Book Summary

PROJECT
MANAGEMENT
This page intentionally left blank
PROJECT
MANAGEMENT
Strategic Design and Implementation
David I. Cleland, Ph.D.

Professor Emeritus, School of Engineering
University of Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
Lewis R. Ireland, Ph.D.

President
American Society for the Advancement of Project Management
Clarksville, Tennessee
Fifth Edition
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ABOUT THE AUTHORS
DAVID I. CLELAND, PH.D., is professor emeritus in the School of Engineering at the
University of Pittsburgh and the author/editor of 36 books on project management
and engineering management. Often described as the “Father of Project
Management,” he is a Fellow of the Project Management Institute and has
received the Institute’s Distinguished Contribution to Project Management Award
three times. The Institute’s annual David I. Cleland Excellence in Project
Management Literature Award is named in his honor.
LEWIS R. IRELAND, PH.D., is president of the American Society for the Advancement
of Project Management. He is a Fellow of the Project Management Institute and
has received the Institute’s Distinguished Contribution Award and Person of the
Year Award. He has more than three decades of management experience and is
active in advancing the project management discipline.
CONTENTS
Preface xvii
Acknowledgments xix
Introduction xxi
Part 1 Introduction
Chapter 1. The Evolution of Project Management 3
1.1. Introduction / 3
1.2. Types of Evidence for Historical Projects / 4
1.3. Project Charter / 5
1.4. Early Literature on Projects / 6
1.5. Government Literature / 8
1.6. Leading Projects of Antiquity / 8
1.7. Military Campaigns / 11
1.8. Projects That Changed the World / 13
1.9. The Modern Projects / 14
1.10. The Results of Historical Projects / 16
1.11. The Past, the Present, and the Future for Projects / 17
1.12. To Summarize / 20
1.13. Additional Sources of Information / 20
1.14. Discussion Questions / 21
1.15. User Checklist / 22
1.16. Principles of Project Management / 22
1.17. Project Management Situation—Projects of Antiquity / 23
1.18. Student/Reader Assignment / 23
Chapter 2. Why Project Management? 25
2.2. The Role of Strategic Planning / 27
2.3. The Spirit of Strategic Planning / 27
2.4. Some Limitations of Formal Strategic Planning / 27
2.5. Strategic Management—the Project Linkages / 28
2.6. Projects / 32
2.7. Other Examples / 35
2.8. Early Literature / 35
2.9. Organizational Liaison Devices / 36
2.10. Teams / 38
2.11. The Project Management Professional Societies / 43
2.12. A Philosophy / 44
2.13. Breaking Down Hierarchies / 44
vii
viii CONTENTS

2.19. Project Management Situation—External and Internal Projects / 49
Chapter 3. The Project Management Process 51
3.2. The General Management Process / 51
3.3. The Project Management Process / 54
3.4. The Project Life Cycle / 56
3.5. Managing the Life Cycle / 59
3.6. Project Life Cycles and Uncertainty / 61
3.12. Project Management Situation—Strategic Monitoring and Control / 65
Part 2 The Strategic Context of Projects

Chapter 4. When to Use Project Management 71
4.2. Business Process Changes / 71
4.3. Specific Uses / 72
4.4. Projects and Strategic Planning / 74
4.5. When Is a Project Needed? / 75
4.6. Promoting Participative Management / 83
4.7. Senior Management Responsibility / 84
4.8. Selling Project Management to Senior Managers / 85
4.9. External Project Management Selling / 88
4.10. What It Takes to Sell Project Management / 89
4.11. Two Views of Selling Project Management / 90
4.12. Types of Projects / 91
4.13. The Management of Small Projects / 93
4.19. Project Management Situation—When to Use Project Management / 99
Chapter 5. The Strategic Context of Projects 103

5.2. Strategic Transitions / 103
5.3. Implications of Technology / 104
5.4. A Stream of Projects / 106
5.5. Strategic Relationship of Projects / 107
5.6. Determining Strategic Fit / 108
CONTENTS ix
5.7. The Vision / 109

5.8. Projects and Organizational Management / 110
5.9. Project Planning / 111
5.10. Project Management System / 111
5.16. Project Management Situation—Improvement of Project Management / 116
Chapter 6. The Board of Directors and Major Projects 119

6.2. The Need for Boards of Directors / 119
6.3. Surveillance / 120
6.4. Some Board Inadequacies / 121
6.5. Exemplary Board Behavior / 123
6.6. The Board’s Responsibilities / 125
6.7. The Role of Managers / 125
6.8. The Role of Projects / 128
6.9. Project Reviews / 129
6.10. Information for the Board / 131
6.11. The Performance Audit / 132
6.12. Selection of Directors / 133
6.18. Project Management Situation—Boards of Directors’ Inadequacies / 136
Chapter 7. Project Stakeholder Management 139

7.2. Why Manage Stakeholders? / 139
7.3. Organizational Stakeholders / 140
7.4. Project Stakeholders / 143
7.5. Some Examples of Stakeholder Influence / 146
7.6. Some Examples of Successful Stakeholder Management / 148
7.7. Project Stakeholder Management Process / 149
7.8. Planning Stakeholder Management / 150
7.9. A Model of the PSM Process / 150
7.10. Identification of Stakeholders / 150
7.11. Primary Stakeholders / 153
7.12. Secondary Stakeholders / 153
7.13. Gathering Stakeholder Information / 154
7.14. Identification of Stakeholder Mission / 155
7.15. Determining Stakeholder Strengths and Weaknesses / 156
7.16. Identification of Stakeholder Strategy / 157
7.17. Prediction of Stakeholder Behavior / 157
7.18. Project Audit / 159
7.19. Implementing Stakeholder Management Strategy / 160
x CONTENTS

7.25. Project Management Situation—Stakeholder Initiatives / 163
Chapter 8. Strategic Issues in Project Management 165

8.2. What Are Strategic Issues? / 165
8.3. Some Examples / 166
8.4. An Application of the Concept of Strategic Issues: Nuclear Construction Industry / 169
8.5. Managing Project Strategic Issues / 172
8.6. Issue Identification / 173
8.7. Assessment of an Issue / 174
8.8. Analysis of Action / 175
8.9. Implementation / 176
8.15. Project Management Situation—Some Strategic Issues / 178
Part 3 Organizational Design for Project Management

