate.
ww ww ww ww
The corresponding nding logic circuit diagram
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww ww ww ww
35. t What is called modulati dulation?

t Explain thetetypes t of modulation on twithwit help of
.ani.ente necessary diagrams. .ani.ente .ani.en .ani.ene etet
ail.ani.n
Padasalai.Net
a l a i
l a l ail a l a i
l a l a i
l a l
s
ada s s
ada s s
ada s s
ada s s
ada s
Modulation: w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
For long distance ance transmission, the low frequency baseba aseband signal
(input signal) is superim uperimposed onto a high frequency radio dio signal
s by a
t tet tet tet t
l ail.ani.ente process called l a il.ani e
.
modulatio n ulation. In the l a il.
modulation
ani e
. n process, a very
l a il.ani e
.
highn frequency l a il.ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
.
wp.apdaada signal .w .apdaadacarrier signal (radio
called
p .wp . aada is used to carry
apdsignal) .wp. aadabaseban
apdthe eband signal.
.wp.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww of modulation: ww
Types ww ww ww
(1) Amplitude modulati dulation (AM)
t t t t (FM) lail.ani.ente
t t t t t
a la il.ani.ene (2) Frequency
a l a
e e
il.aimodulat
n . odulation
n
adsas (3) .p Phase asas ation ((PM).p.apdaadsa
s adsas adsas
w .wp.apda w w .apdad modulation w w w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww
Amplitude modulation tion (Aww :
(AM) ww ww ww
If the amplitude de of the carrier signal is
t t modified according t t t t t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.en to the instantaneous
e
adsa s amplitude s
aofsa the baseban seband signal, s
asathen it is asa s asa s
w.wp.apda w .wp.apdad w .wp.apdad w .wp.apdad w .wp.apdad w
ww called
ww amplitude modu modulation.
ww Here the ww ww ww
frequency and the e phase
pha of the carrier
etet signal remain constan nstant.
t We can esee tet etet etet
l ail.ani.n l a il.ani.ente l ail.ani.n in l ail.ani.n l ail.ani.n
s
ada as clearly that s
ada a
the
s carrier rier w
wave is s
ada a
modified
s s
ada as s
ada as
w.wp.apda w .wp.apda to the
proportion e a .wp.apda of the
amplitude
ww ww ww ww ww ww
baseband signal. Ampli Amplitude modulation is
t used in radio and TV tetbroa
broadcasting. t t t
l a i
l .ani.ente Advantagessaof l a il.a
AMni e
. n
: l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente
sas s saas sas sas
.
w p.apdaada .wp .apdaada transmissio
Easy ission and
.wp apdaadreception,
. .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww bandwidth requirem
lesser ww , Low cost
quirements ww ww ww
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
l asla l l l
p
w.w
a
.pda p.apdad
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w.w p
w.w
a
. pda p
w.w . pda
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a p
w.w.apda
w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
XII STD. PHYSICS
t t t t ntet
i.ente IN PHYSICS
UVANNAMALAI . t t
RAJE M, l a
M.Sc.,
TEACHER
ww ww
Limitations of AM: ww ww ww ww
Noise level is high, Low efficiency,
e Small operating range
s asl ail.ani.n Frequency smodulation
a sl ail.ani.n tion ((FM) : s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada ada ada If the frequency adathe carrie
of carrier signalpis ada
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .w.apda w
ww ww ww modified according ww to the inst ww
instantaneous ww
amplitude of the baseband signal, ignal, then it is
t t called .ni.efrequency t modulation. t t
l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l.ani.ente l a il a nte
l a il.ani.ente Here the l a il.ani.ente
sas sas sas
amplitude and the phase saof
s the he ca carrier signaldaadsaas
apdaada apdaada apdaada apdaada a
w .
w p. w .
w p. w .wp.
remain constant. w .wp. w.wp.p w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
When the amplitude ude of the
t t t t baseband t tsignal is zero, the e frequency
fre
tet of t t
a l a il.ani.ene a l ail.ani.ene the a l a il.ani.ene
modulated signal isa l a
theil.aeni.ensam
same as the a l a il.ani.ene
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apdacarrier signal. w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
The frequency of the modulated modul wave
t t increasest t when the amplitude plitude of the
. i . ni ene
. i . ni entet
. t t
il.ani.ene
a sl a asl a l a baseband
asl a l a signal increases asl a l a in th
the positive asl a
w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apdadirection (A, C).The w .wp.apdad
increase in am amplitude
w .apdad
.wpin w
ww wwnegative half cycle
the ww
le (B, D) reduces the frequency ww of the modulated ulated wave. ww ww
When the frequenc quency of the baseband signal is zero (no o input
inp signal),
etet e tetin th e t
tthe
e e tet etet
ail.ani.n n . n n . n aila n at its normal saslail.ani.n
It t nis.
Padasalai.Net
l there is no change l aila. i the frequency l aila. i
of carrier wave. l . i
s
ada as s
ada as s
ada as s as
ada ncy. Practically ada
.wp.apda frequency
.wp.apdaand is called lled a as centre
.wp.apda frequency or resting .wp.apdafrequency. .wp.apda
w w w w w w
ww 75wwkHz is the allotted ed fre ww
frequency of the FM transmitter. ww ww ww
Advantages of FM :
t t This ntet tet t
l ail.ani.ente Large decrease iin
l a l nte
.ani.enoise.
oise. T leads to an
l a il.ani.eincrease in signal-noise
l a iise
l.ani.enratio.
rat
l a il.ani.ente
sas The operating sas sas sas sas
.
wp.apdaada .wp .apdaada range is qu quite large.
.wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp .apdaada
w The w w wwthe transmitted w w
ww ww transmission efficiency efficienww is very high as wall itted power
ww is ww
useful.FM bandwidth h cov
covers the entire frequency range which ch humans hu can
t t hear. Due to this,nFM t tradio has better quality t tcompared to AM radio. adio. t t t t
a la il.ani.ene a l a il.ai.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsas Limitations s FM:
adsaof apdaada
ss
apdaada
ss ss
apdaada
.wp.apda .apdarequires
.wpFM a muc
much .wp. .wp. .wp .
wwwider channel.
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww
FM transmitters rs and
an receivers are more complex and costly.
In FM reception,
t t
il.ani.ene i .ani enton,
. et lesless area is coveredtecompared
i .ani en t
.
to AM.
il.ani.ene
t t t t
il.ani.ene
a sl a Phase modulation asl a l (PM): asl a l asl a asl a
w.wp.apda w .apdad
.wpThe instanta
stantaneous
ww ww ww ww ww ww
amplitude of the baseband bas
signal modifies the phase of the
etet et
enteeping etet etet etet
s asl ail.ani.n carrier signal
s asl ail.ani.keeping the
ada ada aa ada ada
w.wp.apda w .wp.apda and
amplitude frequency
freq w.w p.apdad w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww
constant is called
w
led w phase ww ww ww
modulation. This modula odulation is
t t freq t t t
l a i
l .ani.ente used to generate l a il.ani.e nte frequency l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente
sas asaas asaas asaas asaas
. p.apdaada modulatedp.apdadsignals. p.apdad p.apdad p.apdad
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
l asla l l l
p
w.w
a
.pda p.apdad
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w.w
a
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w.w.apda
w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t .ni.ente
t
.ni.ente
t
.ni.ente IN PHYSICS
ww ww ww
When the modulating signal goes positive, the amount of phase ww ww ww
lead increases with the amplitude of the modulating signal. Due to this, the
etet il.ani.ene
carrier signal isacompressed t t or its frequency etet etet etet
s asl ail.ani.n s asl s asl ail.ani.n is increased. saslail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada On ad a other hand, theadanegative
the ada half cycle p.a a baseband signal
of adthe ada
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.p w .w pda w .wp.apda w
ww ww
produces a phase lag win w the carrier signal.ww Hence similar to frequency ww ww
modulated wave, phase modulated wave also comprises of compressions and
t rarefactions. t t t t
l a i
l .ani.ente l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente
sas When sasthe signal voltage disadszero as (A, C and E) the sa s
carrier frequency isdaadsaas
apdaada apdaada apa a apdaada a
w .
w p. w .w
unchanged.
p .
The frequency w .wp. w .wp. w.wp.p w
ww ww ww shift in carrier wave ww frequency exists inww phase ww
modulation as well.
t t The frequency tshift depends on n.entet t t t t
il.anof l a il.ai and l a il.ani.ene l a il.ani.ene
a
adsas (i) Amplitude
asasa the modulating signal
a
adsas a
adsas a
adsas
w .wp.apda (ii) ww.w .apdadfrequency of the w
pThe .wp.apda
signal. w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww w ww ww ww ww
Advantages of PM:
t t FM signal producedt from PM signal is very tstable.