Chapter 9. Organizing for Project Management 183

9.2. Project-Driven Organization / 183
9.3. Organizational Deficiencies / 184
9.4. Self-Management in Organizations / 185
9.5. The Project Organization / 186
9.6. Various Forms of the Project Organization / 187
9.7. The Matrix Organization / 189
9.8. Functional Area Knowledge / 191
9.9. Focus of the Matrix Design / 192
9.10. Importance of Work Packages / 194
9.11. The Project-Functional Interface / 194
9.12. A Controversial Design / 195
9.13. No One Best Organizational Design / 197
9.14. Global Project Organizations / 197
9.15. Project-Customer Relationships / 198
9.16. Organizational Networking / 199
9.17. The Project Management Office / 200
9.18. Procurement and Contract Negotiations/Administration / 202
9.24. Project Management Situation—Understanding the Matrix Organization / 206
CONTENTS xi
Chapter 10. Project Portfolio Management 209

10.2. Decision to Use Portfolios / 209
10.3. Project Portfolio / 210
10.4. Project Selection Criteria / 211
10.5. Reviewing Project Portfolio Management / 214
10.6. Project Portfolio Management Transition and Implementation / 214
10.12. Project Management Situation—Portfolio Project Management / 218
Chapter 11. Project Authority 221

11.2. Authority, Responsibility, and Accountability / 221
11.3. Defining Authority / 222
11.4. Power / 224
11.5. Matrix Implications / 225
11.6. The Power to Reward / 228
11.7. Reverse Delegation / 228
11.8. Documenting Project Manager’s Authority / 229
11.9. What is Responsibility? / 231
11.10. What is Accountability? / 231
11.11. Project Organization Charting / 232
11.12. Traditional Organizational Chart / 232
11.13. Linear Responsibility Chart / 234
11.14. Work Packages / 235
11.15. Work Package–Organizational Position Interfaces / 235
11.16. A Project Management LRC / 235
11.17. Developing the LRC / 236
11.23. Project Management Situation—Prescribing Project Management Authority / 240
Chapter 12. Project Management Maturity 243

12.2. Organizational Productivity Improvements / 243
12.3. Project Management Maturity Models / 245
12.4. Total Organizational Capability Maturity Model / 248
12.5. Assessing Project Management Maturity / 253
12.6. Building a Mature Capability / 253
12.7. Benchmarking / 254
12.8. Competitive Intelligence / 256
xii CONTENTS

12.14. Project Management Situation—Gaining Project Management Maturity / 260
Part 4 Project Operations

Chapter 13. Project Planning 265

13.2. The Importance of Planning / 265
13.3. Planning Realities / 266
13.4. A Conceptual Model of Planning / 267
13.5. Project Planning Model / 267
13.6. Project Planning Process / 268
13.7. Project Planning Considerations / 270
13.8. Work Breakdown Structure / 272
13.9. Project Schedules / 275
13.10. Scheduling Techniques / 276
13.11. Project Life-Cycle Planning / 279
13.12. Project Planning Elements / 279
13.13. Plan Format / 281
13.14. Project Management Manual / 281
13.15. Project Planning Work Packages / 282
13.16. Management Realities / 283
13.17. Project Partnering / 284
13.18. Types of Project Partnering Arrangements / 284
13.19. Examples of Project Partnering Arrangements / 285
13.20. Managing Partnered Projects / 286
13.21. Technical Aspects of Partnered Projects / 287
13.22. Partnering Challenges and Benefits / 288
13.23. Outsourcing Project Management / 288
13.24. Project Management as an Outsourced Service / 288
13.25. Outsourcing Trends / 289
13.26. Selecting an Outsource Provider / 289
13.27. Outsourcing Project Management Services and Products / 291
13.28. Project Management Outsourcing Guidelines / 292
13.29. Outsourcing Potential / 292
13.35. Project Management Situation—Developing a Project Plan / 295
Chapter 14. Project Management Information System 297

14.2. The Project Management Information System / 297
14.3. Information Failures / 299
14.4. Value of the PMIS / 300
14.5. Describing a PMIS / 302
14.6. Uses of the PMIS / 304
14.7. Information Characteristics and Attributes / 304
14.8. Sharing Information / 305
CONTENTS xiii
14.9. Information Value / 306

14.10. Technology and the PMIS / 308
14.11. Challenges to an Effective PMIS / 309
14.12. PMIS Hardware and Software / 311
14.13. Planning for the PMIS / 312
14.14. Essential Elements of a PMIS / 313
14.20. Project Management Situation—Prescribing a PMIS / 317
Chapter 15. Project Monitoring, Evaluation, and Control 319

15.2. Project Control Cycle / 319
15.3. Steps in the Control Cycle / 320
15.4. Monitoring and Evaluation / 322
15.5. Management Functions Evaluation / 324
15.6. When to Monitor and Evaluate / 326
15.7. Planning for Monitoring and Evaluation / 326
15.8. Who Monitors and Evaluates? / 327
15.9. Post-Project Reviews / 327
15.10. Configuration Management and Control / 329
15.11. Planning and Control Implications for Project Success or Failure / 330
15.12. Results of Projects—Success or Failure / 331
15.13. Examples of Project Success/Failure / 332
15.14. The Causes of Success or Failure / 334
15.15. Project Audits / 336
15.16. Project Evaluation / 337
15.22. Project Management Situation—Establishing a Project Control System / 344
Chapter 16. The Project Earned Value Management System 347

16.2. Background / 347
16.3. EVM Capability / 348
16.4. EVM Implementation Considerations / 350
16.5. Planning for EVMS / 351
16.6. Measuring Progress / 354
16.7. Performance Achievement / 355
16.8. EVMS Considerations / 359
16.14. Project Management Situation—Implementing Earned Value / 363
xiv CONTENTS
Chapter 17. Project Termination 365

17.2. Why Terminate? / 365
17.3. Types of Project Termination / 367
17.4. Strategic Implications / 368
17.5. Continuing the “LOSERS” / 369
17.6. Projects in Trouble / 371
17.7. Termination Strategies / 371
17.8. Evaluation of Termination Possibilities / 372
17.9. Posttermination Activities / 373
17.15. Project Management Situation—Shutting Down a Project / 377
Part 5 Interpersonal Dynamics in the Management

of Projects
Chapter 18. Project Leadership 381

18.2. Concept of Leadership / 381
18.3. What Is Leadership? / 382
18.4. Studies of Leadership / 382
18.5. Leadership Style / 383
18.6. Management vis-à-vis Leadership / 386
18.7. Project Leadership / 390
18.8. Team Leadership / 391
18.9. Leadership Competencies / 392
18.15. Project Management Situation—Being a Project Leader / 399
Chapter 19. Project Communications 401

19.2. Importance of Communication / 401
19.3. Communication Problems / 402
19.4. The Process of Communication / 402
19.5. Informal Communication / 405
19.6. Listening / 406
19.7. Nonverbal Communication / 409
19.8. Written Communications / 410
19.9. Project Meetings / 411
19.10. The Role of Technology / 414
19.11. Communication Links / 416
CONTENTS xv