. t
il.ani.ene is extremely stable.
t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
a sl a The centre frequency asl a l a called resting frequency
asl a asl a asl a
adsa ada s ada s ada s s
ada
ww ww ww
UNIT –XI (RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN PHYSICS) ww ww ww
etet t
i.ente THREE MARKS .ani.ente
t etet etet
ail.ani.n ail.an ail.ani.n ail.ani.n
Padasalai.Net
l TWO MARKS l AND l ailQUESTIONS AND ANSWERS l l
s
ada as s
ada as s
ada as s
ada as s
ada as
ww 1. ww
Distinguish ww
between Nanoscience ww
and Nanotechnology. ww ww
Nanoscience:
t ni.entet t ntet t
l ail.ani.ente It is the i.ascience
l a l
of objects with
l a i
l .ani.ente typical size 1 - l100
ail.ani.enm l a i
l .ani.ente
sas sas sas −9 saas sas
.
wp.apdaada .
w apdaadameans one - billionth
Nano
p . .
w p.apdaadaof a metre. (i.e) .10 p
w apdaÅ
.
ad
.wp.apdaada
w w w w w w w w w w
w Nanotechnology:
w w w ww ww
It is a technology involving the design, production, characterization and
t t application of nano tstructured
t materials n.entet t t t t
a la il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ai a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsas 2. What is the s
daadsadifference ss
betweendNanomaterials
apaada
and Bulk s
s materials?
apdaada
ss
apdaada
.wp.apda .wpIf.apthe particle of aww .wp.
solid is of size less than .wp. .wp.
ww 100 nm, it is said wtow be a
w w w w w w
ww ww ww
‘nano solid’. When the particle size exceeds 100 nm, it is a ‘bulk solid’
t t Though nanotetand bulk solids havetesame chemical composition, nano
il.ani.ene i .ani en
. i .ani en t
. i .ani entet
. t t
il.ani.ene
a sl a form of theasmaterialasl a l shows strikingly asl a l
different properties when
asl a l compared to its asl a
adsa da adsa adsa adsa
w.wp.apda bulk .wp.apda
counterpart.
w w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
3. Explain how nano structures are made in the laboratory?
Nano in laboratories:
etet i.ente
t
i.ente
t t
.entethe etet
s asl ail.ani.n The nano
s asl ail.anstructures made inasthe
s l ail.anlaboratory mimic some
s asl ail.aniof nature’s
s asl ail.ani.n
ada daada structures. ada ada ada
w.wp.apda amazing
w .wp.apnano w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww There are two ways wwof preparing the nanomaterials. ww They are. w
w ww
(1) Top - Down approach, (2) Bottom - Up approach
t et t t t
l a i
l .ani.ente (1) Top - Down l a il.ani.entapproach: l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente
sas sas sas saas solids in to nanodadsaas
apdaada apdaadamaterials are synthesized
Nano apdaada by breaking down apdaadbulk aa
w .
w p. w .wp . w .wp. w .wp. w.wp.p w
ww ww
sizes.(e.g) Ball milling, sol-gel, ww lithography (2) Bottom ww - up approach: ww ww
Nano materials are synthesized by assembling the atoms or molecules
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
l asla l l l
p
w.w
a
.pda p.apdad
www.Padasalai.Net
w.w p
w.w
a
. pda p
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a p
w.w.apda
w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t ntet
ww ww
together. Selectively atoms wware added to create structures. ww ww ww
(e.g.) plasma etching and chemical vapour deposition
l ni.entet List the applications
ail.a4. l
etet
ail.ani.n of Nano technology.l
etet
ail.ani.n l
etet
ail.ani.n l
etet
ail.ani.n
s
ada as s as
ada storage, Defenseaand s as
adasecurity, Metallurgy s as
ada materials s
ada as
Energy and
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w.wp.pda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww
Electronics, ww
Optical engineering and communication ww ww ww
Biomedical and drug delivery, Agriculture and food, Cosmetics and paints
t t t t t
l a i
l .ani.ente Bio-technology, l a i
l
Textiles
.ani.ente l ail.ani.ente l ail.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas 5. sas
What is robotics? sas sas sas
.
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada .
w papdaada
. .
w p.apdaada
w w w w engineering, electronic w w
ww ww Robotics is an integrated ww study of mechanical ww ww ww
engineering, computer engineering and science. Robot is a mechanical device
designed with electronic t t circuitry and programmed to perform a specific t t task.
l a ni.entet
il.a6. l ail.ani.ene l a
t t
il.ani.ene l a il.ani.ene l a
t t
il.ani.ene
a
adsas What are the a
asas components of robotics?a
adsas a
adsas a
adsas
w .wp.apda w .apdadrobotic system wmainly
.wpThe .wp.apda consists of(1)Sensors, w .wp.apda (2)Power supplies, w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
(3)Control systems, (4)Manipulators, (5)Necessary software
7. t Give the types of robots.
ni.ente t t t t t t t t
a l ail.a (1) Human a l a il.ani.ene
robot: a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
w.wp.apda w .apdad robots are w
.wpCertain .wp.apda to resemble humans
made w.wp.apda in appearance wand .wp.apda w
ww ww
replicate the human activities ww like walking, lifting wand w
sensing etc.. ww ww
(2) Industrial robots:
etet ni.entet of industrial robots etet etet etet
ail.ani.n Six main ail.atypes ail.ani.n are Cartesian, sSCARA, ail.ani.n Cylindrical, saslail.ani.n
Padasalai.Net
s asl s asl s asl a sl
ada aa ada ada ada
w.wp.apda w w .apdad and vertically warticulated.
Delta, .pPolar .wp.apda They are ideal
w .wp.apdafor Arc welding, w Spot
.wp.apda w
ww ww
welding, Material handling, wwmachine tending andwother w applications. ww ww
8. What is artificial intelligence? What are its work?
t tet et bring in human like t t
l ail.ani.ente The aim i.of
l a l ani.enartificial intelligencei.ais
l a l ni.entto l a il.ani.entebehaviour in l a il.ani.ente
sas robots .Itapdworkssas sas sas sas
.p.apdaada . p . aada on,(1)Face recognition . p.apdaada . p.apdaada . p.apdaada
w w (2) w w w w w w w w w
ww ww Providing response wwto player’s actions is computer ww games ww ww
(3) Taking decisions based on previous actions
t t (4) To regulate the
t t traffic by analyzing the
t t density of traffic on roads
t t t t
adsas (5) Translate
s s words from one dlanguage ss to another dadsas ss
.wp.apda .wp .apdaada .wp.apaada . wp.apa .wp.apdaada
w 9. Give w w w w w
ww ww the applications ofwrobot w in various fields.w
w ww ww
Applications of robot:
t t Weaponry, packing, Lawn mowing,tetcutting, under water,tetagriculture,
. il.ani.en litter robot, transport. il.ani.en
t t
il.ani.ene
a sl a pool cleaning as a l
Welding,
l cutting, assembling,
a sla a sl a a sl a
adsa s
aada asa adsa adsa
w.wp.apda Vacuum
w .wp.apdcleaners, hospitals, w .wp.apdad laboratory Exploring
surgery, w .wp.apda stars, planets wetc., .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
investigation of the mineralogy of the rocks and soils on Mars, analysis of
elements found in rocks and soils.
ada ada ada ada ada
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t
l a i
l.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
.
w p.apdaada .
wp.apdaada .
w papdaada
. .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
l asla l l l
p
w.w
a
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ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t .ni.ente
t
.ni.ente
t
.ni.ente IN PHYSICS
ww ww ww
FIVE MARKS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ww ww ww
10. Mention the advantages and disadvantages of Robotics.
etet .ani.ente
t etet etet etet
s asl ail.ani.n Advantages ofailrobotics:
s asl s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada a
Theadrobots are much cheaper ada than humans. Robots ada never get tired like ada
ww ww
humans. Hence absenteeism ww in work place canwbe w reduced. Robots are wwmore ww
precise and error free in performing the task.
t Stronger .nand t t t t
l a i
l .ani.ente l a il a i.ente faster than humans l a il.ani.ente Robots can lwork a il.ani.entein extreme l a il.ani.ente
sas environmental sas conditions: extreme sas or cold, space or dunderwater.
hot sas sas
.
w p.apdaada .wp .apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apaada .wp .apdaada
w w w like bomb detection w w w
ww ww In dangerous situations ww ww and bomb deactivation, ww In ww
warfare, robots can save human lives. Robots are significantly used in handling
t t materials in chemical industries especially t int nuclear plants which t tcan lead to
l a il.ani.ene l a .entet
il.anihumans. l a il.ani.ene l a il.ani.ene l a
t t
il.ani.ene
a
adsas health hazards a
adsas in a
adsas a
adsas a
adsas
Disadvantages of robotics: w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
Robots have no sense of emotions or conscience; they lack empathy
t t and hence create an emotionless workplace. If ultimately robots t would do all
il.ani.ene i . ni .entet i . ni .entet i . ni enet
. t t
il.ani.ene
a sl a the work, and asl athe
l a humans will just asit
sl a l aand monitor them, ahealth
sl a l a hazards will asl a
adsa daadsa Unemployment s
aada adsa adsa
w.wp.apda increase
w .wp.aprapidly. w .wp.apdproblem will increase.w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww Robots can perform ww defined tasks and wwcannot handle unexpected ww ww
situations the robots are well programmed to do a job and if a small thing goes
etet .enteat big loss to the lcompany. etet If a robot malfunctions, etet etet
ail.ani.n wrong it ends lup ail.aniin ail.ani.n ail.ani.n it takes ail.ani.n
Padasalai.Net
s asl s as s as s asl s asl
ada aa ada ada ada
w.wp.apda w w .apdad the problem, wrectify
time to.pidentify .wp.apda it, and even reprogram w .wp.apda if necessary. w .wp.apda w
ww ww This process requires ww significant time. Humans ww cannot be replaced ww by ww
robots in decision making.
t t .entet et work place t
l ail.ani.ente Till the robot reaches
l a il.ani.ente the level of human l a il.aniintelligence, the humans
l a il.ani.entin l a il.ani.ente
sas will exit. apdaadsaas sas sas sas
.
wp.apdaada .wp . .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp .apdaada
w w ww w w w
ww 11. ww
Comment on the recentwadvancement in medical ww diagnosis and therapy. ww ww
(1) 3D printing:
t t Advanced n3D t printer
t systems andn.ematerials t t assist physicians t t in a range t t
a la il.ani.ene a l a il.ai.ene a l a il.ai ne a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsas of operations s sin the medical field sfrom
s audiology, dentistry, s s orthopedics anddadsas
.wp.apda apdaada apdaada apdaada aa
other .wp . .wp. .wp. w.wp.p
ww applications.
w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww
(2) Wireless brain sensors:
Wireless brain
t t
il.ani.ene i .ani .entet sensors monitori.anintracranial i .entet pressure andtetemperature
n t
il.ani.efor
t t
il.ani.ene
a sl a and then are asl a l
absorbed by the body. asl a l
Hence there is no need
asl a surgery to asl a
w.wp.apda removew pdad devices.