19.17. Project Management Situation—How to Communicate / 420
Chapter 20. Successful Project Teams 423

20.2. The Need for Effective Teamwork in Today’s Global World of Business / 423
20.3. Making the Transition from Work Group to Team / 426
20.4. Measuring Project Team Performance / 428
20.5. A Model for Team Building / 429
20.6. Building High-Performing Teams / 431
20.7. Recommendations for Effective Team Management / 433
20.13. Project Management Situation—Technical Project Team / 438
Bibliography / 440
Part 6 The Cultural Elements
Chapter 21. Continuous Improvement through Projects 445

21.2. Why Continuous Improvement? / 446
21.3. Some Examples / 446
21.4. Survival through Change / 448
21.5. Management Innovation / 450
21.6. Continuous Improvement in Productivity / 451
21.7. Product Quality through Projects / 453
21.8. Trendsetters / 453
21.9. Product Integrity / 454
21.10. Continuous Improvement in Manufacturing / 455
21.11. Manufacturing Philosophies / 456
21.12. Computer-Integrated Manufacturing (CIM) / 457
21.13. Just-in-Time (JIT) Manufacturing / 458
21.19. Project Management Situation—Challenges for the New Managers / 462
Chapter 22. Cultural Considerations in Project Management 463

22.2. Defining Culture / 463
xv
xvi CONTENTS
22.3. The Nature of an Organizational Culture / 464

22.4. The Strategic Management Linkage / 466
22.5. Additional Examples of Corporate Culture / 468
22.6. Cultural Features / 469
22.7. The Project Culture / 471
22.8. Why Change? / 473
22.9. The Constancy of Change / 473
22.10. Project Management Actions / 475
22.11. The Trust Factor / 477
22.12. Culture and Project Extensions / 478
22.13. Influencing the Team’s Culture / 478
22.14. Conflict / 479
22.15. Code of Ethics for Project Professionals / 479
22.21. Project Management Situation—Conducting a Cultural Assessment / 484
Part 7 New Prospects

Chapter 23. Alternative Project Teams 489

23.2. A Place in Business for Alternative Teams / 489
23.3. Traditional and Nontraditional Project Teams / 490
23.4. The Types of Alternative Teams / 492
23.5. Alternative Teams: More about Their Roles / 493
23.6. The Personal Impact of Teams / 506
23.7. Role Change / 506
23.13. Project Management Situation—Positive and Negative Results / 510
Index 513
PREFACE
In today’s environment, certainty of change is without precedent. Although the practice of project
management has been with us for centuries, only in the past few decades an expression in the liter-
ature of philosophy and process of managing projects has taken place. An early form of project man-
agement was used in antiquity to manage societal changes. In recent years, there has been a growing
interest in the use of projects as building blocks in the strategic management of the enterprise. This
book’s fifth edition continues to hold the commanding lead, taken by previous editions, in showing
how to use projects for the management of product, service, and organizational process change to
prepare the organization for its competitive future.
Today, project management has reached a maturity level in which it is applied to many uses. It is
the principal means by which operational and strategic changes are managed in contemporary orga-
nizations, in both for-profit and not-for-profit enterprises. This growing maturity of project manage-
ment has fostered the use of “nontraditional” project teams in the management of organizational
change. Benchmarking teams, concurrent engineering teams, reengineering teams, and self-managed
production teams are a few of these nontraditional teams that are gaining popularity in strategies
used by today’s managers.
Formal project management emerged in an unobtrusive manner in the late 1950s and began tak-
ing on the characteristics of a distinct discipline. No one can claim to have invented project man-
agement. Its beginnings can be found in the creation and construction of many different historical
architectural artifacts, such as in cathedrals, canals, highways, and in voyages of discovery and mil-
itary campaigns, to name a few. In more recent times, project management has gained special atten-
tion in the military weapons and systems development businesses. The modern-day origins of project
management concepts and techniques can be found in such large-scale ad hoc endeavors as the
Manhattan Project and the Polaris submarine program, in large construction initiatives, and in the
use of naval task forces.
The emergence of professional societies has helped stimulate the development and dissemina-
tion of project management knowledge and skills. There are many such professional societies in
existence—with a commanding lead being taken by the Project Management Institute (PMI®). The
growth of PMI in recent years in many ways reflects the increasing interest in the use of project
management. PMI now has more than 230,000 members drawn from a wide variety of different
industries and organizations.
Globally, other professional project management associations are emerging under the auspices of
the International Project Management Association (IPMA), which has more than 40 member asso-
ciations representing their respective national interests. The American Society for the Advancement
of Project Management (asapm) was recently formed to represent member interests in the United
States. Associations under IPMA in India and China—both countries with populations exceeding
more than one billion people—are growing rapidly and offering certifications in project management
competence. Independent associations in Australia and Japan add to the growing list of involvement
in the further development of project management as a distinct discipline with a documented body
of knowledge in project management.
Many books and articles that have been published about project management treat the subject as
if it were a nearly separate entity in the management of organizations. Little is found in this litera-
ture that puts project management in its proper place in the strategic management of organizations.
This book tries to do just that. Our study of how contemporary organizations deal with change rein-
forced our belief that, in spite of an abundance of books and periodical literature, there was a serious
xvii
xviii CONTENTS
lack of theoretical and practical literature that placed project management in the context of the design
and execution of organizational strategies.
We found that too many leaders and managers, particularly at the upper and senior levels, were
inclined to view project management as a special case of management—a minor departure from the
proper or expected ways of managing the organization. Too often, these managers failed to appreci-
ate the strategic role that projects can play in the management of their organizations. Up until the last
few years, many managers tended to tolerate rather than fully accept project management as the way
to enhance organizational effectiveness. This caused project managers, functional managers, and
project professionals to see themselves in ambiguous roles in supporting project initiatives. However,
once upper and senior managers recognized project management for what it is—a philosophy and
process for managing change—they embraced the use of project management in the enterprise.
In this fifth edition of Project Management: Strategic Design and Implementation, special care
has been taken to update the material in each chapter. New material has been added that has emerged
as part of the growing literature supporting project management, such as the evolution of project
management, project portfolio management, earned value, project management maturity, nontradi-
tional teams, project partnering, and the outsourcing of project management, to name a few. The
growing literature in project management is adequately described in the text. In some cases, an area
is only mentioned with guidance on where the reader can find expert references on the subjects.
Giving a detailed description of all the emerging areas of thought that relate to project management
would greatly lengthen the book to an unwieldy size.
Updated examples of the use of project management in many different contexts have been added.
End-of-chapter material has been strengthened through the use of detailed chapter summaries, addi-
tional sources of information, discussion questions, user checklists, project management principles,
a project management situation, and a student/reader assignment for further investigation of project
management areas. Sufficient end-of-chapter material exists to support the use of the text in under-
graduate and graduate programs as well as in short training courses. The book is valuable as well to
the professional practitioners, who want to increase their knowledge and skills in the practice of pro-
ject management. Upper-level and senior managers will find an abundance of information that can
be used to enhance their use of project initiatives in the management of the enterprise.
David I. Cleland, Ph.D.

Lewis R. Ireland, Ph.D.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The development and publication of this fifth edition required the cooperative efforts of many peo-
ple, who served as advocates, consultants, and facilitators. Our deep appreciation goes to all these
“stakeholders” who contributed in many important ways to this book. Much appreciation is due to
our students, clients, and project-community associates who allowed us to talk with them about the
theory and practice of project management.
Our thanks to Dr. Bopaya Bidanda, chairperson of the Industrial Engineering Department and
Dr. Gerald D. Holder, dean of the School of Engineering at the University of Pittsburgh, who pro-
vided an intellectual and supportive environment where projects such as this book can be pursued.
We thank Claire Zubritzky of the Industrial Engineering Department, who provided outstanding
administrative support in the early development of this book. We also thank Lisa Bopp and Rachel
Borchardt of the Industrial Engineering Department, who provided supporting administrative assis-
tance when needed on this project. Ouida Ireland is recognized for her support in reviewing drafts to
identify unclear or confusing sentences, all the while encouraging the authors in writing this book.
We recognize and thank Dr. Hans Thamhain of Bentley College, who prepared Chap. 20 of this
book. Hans is one of the notables of the project management community who has made outstanding
contributions to project management literature. We are pleased to have him on our team.
We acknowledge and recognize the support of our wives and families who provided logistic and
emotional support, as well as tolerated our absences from the family activities during the preparation
of the manuscript for this book.
xix
INTRODUCTION
This fifth edition of Project Management: Strategic Design and Implementation has been put together
with the objective of further contributing to the project management knowledge of professionals at
all levels of responsibility and to the student aspiring to be a knowledgeable professional in this dis-
cipline.
Managers and professionals engaged in project management, who desire to be more effective
contributors in their organization’s success, will find this book useful. The format of the book is
adaptable to many different uses. Readers may read sections and topics in whatever order best suits
their interests. The 7 parts and 23 chapters provide an easy division of information for readers. In
Fig. I.1, these parts and chapters of the fifth edition are portrayed in the context of strategic man-
agement and project management and are briefly described in the following text.
Part 1, Introduction, consists of 3 chapters that introduce project management and its evolution
and describe the management processes that are involved in the practice of this discipline.
Why PM
Evolution The PM
of PM Process
Alternative When to Use

Project Teams PM
Introduction Strategic
Context
New Uses Strategic Board of

of Teams Context of Directors
Projects
Project
Stakeholder
Cultural Strategic
Management
Considerations Management
Project Strategic
The Cultural Management Organizational Issues in PM
Elements Design for PM Organizing
Continuous For PM
Improvement
Project
Portfolio
Successful Interpersonal Project Management
Project Teams Dynamics Operations
Project
Project Authority
Communications Planning PM
Project Maturity
Leadership PMIS
Project Project Project Monitoring,
Termination EVMS Evaluation, & Control
FIGURE I.1
xxi
xxii INTRODUCTION
Part 2, The Strategic Context of Projects, shows how projects are used in both the strategic and
operational management of the enterprise. The theme emphasized in this section is how projects are
building blocks in preparing the enterprise for its uncertain future. When to use project management,
the strategic context of projects, the role of boards of directors, project stakeholders, and project
strategic issues are examined in this part.
Part 3, Organizational Design for Project Management, looks at how to organize human
resources, project authority, project portfolio management, and project management maturity.
Part 4, Project Operations, reviews project planning, information systems, project control, earned
value systems, and project termination strategies.
Part 5, Interpersonal Dynamics in the Management of Projects, presents information on project
leadership, communications, and successful project teams.
Part 6, The Cultural Elements, reviews a strategy of continuous improvement through projects,
and cultural considerations in project management. A new awareness is raised in project manage-
ment that cultural aspects are perhaps as important as the “traditional” cost, schedule, and technical
performance issues.
Part 7, New Prospects, considers the alternative uses to which project teams can be put.
The reader can do further reading about project management from the additional sources of infor-
mation given at the end of each chapter. Then, too, each reference cited in the text of the book can
be a valuable source of additional information.
We wish readers much success in their project management work!
PROJECT
MANAGEMENT
P ●
A ●
R ●
T ●
1
INTRODUCTION
Why PM
Evolution The PM
of PM Process
Introduction
New Uses Strategic