.wp.athese w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
(3) Robotic surgery:
Robotic surgery is a type of surgical procedure that is done using
etet il.ani.ene
t t etet ntet
il.ani.eovercome etet
s asl ail.ani.n roboticalasystems.
s s Robotically-assisted
s asl ail.ani.n surgery helps s aslato the
s asl ail.ani.n
ada aa aada ada aa
w.wp.apda w .apdad
.wplimitations of pre-existing w .wp.apdminimally-invasive w .wp.apda procedures and
surgical w.wpto.apdad w
ww ww enhance the capabilities ww of surgeons performing ww open surgery. w
w ww
t t t t t
l a i
l.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
.
w p.apdaada .
wp.apdaada .
w papdaada
. .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
l asla l l l
p
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t t t t ntet
a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.eneRAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., a l a il.ani.eB.Ed., l
ww 12. ww
Explain the various components ww of robotics. ww ww ww
Power conversion unit:
etet Robots are entet t
i.ente power, and hydraulics. etet etet
s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.powered by batteries,
s asl ail.ansolar s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada Actuators: ada ada ada ada
ww ww Converts energy into ww movement. The majority ww of the actuators produce ww ww
rotational or linear motion.
t t t t t
l a i
l .ani.ente Electric motors: l a i
l .ani.ente
sas They saare
s used to actuate as parts of the robots
sthe saslike wheels, arms,dadsaas
.
w p.apdaada .wp.apdaada .
. .p.apa
ww
w w legs, sensors, camera,
fingers,
ww ww
w weapon systems wetc.Different
w
w ww w
types ofwelectric ww
w
motors are used. The most often used ones are AC motor, Brushed DC motor,
t t Brushless DC motor, t tGeared DC motor,.netc. t t t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene PneumaticasAir a l ail.ani.ene
Muscles: a l a ilai.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsas as asas adsas adsas
w .wp.apda w .apdad are devices that
.wpThey w .apdad contract and expand
.wpcan w .wp.apda when air is pumped w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
inside. It can replicate the function of a human muscle. ey contract almost 40%
t t when the air is sucked inside them.
. t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
a sl a Muscle wires: a sl a l asl a asl a asl a
adsa asa adsa daadsa adsa
w.wp.apda w .apdad are thin strands
.wpThey w .wpof.apdawire made of shape w.wp.apmemory .wp.apda
alloys. eywcan w
ww ww
contract by 5% when electric ww current is passed through ww them. ww ww
Piezo Motors and Ultrasonic Motors:
etet t
ni.enteuse .ani.ente
t etet etet
ail.ani.n Basically, ail.awe it for industrial ailrobots. ail.ani.n ail.ani.n
Padasalai.Net
ada ada ada ada ada
Sensors:
ww ww Generally used inwtask w environments as witwprovides information wofw real- ww
time knowledge.
t t t t t
l ail.ani.ente Robot locomotion:
l a i
l .ani.ente l a il.ani.ente l ai l.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente
sas Providessas sas to a robot. The ddifferent sas types are sas
.
wp.apdaada .wp .apdaada the types of movements .wp .apdaada . wp.apaada . wp.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww (a) Legged, (b)wwWheeled, (c) Combination ww of Legged andww ww
Wheeled Locomotion, (d) Tracked slip/skid
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww ww ww ww

ada ada ada ada ada
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t
l a i
l.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
.
w p.apdaada .
wp.apdaada .
w papdaada
. .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
l asla l l l
p
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t t .ni.ente
t
.ni.ente
t
.ni.ente IN PHYSICS
ww ww ww
SOME IMPORTANTS PROBLEMS ww ww ww

s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n UNIT - I (ELECTROSTATICS)
ada ada ada ada ada
ww 1. ww
Calculate the number ofww electrons in one coulomb ww of negative charge. ww ww
Solution:
t According.nto et quantization of chargeq= t t t
l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l a i.entthe l ail.ani.ente ne
l .ani.ente
sas Here q = d1C. saSo
s the number of electrons sas in 1 coulomb ofdcharge sas is sas
.
w p.apdaada .
w p.apaada 7 l .wp.apdaada .
w papaada
. .
w p.apdaada
w w ww x 1018 electrons www w w
ww ww ‹ 6 [ 6 7. \ 7pw Ÿ=w6.25 ww ww
2. A sample of HCl gas is placed in a uniform electric field of magnitude
t t et 4 N C-1. The dipole
3il.ani×.ent10 t t t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene a l a a l a il.ani.enemoment of each a l a il.ani.enemolecule is alail.ani.ene
HCl
adsas 3.4 × 10ap-30 as Calculate theamaximum
adsCm. adsas adsas
torque experienced by each HCl adsas
w .wp.apda w .wp. da w .wp.pda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww
molecule. ww ww ww ww
Solution:
t t The maximum t t torque experienced tbyt the dipole is when t itt is aligned t t
adsa s perpendicular s
adsa to the applied field. asa s asa s asa s
.wp.apda .wp" .apda 6 p . p.apdad -19 . p.apdad . p.apdad
ww
w w
ww Ÿt- sin 90 w; w w w
= 3.14 x10 x 3x10 w 4
Nwmw w
ww
w w
ww
w
"Ÿt- 6 10.2x10 Nm. -26
3.etet A parallel plate capacitor t has square plates t of side 5 cm and separated
t by etet
.ani.n .ani.ente .ani.ente .ani.ente ail.ani.n
Padasalai.Net
a l a i
l a l a il a l a il a l a il a l
s
ada s a distance of
s
ada s 1 mm. (a) Calculate sthe
s capacitance of this
s s capacitor. (b) If a s s
.wp.apda .wp.apda is connectedwto daada
.wp.apthe
ada
.apdathe
.wpis .wpin
aa
.apdad
w 10 V wbattery capacitor, what
w charge storedw w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
any one of the plates? (The value of εo = 8.85 x 10-12 Nm2 C-2)
ee t t Solution: ee t t t t
i.ene; › ˆ.ˆ•8 \ 7pw \ k•la\il.a7p
ni.ewn|e t t ee t t
s asl ail.ani.n (a) The capacitance
s asl ail.ani.n of the capacitorsaissl aCil.an6 ; s as sasl ail.ani.n
adaada adaada aa
p.apdad o adwaK
.wp7.ap\da7p adaada
w.wp.p w.wp.p = 221.2 x 10 -13w.w w w.wp.p w
w w w w w F;
w w w w w ww
-12
C = 22.12 x 10 F; = 22.12 F
t t (b) The charge stored t t in any one of the .plates ntet is Q = CV, Then t t t t
a la il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene -12 a la ilani.e-12 a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsas Q= sas x 10 x 10 = 221.2
daad22.12 s sx 10 C ss adsas
.wp.apda .wpQ.ap= .wp.apdaada .
ww
w
ww
w 221.2 C ww
w
ww
w
ww
w
ww
w
entet UNIT
entet - 2 (CURRENT iELECTRICITY) t t t t t
l a i
l .
ani
1.
.
Compute the l a i
l .
ani
current
.
in the wire if l
aa l.ani.ente of 120 C is flowing
charge l a il.ani.ene through a alail.ani.ene
a
adsa s a
asas asaas a
adsa s adsa s
w.wp.apda copper
w pdad in 1 minute. w.wp.apdad
.wp.awire w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
Solution:
e 7kp
t The current (rate t of flow of charge) t wire is¥ 6 – 6 np.ent=et2A
in the t t
l a i
l .ani.ente la i
l.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente-1 la il.ai l ail.ani.ene
s
ada as 2. If an electric s as field of magnitude s a
570s N C , is applied s
adinas
a the copper wire, s as
.wp.apda daada
.wp.apacceleration
ada
.wp.apda by the electron. .wp.apda .wp.apda
ada
w find w
the w
experienced w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
Solution:
t t E = 570 N Ce-1te, te = 1.6 × 10-19 C, m e=te9.11 t × 10-31 kg and ae=te?t t
l
e
ail.ani. n e
l ail.ani. n [¡ •vp \ 7.al\
a7p n
il.anwi. Ÿ n.n
`7k \ 7pw Ÿ \ 7paKlail.ai l a i
l .ani.ente
as F =daama as s s sas
a da = eE ; a = ¢ ; =.wp.apd`.77 ;=
s s s s
adaada aada\ 7pwK adaada
`.77 apdaada
w w.wp.p w w.wp.p 14 -2 ww w w.wp.p w .
w p. w
w w = 1.001 x 10 msw w ww ww
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
l asla l l l
p
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a
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ww ww ww ww ww ww
XII STD. PHYSICS
t t t t ntet
i.ente IN PHYSICS
UVANNAMALAI . t t
RAJE M, l a
M.Sc.,
TEACHER
ww 3. w
Awcopper wire of cross ww
ross-sectional area 0.5 mm2 ww carries a curren urrent of ww0.2 A. ww
Ifthe free electron densi density of copper is 8.4 x 1028m-3then comput mpute the drift
e te t e te t e te t etet etet
s asl ail.ani.n velocity of sfree a sl ni.nctrons.
ail.aelectrons s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada Solution: ada ada ada ada
ww ww The relation betwe ww drift velocity of electrons
between ww and current w of
rent in awwire ww
š p.k
cross- sectional area a A is Vd = ±[›; ˆ.8\ 7p ¥ \ 7. \ 7pw Ÿ \ p.• \ 7pw
t nte-3t ms-1 t t t
l a i
l .ani.ente V d = 0.03l a i
l.axni.e10 l ail.ani.ente l ail.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas sas a
daadsas saas saas
.
w p.apdaada 4. Determine
.