of Teams Context of
Projects
Strategic
Management
Project
The Cultural Management Organizational
Elements Design for PM
Interpersonal Project
Dynamics Operations
CHAPTER 1
THE EVOLUTION OF PROJECT
MANAGEMENT1
In the beginning God created the universe. All subsequent projects have been of
lesser significance.
Anonymous
1.1 INTRODUCTION
In the early 1970s it was stated in the project management community that “project management is
the accidental profession.” This statement has been quoted many times since, with all the implica-
tions that a discovery had been made and a new profession had been defined in the late twentieth
century. Recognition of project management as a discipline and the use of this management
approach have varied over several thousands of years.
The treatment of the subject of projects and project management in this chapter encompasses
several thousands of years where evidence exists to demonstrate that projects were used to change
and advance societies and that some form of project management was needed to ensure favorable
conversion of resources to the benefit of these societies. The selection of examples of projects
reported in this chapter is made based on available artifacts, literature, and other evidence reflecting
a high degree of understanding and sophistication in effecting change through planned actions.
For centuries, project management has been used in some rudimentary form to create change or
deal with change in societies. Change in a positive sense is caused by the application of manage-
ment action that results in the consumption of resources to create a desired product, service, or orga-
nizational process. Change also may be meeting uncertain situations to identify and implement
actions to obtain the most favorable outcome. Project management, in whatever form, has been used
for centuries to plan for, implement, and meet change.
The general management discipline, although practiced in some form in antiquity, emerged as
an explicit discipline in the twentieth century. It was during this period that concepts, philosophies,
principles, processes, tools, and techniques began to appear in literature that reflects the intellectual
framework found in the management of contemporary organizations. Yet a form of general manage-
ment existed in antiquity to deal with the need to lead and organize various elements of society.
Project management, often described in the context of leadership, was ubiquitous in the past,
being the medium by which changes in societies were accomplished. The great leaders of history
were “managers,” managing political organizations, countries, explorations, wars, technological and
social change, and so forth. The principal challenge to these managers was the need to create
change for the better or to deal with the change that affected their societies.
This chapter is a step toward acknowledgment and a fuller appreciation of the role that project
managers and project teams have played throughout history in the evolution of society. A study of
1. This chapter adopted from David I. Cleland and Lewis R. Ireland “The Evolution of Project Management,” in David I.
Cleland and Roland Gareis (eds.), The Global Project Management Handbook, 2nd ed. (NY: McGraw-Hill, 2006).
3
4 INTRODUCTION
projects of the past would include an assessment of the effectiveness in management of the projects—
as well as development of an informal “lessons to be learned” profile in the conceptualization and
completion of the projects. As an inventory of these profiles is developed, our knowledge of what to
do in managing contemporary projects, as well as what to avoid, adds to our understanding of how
project management should be carried out in both the present and the future.
An early form of project management was used to plan for and use the resources needed to deal
with change. Only through studying the past can we fully perceive how the world has been changed
by projects. A study of these projects helps us to understand how institutions have emerged and sur-
vived using a form of project management. Having a knowledge and appreciation of past projects
binds us to the present and the future. If we do not learn from the past, we are condemned to make
the same mistakes and pay for those mistakes again.
1.2 TYPES OF EVIDENCE FOR HISTORICAL PROJECTS
Historical evidence of projects includes artifacts, cultural strategies, and literature.
A review of the results of projects in antiquity reveals evidence about how several historical pro-
jects originated and developed. The evidence takes three primary forms:
1. Artifacts—something produced by human workmanship, such as a tool, weapon, structure, or
substance of archeological or historical interest. Examples include the Great Pyramids and the
printing press.
2. Cultural strategies—such as found in the arts, beliefs, institutions, and other products of work
and thought typical of a society at a particular time. Examples include the English Magna Carta,
the U.S. Emancipation Proclamation, and the U.S. Social Security Program.
3. Literature and documents—publications and project-related documents that describe project
management and how it was used. Examples include books, articles, and editorials that describe
projects and the use of project management.
Figure 1.1 shows the potential for overlapping fields of evidence of projects that provide a frame-
work for assessing the historical events that led to the application of resources to work to create
change. This graphic representation also shows the sources of evidence of projects and project man-
agement.
It was the 1950s when project management was formally recognized as a distinct contribution
arising from the management discipline as depicted in Fig. 1.2. Prior uses of project management
had a focus on cost, schedule, and technical performance but lacked the formal definition and
Literature
Artifacts and
documents
Cultural
strategies
FIGURE 1.1 Evidence of Historical Projects.

THE EVOLUTION OF PROJECT MANAGEMENT 5
General management Project management

FIGURE 1.2 Progression from general management to project management.
embracing of the management concepts and processes in an integrated manner. Since the early
1950s, names and labels have been given to the elements of the project management discipline,
helping to facilitate its further development as a profession.
Evidence of project management terms dates back to more than 400 years ago.
The vocabulary associated with project management has grown from some original definitions
The single term project has an origin that dates back several hundreds of years. According to the
Oxford English Dictionary, the word project was first used in the sixteenth century. The following
list presents some samples from the second edition of the Oxford English Dictionary listed in
chronological order from the year 1600 through 1916:
Year 1600 “A projecte, conteyninge the State, Order, and Manner of Governments of the
University of Cambridge. As it is now to be seen.”
Year 1601 Holland Pliny II 335: “Many other plots and projects there doe renaime of his
(Parasius’) drawing. . . .”
Year 1623 T. Scot Highw: “All our Projects of draining surrounded grounds. . . .”
Year 1863 Geo. Eliot Rhola Proem: “We Florentines were too full of great building projects to
carry them all out in stone and marble. . . .”
Year 1916 M. D. Snedden in School and Society 2:420, 1916: “Some of us began using the
word ‘project’ to describe a unit of educative work in which the prominent feature
was a form of positive and concrete achievement.”
From earliest recorded times, people have worked together toward designing and creating pro-
jects. Although the term project management did not come into wide use until the 1950s, its history
is much longer that the term itself.
From the period circa 1950 to the present time, there is a growing abundance of articles, books,
papers, and miscellaneous documentation that can be used to build a contemporary model of pro-
ject management. For the period prior to 1950 back through antiquity, there is very limited docu-
mentation and literature. To understand how project management emerged requires examination of
the artifacts and the social, military, technological, political, industrial, and governmental strategies
that existed. From study of these areas, we may reach a judgment concerning the role of support-
ing projects. Then we can draw conclusions about how the projects were managed and in the
process identify any “seeds” of the project management concepts and processes that existed.
1.3 PROJECT CHARTER
A project charter is one of the first documents used to initiate a project and convey
project guidance to a project manager.
A project charter describes at a high level what is to be accomplished in a project and delegates
authority to the project manager to implement actions required for project completion. It typically
grants the project manager or project leader the authority to conduct selected actions while planning,
6 INTRODUCTION
implementing, and completing the project. It may contain details on what is to be done and what
may not be done. Statements of mission, objectives, or policies also may be included and accompa-
nied by a budget.
An examination of historical documents that recognized the need for new artifacts or strategies
can provide initial insight into how and why the artifacts or strategies evolved. These historical doc-
uments usually provide the “strategic need” for the action being considered and in most cases pro-
vide for a document similar to a “project charter” to guide the design and execution of the initiative.
For example:
● The Spanish Book of Privileges and Prerogatives granted to Christopher Columbus, April 20,
1492. This document sets forth the compensation promised to Columbus by Queen Isabel and
King Fernando, if Columbus discovered land on his first voyage to the New World.
● The English Charter to Sir Walter Raleigh, March 25, 1584. This document, executed by Queen
Elizabeth I, granted Sir Walter Raleigh authority to explore and claim lands for England. It also
defined the compensation that Raleigh would receive.
● The United States Congress Act authorizing Lewis and Clark Expedition, February 28, 1803. This
act authorized exploration of the Northwest Territory of the United States to find a land passage
to the Pacific Ocean.
● The United States Homestead Act, May 20, 1862. This document granted an individual, free of
charge, 160 acres of public land if within five years a house was built on the land, a well was dug,
10 acres were plowed, a specific amount of land was fenced, and the individual actually lived
there. An individual could claim an additional 160 acres of land if 10 acres were planted and cul-
tivated successfully with trees.
● The United States Tennessee Valley Act, May 18, 1933. This law established the Tennessee Valley
Authority for the purpose of reforestation, marginal land improvement, flood control, and agricul-
tural and industrial development of an area covering seven states.
● The English Instructions authorizing the voyages of discovery of Captain James Cook, August
1768, July 1772, and July 1776. Captain Cook was chartered by the United Kingdom Royal
Society to conduct three voyages in search of scientific information and various lands; each voy-
age was about three years in duration. Cook was one of the world’s greatest explorers. In his three
voyages from 1768–1779 he charted almost all of the North and South Pacific, ranging from the
Antarctica to the Bering Strait. He put Hawaii on the map and was the founding father of
Australia and New Zealand. He was a pioneer of globalization when people around the world
were just beginning to sense how vast the globe was and beginning to think about the morality of
a world driven by commerce.
1.4 EARLY LITERATURE ON PROJECTS
Documentation from early projects does not exist, but the artifacts give testimony
to the projects.
In all too many cases it will be impossible to find the original documents that established the need
for the artifact or strategy. For example, the Great Pyramids of Egypt, the Great Wall of China, the
Grand Canal of China, Roman roads, and Roman aqueducts are without written documentation, but
the artifacts remain today in some state. In these cases, descriptions provided in the anthropologic,
archeologic, and other historical literature can supply some insight into how and why these projects
were accomplished. Table 1.1 summarizes some early authors of project management literature.
Perhaps the earliest publication on the management of projects appeared in 1697, entitled An
Essay Upon Projects, authored by Daniel Defoe, who had an interesting comment on the building
of the Ark:
The building of the Ark by Noah, so far as you will allow TABLE 1.1 Authors of Landmark Early
it human work, was the first project I read of; and no question Project Management Literature
seem’d for it, and had he not been set on work by a very
peculiar Direction from Heaven, the Good old Man would • Daniel Defoe, 1697
certainly have been laugh’d out of it, as a most senseless • Mary Parker Follett, 1920
ridiculous project.2 • Paul Gaddis, 1959
• Gerald Fish, 1961
Some additional comments Defoe made regarding • John Mee, 1954
projects include • David I. Cleland, 1968
● “Every new Voyage the Merchant contrives is a

Project”3
● “After the Fire on London, the contrivance of an Engine to Quench Fires, was a Project the
Author was said to get well by, and we have found to be very useful”4
● “The project of the Penny-Post, so well known, and still prais’d . . .”5
● “And to Dedicate a Book of Projects to a Person who had never concern’d himself to think that
way, would be like Music to one that has no Ear”6
Defoe identifies in 1697 the dilemma still facing contemporary managers: how to design and imple-
ment project management concepts and philosophies.
Mary Parker Follett, writing in 1920, extolled the benefits of teams and participative management
and said that leadership comes from ability rather than hierarchy. She advocated empowerment,
drawing on the knowledge of workers, and supported the notion of the formation of teams through
cross-functions in which a horizontal rather than a vertical authority would foster a freer exchange of
knowledge within organizations.
A 1959 article that caught the attention of the growing project management community was
authored by Paul Gaddis, entitled “The Project Manager,” and published in the Harvard Business
Review. It described the role of an individual in an advanced-technology industry who functioned as
a focal point for the management of resources being applied to manage ad hoc activities across
organizational boundaries.
Another contribution to the emerging theory and practice of project management, entitled
“Functional Teamwork,” appeared in the Harvard Business Review in 1961, authored by Gerald
Fish. He described the growing trend in contemporary organizations toward functional-teamwork
approaches in organizational design.
Professor John F. Mee, a noted scholar in the history of management theory and practice, pub-
lished an article in Business Horizons in 1964 that described the characteristics of the “matrix orga-
nization.” He described one of the key characteristics of this approach as an organizational system
that created a “web of relationships” rather than a line and staff relationship of work performance.
David I. Cleland and William R. King published Systems Analysis and Project Management
(New York: McGraw-Hill) in 1968. This book was the first scholarly work on project management
cast in the context of the emerging “systems approach” in management theory and practice.
Since these landmark documents were published, a host of publications has appeared each year.
Amazon.com lists more than 2300 books for sale in 2005, and this number does not include books
that are out of print. It is estimated that more than 500 project management books are published
each year in the United States in the English language. This number does not include books on
aspects of project management that have other terms in their titles, such as project manager and risk
management.
2. Daniel Defoe, An Essay Upon Projects (Menston, England: The Scholar Press, 1969), p. ii.
3. Defoe, ibid. p. 8.
6. Defoe, ibid. p. ii.
8 INTRODUCTION
1.5 GOVERNMENT LITERATURE
US Air Force formalized the project management process through a series of