w p.apdaadathe number mber of.p.aelectrons
w p p
w.apdaadsecond
flowing .per nd tthrough.p.apdaad
w
w w w w w w
ww ww
conductor, when a curre ww of 32 A flows through
current ww it. ww ww
Solution:
t t t
tCharge t t -19 t
i.ente number of t t
a l a il.ani.ene I = 32 A , t a=la1il.anis.eneCharg of an electron,
a l a il.ani.enee = 1.6 × 10 alaCil.anThe a l a il.ani.ene
adsas electrons adsas perr seco
flowing second, np.a=? asas ss
apdaada
ss
apdaada
.wp.apda .wp.apda . pdad . p. . p.
w w E • w
µ– w Dk \ 7 w w w w w
ww ww ¥6 6 ;n ww
= ;n= w Ÿ8
ww ww ww
– – • 7. \ 7p
n = 20 × 1019= 2 × 1020electrons
t t t t t t t t t t
s
adsa 5. adsa s s
adsa for the circuit awhich s
adsa is asa s
w.wp.apda w .wp.apdathe equivalen
Calculate
w.wp.apda
valent resistance
w.wp.pda s connected
con
w .apdad
.wpto w
ww wwV batteries and alsoww
24 find the potential difference ww across s 4 Ω andww 6 Ω ww
resistors in the circuit.
cuit.
ail.ani.n Solution: saslail.ani.n ail.ani.n ail.ani.n ail.ani.n
Padasalai.Net
ada Since the ada
resistorss are connected ada in series, theadaada ada
w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda .wp.p .wp.apda
ww ww
effective w
resistance in thewcircuit = 4 Ω + 6 Ω = 10 Ωw
ww ww
w
ww
w
Œ k8
The Current ¥ in the circui
circuit = ¢ 6 7p = 2.4A
BW
t tet t t t
l ail.ani.ente Voltage acrossla4Ω i
l.ani.enresisto
esistor l a i
l .ani.ente
.
wp.apdaada .
w V
p. aad¥R
a1pd= 1 = 2.4A A x 4Ω
4 = .
w .apdaaVda
9.6
p .
w w w w w w
ww ww
Voltage across 6 Ω resisto ww
resistors ww ww ww
2V = ¥R = 2.4A
1 A x 6Ω
6 = 14.4 V
i.ani.
6.entet If the resistance of
t
ntecoil
il.ani.e is 3 Ω at 20la0C .entet α = 0.004/0C then
il.aniand ntet
il.anni.edetermine
det its
t t
il.ani.ene
a la l a l a a a l a a l a
adsas adsas 0 adsas adsas adsas
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda at 100 C.
resistance
w .wp.apda w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww
Solution: ww ww ww ww
R0= 3 Ω, T = 1000C, T0 = 200C
t t α = 0.004/i.a0niC, .enteRt T= ? t t t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene a l a l a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s R =adR s
sa (1 + α(T-T0)) adsa s adsa s adsa s
w.wp.apda w .wp.aTpda 0 w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww R100= 3(1 + 0.004 .004 w ×w80) ; R100 = 3(1 + 0.32) ww ww ww
R100 = 3(1.32)) ;R100 = 3.96 Ω
0 0
l a il .entet Resistance oflaail.anmaterial

.ani7.
t
i.enteterial at 10 C and l a il
et are 45 Ω and 85i.Ω
ni.entC
.a40 la l
tet
respectively.
res
ani.en l ail.ani.ene
t t
s
ada as s a
Find its temperature
ada s e co
co-efficient s
adofas
a resistance. s
ada as s
ada as
Solution: w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w.wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
T0 = 100C, T = 400C, R0= 45 Ω , R = 85 Ω
7 š² ˆ•s8•
α6 tet α 6 * -6
.ni.ente 8• *Dp-
7 7 8p
.ani.ente
t
²; š¤

e t
.ani.ente
t
.ani.ente
t
sasl a i
l ail.ani.n
saasla /0C
8• 8ps7p ia
saaslal sasl a i
l sasl a i
l
apdaada αa 6
pdaa00296
d aadad apdaada apdaada
w .
w p. w.wp. w.wp.p w .
w p. w .
w p. w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
l asla l l l
p
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ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t ntet
ww 8. Inww
a Wheatstone’s Bridge ww P = 100 Ω, Q = 1000 ww Ω and R = 40 Ω. wwIf the ww
galvanometer shows zero deflection, determine the value of S.
etet t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene etet
s asl ail.ani.n Solution:¸ ² s asl a 7pppada s asl a s asl a s asl ail.ani.n
ada 6daa¹da; S = ¸ x R ; S =.p7pp aa ada
w .wp.apda w .wp.ap w w .apda x 40 ; S = 400 Ωw.wp.apdad w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
9. Find the heat energy produced in a resistance of 10 Ω when 5 A current
t flows through it for 5 minutes.
.ani.ente . ni e
. ntet .ani.ente
t
.ani.ente
t
.ani.ente
t
l a i
l Solution: aslala i l a il l a il l a il
sas dsa Ω, I = 5 A, t = 5 minutes sas sas sas
.
w p.apdaada . wpR.ap=daa10 .wp.apdaada = 5 × 60 s .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww H = I2 R t ww ww ww ww
= 52 × 10 × 5 × 60 ; = 25 × 10 × 300
t t t t ni.entet t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene = 25 × 3000
a l a il.ani.ene; = 75000 J (or) a75 l a il.akJ a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsas 10. adsas of a nichrome adsas at 00C is 10Ω. ss
apdaadaIf its temperature
ss
apdaada
The resistance
w .wp.apda wire w .wp. w .wp. w
ww ww
coefficient of resistance wwis 0.004/0C, find its w w
resistance at boiling point ww of ww
water. Comment on the result.
t t t t t t t t t t
a l ail.ani.ene Solution:
a l a il.ani.ene 0 a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s Resistance adsofs
a nichrome wire at a0daC, s
adsaR0 = 10Ω adsa s adsa s
.wp.apda .wp.apda .wp.p .wp.apda .wp.apda
wwresistance C 60.004/ wCw
w w w 0 w w w
ww Temperature
ww coefficient of ww ww
Resistance at boiling point of water, RT = ?
etet Temperature of boiling e tet point of water, T .=100 e tet0C ? etet etet
ail.ani.n n . n n . n ail.ani.n ail.ani.n
Padasalai.Net
l l . i
a(1ila+ CT) ; = 10[1+(0.004 l i
ailxa 1000] l l
s
ada as RTd=adsR a
a0s s
ada as s
ada as s
ada as
w.wp.apda w .wpR.aTpa= 10(1+0.4) = 10 xw1.4 .wp.apda; RT = 14 Ω w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
As the temperature increases the resistance of the wire also increases.
t t t t t
l.ani.ente UNIT - III (MAGNETISM l a i
l .ani.ente AND l ail.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas dsaas saas sas sas
.
wp.apdaada .
w p.apdaaMAGNETIC EFFECTS.
w p.apdaad
OF ELECTRIC . p.
CURRENT)
w apdaada .wp.apdaada
w w w w ww w
ww ww ww ww -3 w ww
1. The repulsive force between two magnetic poles in air is 9 x 10 N. If the
two poles are equal in strength and are separated by a distance of 10 cm,
i.ani.entet calculate the pole tet
il.ani.enstrength of eachalpole.
t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
a la l a l a a a l a a l a
Solution:
w.wp.apda w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww The force betweenwtwo w w
poles are given byw w⃗ 6 Ô Èg ÈÓ @̂
E E ww ww
B
Èg E EÈÓ
t t The magnitude
etet of the force is F = ketetB t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.n -3 a la il.ani.n -2 a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s Given adsa: F = 9 x 10 N, r =a10
s ascm
a = 10 x 10 m adaadsa
s s adsa s
w.wp.apda w .wp.apdathe magnitude w pdad
.wp.the w p.pa long, straight w
.w .wp.apda w
ww 2. Compute
ww ww of magnetic field
ww of ww wire ww
carrying a current of 1 A at distance of 1m from it. Compare it with Earth’s
t magnetic field. n.entet etet etet etet
l a i
l .ani.ente Solution: lail.ai l ail.ani.n lail.ani.n l ail.ani.n
s
ada as s
aa as s
aa as s
ada as s
ada as
w.wp.apda w .apdad that 1 = 1 A and
.wpGiven w p.apdad r = 1 m
radius
.w w .wp.apda w.wp.apda w
ww ww ww ù š 89 \ 7pwª \ 7 ww ww ww
B#] ¦&§¨] ©& [ 6 k9; = k9 \ 7 = 2 x 10-7 T
t t t t t
a i
l .ani.ente ail.ani.ente a i
l.ani.ente a i
l .ani.ente a i
l .ani.ente
¡¦ ]¨ ~10 T adaada
sasl l l s• l l
p.apdaada p
But
. dsaasEarth’s magnetic
apdaathe papfield
.
as B
daadsais p. p
sas
p.
sas
apdaada
w .
w w .
w w .
w w .
w w .
w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
So, B#] ¦&§¨] ©& [ is one hundred times smallerB¡¦ ]¨
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
l asla l l l
p
w.w
a
.pda p.apdad
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w.w p
w.w
a
. pda p
w.w . pda
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a p
w.w.apda
w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t ntet
ww 3. wwelectron moving perpendicular
An ww to a uniform ww magnetic field 0.500 ww T ww
undergoes circular motion of radius 2.80 mm. What is the speed of
s asl ail.ani.n electron? saslail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada Solution: ada ada ada ada
ww ww Charge of an electron
ww q = -1.60 × 10 C w
-19
⟹w |'| = 1.60 × 10 C ww -19
ww
Magnitude of magnetic field B = 0.500 T
t -31 t
.ani.ente Mass of the . ni e
. ntet
electron, m = 9.11 × .10 ni.ente kg .ani.ente
t
.ani.ente
t
l a i
l l a i
l a l aila -3 l ail l a i
l
sas Radius sas saas = 2.50 × 10 m dadsaas sas
apdaada apdaada of the orbit, r = .2.50 apdaadmm aa apdaada
w .
w p. w .
w p. p .
w 6 |'| Bà
w w.wp.p w .
w p. w
ww ww Velocity of the electron,˜ ww Ÿ
ww ww ww
k.•p \ 7pwK \ p.•pp
˜ 6 1.6t0 x 10s7` x `.77 \ 7pwK t ;
t t t t t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene a˜l ail.ani.ene x 108 ms-1 alail.ani.ene
62.195 a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsas adad asas asasadad adsas adsas
w .wp.apda w.wp.p w.wp.p w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww w w w w ww ww ww
UNIT - IV (ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION AND
ALTERNATING CURRENT)
l a .entet
il.ani1. A circular antenna l a il.ani entet
. of area 3m2is installed l a
t t
il.ani.ene at a place in Madurai. l a
t t
il.ani.ene The plane alail.ani.ene
t t
a
adsa s asa as asa as adsaas adsa s
w.wp.apda of the
w pdad of antenna is
.wp.aarea w .apdad
.wpinclined at 470withw.the w p.apdadirection .wp.apda
of Earth’s
w w
ww ww
magnetic field. If the magnitude ww of Earth’s field wwat that place is 40773.9 ww nT ww
find the magnetic flux linked with the antenna.