manuals that became the seeds for the conduct of project management practices.
In 1964, the U.S. Air Force announced publication of a series of manuals and policies to force con-
sistent management processes over the design and acquisition of major weapons systems. The
series changed the relationship between the government and private industry, whereby private
industry had to adopt and use the defined practices. The manuals and policies selected to effect
management change were part of a series of Air Force Systems Command Manuals referred to as
the 375 Series. The six most important of these manuals are
AFSCM 375-1, Configuration Management
AFSCM 375-3, System Program Office Manual
AFSCM 375-4, System Program Management
AFSCM 375-5, System Engineering Management Procedures
AFSCM 375-6, Development Engineering
AFSCM 310-1, Management of Contractor Data and Reports
The impact of the 375 Series of guidelines was to introduce changes in the government–defense
industry relationship. The impact that these guidelines had on the evolving project management lit-
erature was significant in terms of shaping project management in the United States and in coun-
tries influenced by the manner in which U.S. project management has been conducted. Much of the
early literature of the 1960s and 1970s drew on and reflected the philosophies, concepts, processes,
and techniques put forth in the 375 Series. Today, as the project management literature continues to
emerge, one can see some of the early seeds of the 375 Series and how these seeds matured.
1.6 LEADING PROJECTS OF ANTIQUITY
Projects of antiquity laid the groundwork for many of the practices of today and
left their marks on society.
One cannot review the history of civilization without concluding that projects on scales both small and
epic have been central to the continued evolution of society. Examples of some of the leading people
and projects of antiquity that have created change are listed in Table 1.2 and are described later.
Project of Prince Henry of Portugal (1394–1460)
In the early years of the fifteenth century, Prince Henry the Navigator developed and operated what could be
called today a research and development laboratory located in Sagres, Portugal. The voyages of the discov-
ery that set forth could be considered to be “projects.” These projects of discovery made important condi-
tions to the evolving body of knowledge in cartography, navigation, and shipbuilding. Experiments in ship-
building produced a new type of ship—the caravel, which made future exploration projects possible.
The caravel, a major improvement over older ships, contributed to the success of Prince Henry’s
exploration efforts. It was faster and could sail well into the wind with both square sails and a trian-
gular one. At about 65 feet long with a capacity of roughly 130 tons of cargo or supplies, the caravel
was more perfectly sized for the type of exploration conducted by Prince Henry.
Each voyage documented discoveries, and each fol- TABLE 1.2 Leading Projects of Antiquity
lowing voyage built on prior work. Each new “project”
was a continuation of the process for exploring and • Projects of Prince Henry of Portugal
assessing the lands of Africa. Ship captains were sent on • The Great Pyramids of Egypt
voyages with questions to be answered, which gave them • The Giant Cathedrals of Europe
a specific set of objectives—as with all good projects. • The Grand Canal of China
• Noah’s Ark
• St. Petersburg, Russia
The Great Pyramids of Egypt (circa 2700 to 2500 B.C.) • The Panama Canal
• Tower of Babel
Outside Cairo, Egypt, stand the Great Pyramids at Giza. • The Magna Carta
Some of the characteristics of these projects are as follows: • The Battle of Crecy
● The pyramids were national projects.
● The workers were organized into competing teams.
● The workers were motivated through their deep religious belief, and they believed that by build-
ing a tomb for their king, they were ensuring his rebirth.
● The workforce was highly organized. Each group of workers was responsible for one part of the
pyramid complex.
● A highly developed support force was needed, including a place to feed and house all the workers,
as well as the bakers, brewers, butchers, and so on.
● The workers were well treated and well fed and had access to medical care.
The workforce had all the evidence of a highly organized team of motivated individuals—
not the typical depiction of slaves being whipped to work. There is little doubt that the project
team for each pyramid had a mixture of technical skills and knowledge that represented a sophisti-
cated approach to building the structure.
The Great Cathedrals of Europe
Between 1050 and 1350 in France alone, more than 500 large churches were built, as well as 1000
parish churches, so that there was a church or chapel for every 200 people. In Germany, the
Cologne Cathedral, considered by some to be the most perfect specimen of Gothic architecture in
the world, undoubtedly took the longest to build. The foundation alone was laid in 1248. By 1417,
one of the towers was finished to one-third its present height, but at the time of the Reformation, its
roof was still covered with boards. Finally, the cathedral was completed in 1880, more than 630
years after construction first began.
Each church and chapel was a project that relied on the technology of the day. These artifacts of
projects suggest that an early form of project management had to be used to organize the workforce
and construct these houses of worship. The positive impact on society because of the churches cannot
be estimated in any comparative analysis.
The Grand Canal of China (486 B.C. to the present)
This is the world’s oldest and longest canal, far surpassing the next two grand canals of the world: the
Suez and Panama Canals. The building of the canal began in 486 B.C. during the Wu Dynasty. It was
extended during the Qi Dynasty and later by Emperor Yangdi during the Sui Dynasty. The canal is
1114 miles long with 24 locks and some 60 bridges. A project is currently underway to extend the
Grand Canal to Ningbo—or more than twice its present length to 3100 miles.
This canal has served China for nearly 2500 years and continues to be used as a means of com-
merce through waterborne transport of goods. The project to construct the canal and its supporting
bridges and locks could have been accomplished only through dedicated planning and work effort to
achieve its objectives.
10 INTRODUCTION
Noah’s Ark
The designer of the Ark was God Himself. The shape of the ark was that of a rectangular barge with
a low draft. Some other specifications include
● Make a roof and finish it to within 18 inches at the top.
● Coat inside and out with pitch.
● The Ark was to be about 437 to 512 feet in length, with a beam of 75 feet.
● The Ark would have an internal volume of 1,515,750 cubic feet.
● There would be only one door to enter and exit.
Historians have speculated that it took 120 years to build the Ark. The size of the project and its
end product—the Ark—leave much to the imagination as to how the “project team” acquired the
materials and the technology needed to shape and assemble the parts.
St. Petersburg, Russia (1703–1713)
In 1703, Emperor Peter began construction of a new city in the north of Russia, where the Neva
River drains Lake Ladoga. The city was built on a myriad of islands, canals, and swamps.
Construction conditions were brutal. Nearly 100,000 workers perished in the first year. Within 10 years,
St. Petersburg was a city of 35,000 buildings of granite and stone and the capital of the Russian
Empire. Today, the city is valued for its historic buildings and contribution to Russian history.
Although no longer capital of Russia, it plays an important role in industrial and cultural activities
of the people. This 10-year project gave the Russian people, and visitors to St. Petersburg, a cultural
center that had endured for more than 300 years.
The Panama Canal Construction from (1870–1914)
The Panama Canal was started by a French company in 1870 and completed by the United States
in 1914—a span of 44 years. Opening the Canal has significant consequences for international
trade in that ships would save as many as 6 weeks travel time from the east coast to the west
coast of the United States. Prior to the Panama Canal, ships would travel around the southern
cape of South America. People and materials would sometime sail to the Isthmus of Panama and
take the train to the opposite coast—a distance of approximately 50 miles—where they would
board another ship.
The creation of the Panama Canal was far more than a vast, unprecedented engineering feat, it
was a profoundly important historic event and a sweeping human drama, not unlike that of a war.
Apart from wars it represents to date, one of the largest, most costly single efforts ever before
mounted anywhere on earth. It held the world’s attention over a span of 44 years from 1870–19147.
Tower of Babel
According to Genesis 11:1-9, a structure was erected in the plain or valley of Shinar. The builders
presumed to build an edifice that reached the heavens—symbolizing human self-sufficiency and
pride. Historians believe that the myth on which the building of the tower rests may have developed
as an attempt to account for the diversity of human language—in the modern thought, an inability
to communicate or to fail to understand one another’s communication. One might ask if there have
been any modern construction projects where a lack of communication among the project stake-
holders was a cause for delay or cancellation of the project.
7. David McCullough, The Path between the Seas: The Creation of the Panama Canal 1870–1914 (New York: Simon &
Schuster, 1977).
Signing of the Magna Carta (1215)
The Magna Carta is a document that states the basic liberties guaranteed to the English people. The
Magna Carta proclaims rights that have become a part of English law and are now the foundation of
the constitution of every English-speaking nation. The Magna Carta, which means “great charter”
in Latin, was drawn up by English barons and churchmen, who forced the tyrannical King John to
set his seal on it on June 15, 1215. King John’s cruelty and greed united the powerful feudal nobles,
the churchmen, and the townspeople against him. While he was waging a disastrous war in France,
the leading nobles met secretly and swore to compel him to respect the rights of his subjects. When
King John returned from the war, they presented him with a series of demands. King John tried to
gather support, but almost all his followers deserted him. At last he met with the nobles and bishops
along the south bank of the Thames in a meadow called Runnymede and affixed his seal to the
Magna Carta.
Empress Catherine the Great of Russia (1729–1796)
Catherine assumed power in Russia in 1762 after a coup d’état in which she led officers of the
Royal Guard. Unlike her husband, she was well loved by the country’s elite and received good press
in Europe thanks to her contacts with many figures of the French Enlightenment. Catherine’s court
was extremely luxurious. She was the first to move into the newly built Winter Palace. Catherine
started a royal art collection, which later was housed in the world-famous Hermitage. Several addi-
tional buildings (the Small Hermitage and the Old Hermitage) were commissioned for the growing
royal collection of art. The Hermitage Theater was built, and the area around the palace was put in
order and built up with the finest houses and palaces.
1.7 MILITARY CAMPAIGNS
Military operations, throughout history, have taken on the characteristics of