Padasalai.Net
l Solution: l l l l
s
ada as s
ada as s as
a0 a 0 aas as s
ada as
.wp.apda .apda40773.9
.wpB= nT; θ= 900.–p.a47 pdad= 43 °; A = 3m w.wp.apdad
2
.wp.apda
w
ww We know that ϕÃ =ww
w w w w w
ww BA cos θ ww ww ww
-9 0
= 40,773.9 x 10 x 3 x cos 43
t tet-6x 3 x 0.7314 t t t
l ail.ani.ente = 40.7739i.anxi.en10
l a l l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente
sas
apdaada ϕaÃpd=aad89.47
saas x 10-6μWb sas
apdaada
sas
apdaada
sas
apdaada
w .
wp. w .wp . w .wp . w .
w p. .wp.
ww 2. ww self-inductance ofwwan air-core solenoid
The wwis 4.8 mH. If its w ww is
core ww
w
replaced by iron core, then its self-inductance becomes 1.8 H. Find out
t t the relative permeability t t of iron. t t t t t t
adsas Solution:dadsas ss
apdaada
ss
apdaada -3
ss
apdaada
.wp.apda .wpL.apa . p . k . p . . p.
ww air = 4.8 x 10 H ;wLwiron = 1.8 H ; Lair =μp ‹ w*wÄ = 4.8 x 10 H
-3 w w w
w w w w w w
ww ww ww
k k
Liron =μn * Ä ; μp μ ‹ * Ä = 1.8 H
3-®¯°
te t ∴ μ 6 6 te t 7.ˆ wK = 375 t t t t t t
a l a n
il.ai e
.n
a
3a±-®
l n e
.n
il.ai 8.ˆ \ 7p a la il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
w.wp.apda 3. .wp.apda flowing in thewfirst
The current
w .wp.apdacoil changes from w .wp.a2pdaA to 10 A in 0.4 wsec. .wp.apda w
ww ww the mutual inductance
Find ww between two coils ww if an emf of 60wmV w is ww
induced in the second coil. Also determine the induced emf in the second
etet coil if the current tet the first coil is changed
ein etet from 4 A to 16 t 0.03 sec.
etein
A etet
ada Consider ada the magnitude aof
only a
adinduced emf. ada ada
w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.pda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww
Case (i):
t ?é7 = 10 – n2en=te8 t A; ?¬= 0.4 s; ²k = n60 text 10-3 V t t
l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l .
a i . l a i
l.ai e
. n
l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas Case as
s(ii): sas sas sas
p.apdaada p apdaada
. papdaada
. p.apdaada p.apdaada
ww ?é7 = 16 – 4 = 12 A;ww ?¬=
w .
w w .
w .
w
w 0.03 s w .
w w .
w w
ww ww ww ww
(i) Mutual inductance of the second coil with respect to the first coil
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
l asla l l l
p
w.w
a
.pda p.apdad
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w.w
a
. pda p
w.w . pda
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a p
w.w.apda
w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t .ni.ente
t
.ni.ente
t
.ni.ente IN PHYSICS
ww ww { p \ 7pwK \ p.8
ww ww-3 ww ww
M21 = °† = ˆ
; M21 = 3 x 10 H
°³
etet (ii) Induced ntet in the second coili.nidue
i.ni.eemf .entet to the rate of change t t
i.ni.eneof current etet
l ail.ani.n l ala l a la w K l a la l ail.ani.n
daadafirst coil is ϵk 6 M.pk7.apdo&aad; a= D \ 7p \ 7k ; ϵk =.p1.2
s
ada as s as s as s
ada as s
ada as
w .wp.apda w .wpin.apthe w w o] p.pD w w .apdaV w .wp.apda w
ww 4. wwideal transformer whas
An
w w
460 and 40,000w turns in the primary ww and ww
secondary coils respectively. Find the voltage developed per turn of the
t et t t t
l a i
l .ani.ente secondary if lathe i
l.ani.enttransformer is l ail.ani.ente
connected to a 230 Vl ai .ani.entemains. The
AC
l l a i
l .ani.ente
sas sas dsaasresistance 104Ω. adsaas sas
.
w p.apdaada secondary
.
w p.apdaadais given to a load .
w p.apdaaof .wpapdaCalculate
. the power
.
w p.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww
delivered to the load. ww ww (March 2020) ww ww
Solution:
t t ni.entet NS = 40,000 turns etet 4 tet t t
l a il.ani.ene NP = 460
ail.aturns;
l il.ani.enΩ
ail.ani.n; VP = 230 V; RS =a10
l a il.ani.ene
a
adsas adsaasa saasla
ads¶aaÐs·a6 kDp \ 8pppp ; V ad=aad20000V a
adsas
l
w .wp.apda (i)
p
w.w
a
. pd
Secondary
a voltage, V
p
w.w
a
.
S pd
=a
Ð¶ 8 p w.wpS. p w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww · kpppp ww ww ww
Secondary voltage per turn, Ð 6 8pppp ; = 0.5 V
·
t t ni.entet kppppt t \ kpppp t t t t
a l ail.ani.ene (ii) Power
a l a il.adelivered = VSIS = ²· la
a 6il.ani.ene7p| ; = 40 kWlail.ani.ene
a a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s adsa s adsa·s daadsa s adsa s
w.wp.apda 5. The w .wp.apda
equation for an w .wp.apdacurrent is given w
alternating by.wpi.ap= 77 sin 314t. Find
w .wp.apda
the w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
peak value, frequency, time period and instantaneous value at t = 2 ms.
Solution:
e
n tet ni.entet t = 2 ms = 2×10la-3il.asni.entet etet etet
n . é = 77 asin ail.ani.n ail.ani.n
Padasalai.Net
l .
aila i l ail.a314t; l l
s
ada as s
aa s s
ada as aas as s
ada as
w.wp.apda w .apdadgeneral equationwof.wpan
.wpThe .apdaalternating current
w p.apéda6d ¥Ÿ èé‹ ¬.
is
.w w .wp.apda w
ww ww On comparison, ww ww ww ww
(i) Peak value, ¥Ÿ = 77 A
t etet ) D78 etet t t
i .ani.ente i.ani.n ( 6
(ii) Frequency, 6 k \ D.78 i.ani.n i .ani.ente i .ani.ente
sasl a l saslal kG sas;la=l 50Hz sasl a l sasl a l
p apdaada ada
.apdaTime 7 .p.apdaada
w 7 = 0.02 s apdaada apdaada
w .
w . w.wp(iii) period, T = w6 w .
w p. w.wp. w
ww w w w w •p ww ww ww
(iv) At t = 2 m s, Instantaneous value, é = 77 sin (314 x 2×10-3)
t t
il.ani.ene é =i.45.24ni.entet A il.ani.ene
t t t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
a la a l a l a a l a a l a a l a
adsas 6. A 400 mH as of negligible aresistance
adscoil adsas is connected as an AC circuit in
adsto adsas
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.pda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww an effective current
which ww of 6 mA is flowing.ww Find out the voltagewacross w ww
the coil if the frequency is 1000 Hz.
t t Solution: t t n.entet t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.en-3e -3 alail.ai a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s L =da400sa x 10 H; Ieff= 6 x 10
s adsaA ; f = 1000 Hz
s adsa s adsa s
w.wp.apda w .apad
.wpInductive reactance, X
w .Lwp=.apLda = L x 2…f w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
= 2 x 3.14 x 1000 x 0.4 ; =2512 Ω
-3
Voltage across tet L, V = IXL = 6 x 10.ni.enxte2512
etet e t etet etet
s asl ail.ani.n s aV
sl . ni. n
a=ila15.072V(RMS) s asl aila s aslail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada ada ada aa aa
w.wp.apda 7. .wp.apda metal wire crosses
A straight
w w .wp.apadamagnetic field of w .wp.apdad4 mWb in a timew.0.4
flux wp.apdad w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
s. Find the magnitude of the emf induced in the wire.
Solution:
t ni.ente(tϕ) =4 mWb = 4 xla10 t t t
l a i
l .ani.ente Magnetic l a il.aflux i l.ani.e-3nteWb ; time (t) = 0.4laSec. i l.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente
sas daadsa
as
daadsa
asasa as sas
apdaada ap a p o 8 \ 7pwpK.apdad sk apdaada
w .
w p. .p. .
w The magnitude of induced
w w w p. w 6 10
emf (e) = o] = wp.8 .
w w .
w p. w
ww ww ww w ww ww
e = 10 mV
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
l asla l l l
p
w.w
a
.pda p.apdad
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w.w
a
. pda p
w.w . pda
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a p
w.w.apda
w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t ntet
a l a il.ani.eB.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. TEACHER
a l a il.ani.ene IN PHYSICS a l a il.ani.ene
ww 8. w of 200 turns carries
Awcoil ww a current of 0.4 A. w If w
the magnetic flux ofw4wmWb ww
is linked with the coil, find the inductance of the coil.
s asl ail.ani.n Solution: saslail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada Numberada of turns of the coil, adNa= 200 , Current, I =ad0.4 adaA ada
.wp.apda .wp.apda .wp.apda .wp.p-3a .wp.apda
wwwith coil, ϕ = 4mWb =ww
w w w w w w
ww ww Magnetic flux linked 4 x 10 Wb ww ww
Ð kpp \ 8 \ 7pwK ˆpp \ 7pwK
Inductance of the coil, L = š
;=p.8 p.8
;=
t etet t t t
i .ani.ente .ni.n .ani.ente .ani.ente .ani.ente
sasl a l aslaila
L=2H
s sasl ail sasl ail sasl a i
l
.
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada .
. .
w p.apdaada
w w w ww w w
ww ww ww
UNIT - V (ELECTROMAGNETIC wWAVES) ww ww
l a .entet The relative magnetic

il.ani1. l a
t t
il.ani.ene permeability l aof ntet medium is 2.5aand
il.ani.ethe l
t t t t
il.ani.enethe relative alail.ani.ene
a
adsas a
adsas a
asas is 2.25. Compute a
adsas adsas
w .wp.apda w .wp.apdapermittivity of the
electrical
w .apdad
.wpmedium w .wp.apda the refractive index w .wp.apda w
ww w medium.
ofwthe ww ww ww ww
Solution:
t t tet tet t t t t
a l ail.ani.ene Dielectric constanta l a il.ani.en(relative permeabilityi.nof
a l a l ai.enthe medium) is εra=sla2.25
il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s Magnetic adsa s
permeability is μr = 2.5adaadsas adsa adsa s
.wp.apda .wp.apda .wp.p .wp.apda .wp.apda
ww
w
ww
w
Refractive index of the medium, ww
w n = 2ϵ ù® ; = √2w .25
w x 2.5 ; n =2.37
w
ww
w
ww
w
2. Compute the speed of the electromagnetic wave in a medium if the
t t t -1 tet
etet
.ani.ente amplitude of laelectric .ani.ente and magneticlailfields
.ani.ente are 3 x 10 N lC
4 -4
i.en 2 x 10 T,
.anand ail.ani.n
Padasalai.Net
a l a i
l a i
l a a a i
l a l
s
ada s respectively. s
ada s s
ada s s
ada s s
ada s
ww ww
The amplitude of the electric field, Eo= 3 × 104N C-1
-4
.ani.ente
t The amplitude . ni e
. ntetof the magnetic field, . ni e
. ntB
eto= 2 × 10 T. .ani.ente
t
.ani.ente
t
l ail l a i
l a l a i
l a l ail l a i
l
sas a
Therefore,
daadsas speed of the electromagnetic
a
daadsas dsaas
wave in adaamedium is sas
apdaada a a a apdaada
w .
wp. w.wp.p D \ 7p| w.wp.p 8 w.wp.p w.wp. w
ww ww ˜6 k \ 7pw|
=
w w1.5 x 10 ms-1 ww ww ww
3. A pulse of light of duration 10-6s is absorbed completely by a small object
t t .entet power of the pulse t t t t t t
il.ani.ene initially at rest. il.ani.eneis 60 x 10 W, acalculate il.ani.ene the final alail.ani.ene
-3
la l aIfil.anithe la l a
a
adsas a
adsas a
adsas adsas adsas
w .wp.apda momentum
w .wp.apdaof the object. w.wp.apda w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww
-6
Duration of the absorption of light pulse, t = 10 s
i.ni.en
te t Power of i.the t
ni.entepulse P = 60 x 10-3 iW .ni.ente
t
i.ni.ene
t t t t
i.ni.ene
a aslala aslala a a
a saaslal asa asa ¹
a saaslal a saaslal
a
w.wp.p
da d
w.w pFinal
.apdadmomentum of the pobject,
w.w .apdad P = l a
w.wp.p
da d a
w.wp.p
da d
w
ww ww Velocity of light, Cw=w3 x 108 ww ww ww
Energy U = power x time
etet entet p \ 7pwK \ 7pw entet entet etet
s asl ail.ani.n i.ani.
Momentum,
saslal P = D \ 7p¥ s a Pil.a=ni.20 x 10-17 kg ms-1saslail.ani.
;sla s asl ail.ani.n
ada ada ada ada ada
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t
l a i
l.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
.
w p.apdaada .
wp.apdaada .
w papdaada
. .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
l asla l l l
p
w.w
a
.pda p.apdad
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w.w
a
. pda p
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w.w.apda
w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t .ni.ente
t
.ni.ente
t
.ni.ente IN PHYSICS
ww ww ww
UNIT - 6 (OPTICS) ww ww ww
1. One type of transparent glass has refractive index 1.5. What is the speed
t t t etet etet etet
l
e e
ail.ani.n of light through l i.ente glass?
ail.anthis l ail.ani.n l ail.ani.n l ail.ani.n
s
ada as s
ada as s
aa as s
aa as s
aa as
w .wp.apda
Solution:
w .wp.apdaí w .w
¥
p.apdad w .
w p.apdad w .
w p.apdad w
ww ww n = ; ˜ = í ; ˜ 6 wD w \ 7p
; = 2 x 108 ms-1 w
w ww ww
¯ 7.•
8 -1
Light travels with a speed of 2 × 10 ms through this glass. t
. ni e
. ntet . ni e
. ntet .ni.entet te
.ani.enof .ani.ente
t
l a i
l a
2. Light travelling l a i
l a through transparent l aila oil enters in to glass
l ail refractive l a i
l
sas sas sas sas sas
.
w p.apdaada index .
w .apdaadIfa the refractive index
1.5.
p .
w p.apdaadaof glass with respect .
w papdaada to the oil is 1.25,
. .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww is the refractive index
what ww of the oil? ww ww ww
Solution:
t t t
i.ente and ng =1.5 ; lail.ani.ente
t t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene Given, nlagoil.an=1.25
a a a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsas asas index of glassawith adsas ºa dsas adsas
w .wp.apda w .apdad
.wpRefractive .wp.pda respect to oil,ngo.wp=.apda
w w ; w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww 7.•
º
ww ww
Rewriting for refractive index of oil, no = 6 7.k•
= 1.2
;
t t The refractive t t ni.entet t t t t
a l ail.ani.ene a l a il.ani.eneindex of oil is, naola=il.a1.2 a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
s
adsa 3. Find the adsa s
dispersive s
adsa glass if the refractive
power ofadaflint s
adsa indices of flint adsa s
w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.p w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww for red, greenww
glass and violet light are ww 1.613, 1.620 andww1.632 ww
respectively.
etet Solution: .ani.ente
t etet etet etet
Padasalai.Net
s asl Given, s an
sl ail=1.632; n =1.613; ns a l
=1.620
s s asl s asl
ada ada V R adaG aa ada
w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda p.apdad
r ‘ s » uw.w w .wp.apda w
ww ww Equation for dispersive ww power is, 6 r ww â s7u ww ww
7. Dk s 7. 7D p.p7`
Substituting the values, 6 7. kp st7et
;=
p. kp
; = 0.0306
t t t t
l ail.ani.ente a
The dispersive
l i
l.ani.ente power of flint glassl a i
l .en
.aniis, 6 0.0306 l ail.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
.
wp.apdaada .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada .
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
UNIT - 7 (WAVE OPTICS)
1. Two light sources with amplitudes 5 units and 3 units respectively
i.ani.entet interfere with each t t
il.ani.ene other. Calculate il.a
the
t
ni.enteratio of maximum .entet minimum
il.aniand
t t
il.ani.ene
a la l a l a a la a l a a l a
intensities. w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww
Amplitudes, a1 = 5, a2 = 3
t t tet tet tet t t
a l a il.ani.ene Resultanta
ni.en
lail.aamplitude, A = 2ak7 aYlaailkk.aniY
.en 2a7 ak cosϕ
a
en
lail.ani. a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s asa s a s
a s a s
a s adsa s
w.wp.apda .apdad
w.wpResultant amplitude is, .apdad
w.wpmaximum when, adad
w.wp.p w .wp.apda w
ww ww w ww w ww w ww ww
ϕ = 0, cos 0 = 1, Amax = 2ak7 Y akk Y 2a7 ak
Amax = 2ra7 Y teat k u ; = 2r5 Y 3u .;ni=.ent2tr8uk ; = 8 units
k k
ete t e e etet etet
s asl ail.ani.n Resultant
s asl . ni. n
ailaamplitude is, minimum s asl ailawhen, s aslail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada aa d dad aa daa ada
w.wp.apda w .wpϕ.ap=daπ, cos π = &1, Amin
w .wp=.ap2a k
Y a k
& 2a a w .wp.apda w.wp.apda w
ww ww ww 7 k 7 wkw ww ww
Amin = 2ra7 & ak uk ; = 2r5 & 3uk ; = 2r2uk ; = 2 units
.ani.ente
t š t r›t
¿ e e Èå¿ u Èå¿ š t t rû
.ani.ente
t
.ani.ente
t
i
l I∝ A2 ; šlÈå i.ani.ene 6
ail.ani.6n r›È†‡ u ; Substituting ; i i
sasl a sasÈ†‡ saslal šÈ†‡ rku sasl a l sasl a l
apdaada ada8ada daada
.wp.:ap1 apdaada apdaada
w .
w p. w.wp6.p8 ; 16 Imax : Imin w
=w16 w .
w p. w .
w p. w
ww w w w ww ww ww
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
l asla l l l
p
w.w
a
.pda p.apdad
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w.w
a
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w.w . pda
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w.w.apda
w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
XII STD. PHYSICS
t t t t ntet
i.ente IN PHYSICS
UVANNAMALAI . t t
RAJE M, l a
M.Sc.,
TEACHER
ww 2. ww wavelength of a lig
The ww is 450 nm. How much
light ww phase it will differ d wwfor a ww
path of 3 mm?
ada a
Theadwavelengthgth is, • = 450 ad -9
a = 450 x 10 m adaada
nm ada
.wp.apda .wp.apda .wp.apda w.wp.p .wp.apda
e is,wYw= 3 mm = 3 x 10-3 m ww
w w w w w
ww ww Path difference ww ww
phase difference andpath difference is, ϕ 6 xY
k9
Relation between
een p Á
t et t t t
l a i
l .ani.ente Substituting,
l a i
l.ani.entϕ 6
k9
x 3 xl ai
10
l.ani-3.ent;e= 9 x 106; l ail.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas sas 8•p \ 7pwŸdadsaas v• sas sas
apdaada apdaad9a apa apdaada apdaada
ww ϕ 6 v• x 10 rad. ww
w .
w p. w .
w p. 6
w .wp. w.wp. w .
w p. w
ww ww ww ww
3. of wavelength 5000 Å passes through
A monochromatic light o gh a s
single slit
t t tet pattern .entet ntet t t
a l a il.ani.ene producing diffraction
a l ail.ani.enion p for thei.nicentral
a l a l a
maximum as
a l a is
l.ani.shown
sho
e in the
a l a il.ani.ene
adsas asas
figure. Determine the
he width
wi ofathe s
asaslit. asas asas
w .wp.apda w .
w p.apdad w .
w p.pdad w .
w p.apdad w .
w p.apdad w
ww ww
• = 5000Å = 5000 000 x 10-10m ;
t t sin 300 = 0.5, t nt = 1
1, a = ? t t t t t t
adsa s Equation
daadsa for diffraction
s diffrac minimum
adsa is,
s adsa s adsa s
w.wp.apda w .wpa.apsin θ = n• w.wp.apda w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
The central maxi maximum is spread up to
etet thefirst minimum. eteum.
t Hence, n = 1 etet etet etet
ail.ani.n .ni.n .ni.n .ni.n ail.ani.n
Padasalai.Net
s
ada asl
ad aaslailaa = Á ; substituting,
Rewriting,
s adsaaslailaa =•ppp \ 7pw ; adsaaslaila s
ada asl
.wp.apda ada #&± U ada p.• ada .wp.apda
w w.wp.p w.wp.p w.wp.p w w
ww ww a = 1 x 10-6 m = 0.0 ww x 10-3 m = 0.001 mm
0.001 ww ww ww
4. Calculate the distance
nce ffor which ray optics is good approximat
ximation for an
t t wavelength t t t
l ail.ani.ente aperture of 5 lmm a i
l
tend
.ani.enand wa 500i.nnm.
l a l a i.ente l ail.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
.
wp.apdaada Solution:
.
w p.apdaada . p.apdaada . p.apdaada . p.apdaada
ww • = 500nm = 500 xw10
w w w w -9w
ww m ; z = ? w w w
ww ww a = 5 mm = 5 x 10 10-3m, ww ww
t
Equation for Fresnel’s
Fresne distance, z = kˆ
t t t t .entwet t t t t
la il.ani.ene l a il.ani.ene Ì• \ 7pwKÎ lk•
a il.a\ni7p l a il.ani.ene l a il.ani.ene
a
adsas Substituting,
a
adsas z = k \ •pp \ 7pwŸad;sa=s 7 \ 7pw ; z = 25 m adsas
a a a
adsas
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww 5. w
Awdiffraction grating ww
g con
consisting of 4000 slits wper w centimeterr is illuminatedil ww ww
with a monochromatic atic llight that produces the second order er diffraction
diff at
0
t t an angle of 30 ..nWhat t is the wavelength
t at t t the light used? .ni.entet
of t t
a l a il.ani.ene a l a ilai.ene a la il.ani.ene a l a ila a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s Solution: adsa s s s dadsa s adsa s
.wp.apda .apda
.wpNumber aada
.wp=.apd4000; 0.p.apa .wp.apda
w w of lines
es pe
per cm
w m = 2; θ = 30
w w; • = ? w w
ww ww ww 8ppp
ww ww ww
5
Number of lines es pe
per unit length, N = 7 - 7pw ; =4 x 10
etet et
.ni.entdiffraction
Equation ifor diffrac et
i.entgrating
maximumi.nin is, sinθ = Nmi.n•i.entet etet
l ail.ani.n lala lala lala l ail.ani.n
s
ada as adsaas λ 6 #&±
#&±U adsaas λ 6 #&±Dp; = adp.• adsaas ; s
ada as
w.wp.apda a
w.wp.p
d
Rewriting,,
a
Ð¢
; a
w.wp.p
d
Substituting,
a a
p8.\p7pÃ \ k
8 \ 7pÃ \ k w.w w.wp.apda w
ww ww 7 ww 7 ww ww ww
= k \ 7pÃ \ k ; = 7 \ 7pÃ
t λ 6 6250 xn.e
ntet m = 6250 Å
10 -10
t t t
i
l .ani.ente i.ai i.ani.ente i .ani.ente i .ani.ente
sasl a saaslal sasl a l sasl a l sasl a l
apdaada aadad apdaada apdaada apdaada
w .
w p. w.wp.p w .
w p. w .
w p. w .
w p. w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
l asla l l l
p
w.w
a
.pda p.apdad
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a
. pda p
w.w . pda
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a p
w.w.apda
w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t ntet
ww 6. ww the polarizing angles
Find ww for (i) glass of refractive ww index 1.5 and ww ww
(ii) Water of refractive index 1.33.
ada ada
Brewster’s law, tanéì = pn ada ada ada
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .w.apda -1 w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww For glass, tanéì = w w ì = tan 1.5; éì = 56.3
1.5;é ww 0
ww ww
For water, tanéì = 1.33;éì = tan-1 1.33; éì = 53.10
t t t t t
l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas sas adsaasRADIATION ANDaMATTER) a
daadsas sas
.
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada- 8 (DUAL NATURE
UNIT
.
w p.apdaOF .wp. p .
w p.apdaada
w 1. w
Calculate the cut-off wavelength w ww
and cutoff wfrequency of x-rays from w w
ww ww ww ww an ww
X –ray tube of accelerating potential 20,000 V.
t t Solution: t t t t i.ente
t t t
il.ani.ene il.ani.ene il.ani.ene il.an7k8pp il.ani.ene
a
adsas
l a a
sasl
Theadcut-off
a
wavelength of dthe asl a
s characteristic x-raysdais sλ s 6
a l a
Å a
ss l a
.wp.apda .wp.apda .
w p.apaada .
w p.ap adap .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w w
6 ww Å ; = 0.62 Å
7k8pp
ww ww ww ww ww
kpppp
! D \ 7p¥
entet The corresponding entet frequency isvp 6 enteÁ;t ; 6 p. k \ 7pw ; t t t t
a l ail.ani .
a l a i
l .
ani .
18 a l a i
l .
a ni .
adsa s = 4.84 s
adsa x 10 Hz adsas adsa s adsa s
ww 2. ww many photons perwsecond
How w emanate fromwa w 50 mW laser of 640wnm? w ww
Solution:
e
n tet P = 50 mW e,nt•et= 640 nm , h = 6.6 xen10 -34
tet Js, c = 3 x10 ms
8 -1
etet etet
n . n . n . aila .n
n ail.ani.n
Padasalai.Net
l .
aila i l .
aila i l .
aila i ì ìˆ l . i l
s
ada as Number s as
ada of photons emanate s a
adaper second nP = Ž a6daadía
s s as s
ada as
.wp.apda .wp.apda .wp.apda w .p.p .wp.apda
ww
w w
ww = •p \ 7p \ 8p \ 7p w; w
K wŸ wDkppp \ 7p w ww w 20 ww
w
ww
w
. \ 7pwK| \ D \ 7p¥
= 7`.ˆ \ 7pw ; = 1616.16 x 10
17 -1
tet nP =1.6 tetx 10 s tet tet t
l ail.n
a
3.i e
.n
How many l a
photonsi
l.ani e
. n
of frequency 10 l 14i.ani.en
a l Hz will make up l
19.86 ail.anJi.enof energy? l a i
l .ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
.
wp.apdaada . p
Solution:
w .apdaada .
w p.apdaada .
w w w w w w
ww ww ww
Total energy emitted per second = Power x time
ww ww ww
19.86 = Power x 1 s ; ∴ Power = 19.86 W
t t entet entet t t t t
il.ani.ene Number il.aniphotons,
. n6
ì ì ni.
6saslÅa;il.a=
7`.ˆ il.ani.ene il.ani.ene
a
adsas
la saslaof
ada Ž ada a
. \ 7pwK| \ 7p | dadsas
l a a
adsas
l a
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda = 3.009 x 1020 wn.wp=.ap3dax 1020 ; np = 3 x w10 .wp.apa
w20 w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww w ww ww
4. What should be the velocity of the electron so that its momentum equals
i .
ani entet that of 4000 Å wavelength
. i .
ani entet
.
photon. t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
a sl a l Solution: asl a l a sla a sl a a sl a
adsa adsa asa asa asa
.wp.apda .wp•.ap6da 6 . p.apdad . \ 7pwK| . p.apdad . p.apdad
ww
w
ww
w
ì Ÿ¯
;˜ 6 Ÿˆ w w
ww; =`.77 \ 7pwK \ 8ppp \ 7p w ; w
w w
ww
w w
ww
w
. \ 7pwK|
D .88 \ 7pwK¥
; = 0.18112 x 104 ; ˜ 61811 ms-1
l ni.entet Calculate thelade
ail.a5. ntet
il.ani.eBroglie wavelength l i.ente
ail.anof
t
a proton whose lakinetic
t t t t
il.ani.ene energy is alail.ani.ene
s
ada as s
ada as s
ada as s
a as s
aa s
.wp.apda equal .apda81.9
.wpto × 10–15 J. w .wp.apda mass of proton
(Given: daad1836
.wp.apis times that .apdad
.wpof
w w w w w
ww ww
electron). ww ww ww ww
Solution:
t entet-27 et J t t
l a i
l .ani.ente i.ent-15
lail.anxi. 10 kg, KE = 81.9laxil.an10
Mp = 1.67 l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas adsaas dsaas sas sas
.
w p.apdaada .
wp apdaBroglie
de
. wavelength of
.
w papadaaproton,
. • 6 .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada
w w w √kŸs w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
l asla l l l
p
w.w
a
.pda p.apdad
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w.w
a
. pda p
w.w . pda
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a p
w.w.apda
w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t .ni.ente
t
.ni.ente
t
.ni.ente IN PHYSICS
ww ww \w
.w 7pwK| ww ww ww
= ;
2k \ 7. v \ 7pw ª \ ˆ7.` \7pw Ã
etet etet t t
s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.an. i.n\ 7pwK| s asl a-14 s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada ada= ; = 3.99 adxa10 ada ada
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda 7. •D` \ 7pw ;
ww ww • 64 x 10-14wm
w ww ww ww
t 9t(ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR t PHYSICS) ail.ani.entet t

l a i
l .ani.ente UNIT
l a i
l.ani.e-nte l ail.ani.ente l l a i
l .ani.ente
sas sas dsaas a
daadsas Å. Calculate the sas
apdaada 1. apdaadaof the 5 orbit.wpof apdaahydrogen apdaada
th
. p. The radius
. p. . atom is.p.a13.25
p . p.
w w w w w w w w w w
ww ww
wavelengthof the electron ww in the 5th orbit. ww ww ww
Solution:
il.an;i.e2nex3.14 x 13.25Å =al5ail.xani.•ene; ∴ • 6 16.64 Å alail.ani.ene
t t 2…@ 6 ‹• t t t t t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene a l a a l a il.ani.ene
adsas 2. as
adsangular
Find theapd(i) momentum(ii) s
adsavelocity of the electron adsas in the 5th orbit adaadsas
w .wp.apda w .wp. a w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w.wp.p w
ww w
ofwhydrogen atom. ww ww ww ww
Solution:
entet (i) Angular momentum tet ; 6 • \ . \7pwK| .ni.entet
entet is given by6 i‹.anℏi.en6 t t
il.ani . i
l .
ani . l k \ D.78 ia il.ani.ene
d adsaasla
d a
d saasla
d a
d saasla kG
d adsaaslal a
adsa sl a
.wp.apda
a a a a -34 2 -1 a a
w.wp.p w.wp=.p5.25 x 10 kgm w p.ap
s w.w a
w.wp.p w w
ww ww w £ ww \ 7pwK|Æ§¢ #w u
r•.k• ww ww
(ii) Velocity is given by velocity, 6 ;6 w ; Êu
ŸB r`.7 \ 7pwK ÇÈu r K. Ã É ;
etet © 64.4 x i10 et
e ms 5t -1
etet .entet etet
ail.ani.n al.ani.n ail.ani.n ail.ani235 ail.ani.n
Padasalai.Net
ada 3. Assuming a energy released
adthat da the fission of a psingle
aby ada 92U nucleus adaada
w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .w.apda w.wp.p w
ww isww
200MeV, calculate w w number of fissions
the ww per second required ww to ww
produce 1 Watt power.
t Solution: t t t t
l.ani.ente 235 l a i
l .ani.ente
sas The sas
fission of a single 92Udadsa as
nucleus dsaas of energy
releases 200daMev sas
.
wp.apdaada .
w p.apdaada .wp.apa .
w p.apa¸] ± ¸ .wp.apdaada
ww E = ± ⟹ ] 6 ¡ ww
w w
Energy w w w w
ww ww released in the fission ww is given by the formula ww
E = 200 Mev = 200 x 106 x 1.6 x 10-19
t t E = 320 xi.n -13t -11
i.ente ; E = 3.2 x 10 Ji.ni.ente
10 t t t t t
a la il.ani.ene a l a l a a la l a a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsas ± a¸sas 7 adsas 11 s adsas
.wp.apda .wp] .a6
pda¡d 6 D.k \ 7pw ; = 0.3125 10.p10.apdaadsa
.wp.apda x 10 = 3.125 x w .wp.apda
w w w w w w
ww ww ± 63.125 x 10 10 ww ww ww ww
]
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww ww ww ww

ada ada ada ada ada
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t
l a i
l.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
.
w p.apdaada .
wp.apdaada .
w papdaada
. .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
l asla l l l
p
w.w
a
.pda p.apdad
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a
. pda p
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w.w.apda
w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t ntet
i.ente IN PHYSICS
UVANNAMALAI . t t
e
il.ani.en RAJENDRAN
RAJE M, a l a
TEACHER
adsa s s
ada s s s
ada s s
ada adsa s
ww ww UNIT- 10 (ELEC ww
ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION) ww ww ww
l ni.entet An ideal diode

ail.a1. l ailand
t
.ani.entea 5 Ω resistor are l ni.entet
ail.aconnected in
l
etet
ail.ani.n l
etet
ail.ani.n
s
ada as s as
adaa 15V power s as
da shown in figurep.apdaada
aas s as s
ada as
series pwith ower supply
w .wp.apda w .w.apda w.wp.apda w.w w .wp.apda w
ww ww Calculate the
below. ww that flows through
e current
cur wwthe ww ww
diode.
t Solution: t t t t
l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas The sas is forwar
diode forward biased as it is an ideal one. Hence,
sand sas , it acts ac like a dadsaas
apdaada apdaada apdaada apdaada aa
.
w p. closed.
w p. .
w p. .
w p. w.wp.p
ww switch with no o barr
barrier
ww voltage. Therefore, wcurrent ww that flows ws thr through
wwthe
w w w w
ww ww
diode can be calculated using Ohm’s law. V = IR ; I= ² ; 6 5 ; = 3A
ted u
l a ni.entet Determine thelailwaveleng

il.a2.
t
.ani.enteelength of light lemitted
a
t t
il.ani.ene from LED which l a il.aniis
t
.entem
made up of
l a
t t
il.ani.ene
a
adsas a
adsas
GaAsP asemiconductor ctor w a
adsas
whoseadforbidden energy gap as 75 eV.
dsa1.875
ais eV Mention a
adsas
w .wp.apda w .wp.pda w .wp.pa w
-34.wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww wwcolour of the light
the ww
ht em
emitted (Take h = 6.6 × w10 w Js). ww ww
Solution:
í í . \ 7pwt K|t \ D \ 7p¥
i .ani entet
. Eg = ˆ ;aTherefore,
i .
ani . t
enteefore, • 6 Ž ; = 7.ˆv• il.ani.e\n7.e \ 7pw Ÿ ; = 660anm
t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
a sl a l a sl l º asl a sl a a sl a
w.wp.apda The w .wp.apda
wavelength .wp.apda to red colour light.
660 nm ccorresponds
ww 3.
w
Inw a transistor connecte ww in the common base
nected ww configuration, tion, aE a w
w
60.95 , ww
I 6
tet ¡
mA . Calculate
te the values of I and I . C B
e
n entet e ntet etet etet
n . n . n . ail.ani.n ail.ani.n
Padasalai.Net
l .
aila i Solution: alaila . i l .
aila i l l
s
ada as s
adš a s s as s as s as
.wp.apda .wpα.ap6da š8 ; Il 6 αI¡ = 00.95
dada
xp.a1pa= 0.95 mA
.w .wp.apda
ada
.wp.apda
ada
w w w w w w
ww ww Ë ww ww ww ww
I¡ 6 IÃ Y Il ∴ IÃ 6 Il & I¡ ; = 1 – 0.95 = 0.05 mA
t t t t t
l.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas 4. adsaas
In the combination of th
the following a gates, write the Boolean
daadsas sas an equationeq for asaas
apdaada apda aand
p apdaada adad
w w .
wp. output
w w .
w p.
Y in terms of
f inpu
inputs
w wA.
w p. B. w w .
w p.
w w p.p
.
w w
w w w w w ww
Solution:
The output at the 1st t AND gate: A B œ
. ni.entet . ni entet
. œ
t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
a la i
l a The output at
a the
l a i
l a 2nd d AND gate: A Ba la a l a a l a
w .wp.apda The w .wp.apda at the OR gate
output gate: Yw.=
w pdaB
p.aA. œ+A œ. + w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
5.
te t Simplify the Boolean an ide
te t identity AC + ABC = AC
t t t t t t
a l a n
il.ai e
.n Solution: alail.ai n.e
n
a la il.ai e
n e
.n
adsa s asas asa s adsa s adsa s
w.wp.apda Stepw1:.w .apdad(1 + B) = AC.1 [OR
pAC w .apdad
.wplaw–2] w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww 2: AC . 1 = AC [ANDww
Step law – 2] ww ww ww
Therefore, AC + ABC
C = AC
s asl ail.ani.n Circuit Description
s aslail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s aslail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada Y=AC + daada Y=AC
ABC ada ada ada
w.wp.apda w .wp.ap w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w.wp.apda w
ww ww the given statement
Thus w proved.
mentwis ww ww ww
t t t t t
l a i
l.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
.
w p.apdaada .
wp.apdaada .
w papdaada
. .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww

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