projects and have been conducted much like projects with consideration for the
consumption of resources to achieve some goals.
Most, if not all, military campaigns have taken on the characteristics of projects. Military battles
and campaigns have objectives and consume resources through planned activities in most cases.
The introduction of new weapons that have been developed in a structured form typically gives mil-
itary leaders some advantage over their adversaries by exploiting a weakness.
These new weapons frequently represent a response to an adversary’s weakness, such as the
introduction of body armor on the battlefield to counter sword, knife, and club weapons. The oppo-
sition countered with weapons that exploited the openings in the armor, such as under the armpits
when a knight would raise a sword to strike. One response was to provide armor under the armpits.
Armor was discarded as an advantage when weapons such as guns were able to penetrate the material.
Interestingly enough, the modern-day helmet and bulletproof vest have been adopted as a means to stop
opposinggunfire.
The Battle of Crecy (August 26, 1346)
Fought on Saturday, August 26, 1346, the Battle of Crecy, France, was the first of several signifi-
cant battles during which the longbow triumphed over crossbows and armored knights. The
French forces in the battle numbered approximately 30,000; English forces numbered 12,000, of
which 7000 were archers. The battle line was about 2000 yards wide. The English army occupied
the top of a gentle ridge near the town. Each English archer carried two sheaves of arrows into
battle. The arrows could be shot at 250 to 300 yards. The French made 14 to 16 charges against
12 INTRODUCTION
the English lines from the start of the battle at 4:00 P.M. until the end of the battle at midnight.
Casualties were estimated to be 5000 for the French knights and Genoese crossbowmen and
about 100 for the English.
The Battle of Crecy had political consequences in Europe. From a military hardware perspective,
the use of the longbow by the English forces proved superior to the traditional crossbow and
mounted-knight strategy of the French. Tactically, the Battle of Crecy established the supremacy of
the longbow on the battlefield and gave England standing as a great military power. The longbow
was responsible for vast changes in the nature of medieval warfare. It made England the foremost
power in Europe during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. England won almost every battle
fought through a skillful and tactical use of massed archers and men-at-arms. On many occasions,
the English troops were outnumbered but still were able to win the battle. It was during King
Edward’s victory at Caen, on the way to Crecy, that a “mooning” incident occurred. Several hundred
Norman soldiers “mooned” the English archers; many of these soldiers paid a painful price for their
display!
The Manhattan Project (1942–1945)
The Manhattan Project for the development and delivery of the atomic bomb had a major impact on
the strategy for winning World War II by the United States and its allies. General Leslie R. Groves
was appointed as the project manager for the development, production, and delivery of the atomic
bomb, which, although devastating to Japan, is credited with saving the lives of thousands of
American military personnel.
The Manhattan Project was a complex arrangement of participants in Chicago, Illinois, Oak
Ridge, Tennessee, and Los Alamos, New Mexico. The technical challenge to harness the atom
required the work of many scientists working under the direction of a military man, General
Groves. In addition, the requirement for security and administration of the various participants
posed an additional burden on the project manager.
The Normandy Invasion (June 6, 1944)
Operation Overlord was the largest military seaborne and airborne invasion of World War II.
Planning for the invasion began in the summer of 1942, with detailed planning nearly completed by
late 1943. Revision and updating of the plan continued until June 1944, when the invasion took
place. This planning encompassed a massive assembly of human resources, war materials, air and
sea transport, and logistic support. Significant Allied (Britain, Canada, France, Greece, The
Netherlands, Norway, Poland, and the United States) military forces and resources were gathered in
Britain. The initial sea assault from landing ships and craft was on a five-division front between the
French Orne River and the Cotentin Peninsula. Airborne forces parachuted behind German lines to
capture critical lines of communication and resupply routes.
The seaborne region was divided into five landing beaches (code named from west to east Utah,
Omaha, Gold, Juno, and Sword). The overall battle itself, however, would be decided by the abili-
ties of the Allies to reinforce their initially weak beachhead by sea as compared with the easier
movement of German reinforcements by land.
On June 5, 1944, thousands of ships and craft from the Allies put to sea and gathered in assem-
bly areas southeast of the Isle of Wight. Airborne forces assembled at key airfields in anticipation of
parachuting into France. After overrunning the German beach defense, the Allies rapidly expanded
the individual beachheads and reinforced the beach assault forces with new troops, munitions, and
supplies. By July 25, the Allies were strong enough to launch Operation Cobra to begin the libera-
tion of France.
In a larger sense, the successful Allied landing in France was a psychological blow to the
German occupation of Europe. The invasion challenged the ability of the German to control west-
ern Europe, dramatically increased partisan activity and heartened the morale of all the people in
Europe fighting against Nazi tyranny. The balance of power on the continent, already weakened by
a Soviet offensive into Poland, was tipped in favor of the Allies. From the breakout at Normandy, the
Allies would begin the drive into Germany, leading to surrender of the Nazi regime on May 7, 1945.
Military/Defense Projects That Failed
A few other projects that have changed the world and have historical significance because of the
failure to meet strategic objectives are easily recognized. The Great Wall of China was built in seg-
ments over 2000 years from 221 B.C.–1644. The Great Wall of China was constructed to keep out
foreign invaders. Some amazing projects in history, such as the Great Wall of China, Hadrian’s
Wall, the Walls of Jericho, and the Maginot and Ziegfried lines in Europe were major failures. They
really never protected anyone, and did not stop the invasion of the territory they were meant to pro-
tect. The building of these massive projects consumed major resources, took many years to com-
plete, but failed to accomplish the strategic intent for which they were designed.
1.8 PROJECTS THAT CHANGED THE WORLD
Some projects of antiquity have set a standard by which subsequent projects are
measured while making long-term contributions to society.
Projects that have greatly impacted society and were, perhaps, building blocks for subsequent
changes to the world are many. Some of the more important projects as viewed by the authors are
summarized below to stimulate thought and imagination.
● Ancient Roman roads, a planned system of public roads around Rome constructed and main-
tained by the state. The roads were constructed from different materials layered to provide for
durability. The roads ranged in width from 8 to 40 feet with ditches for good drainage.
● The first steam engine (1704), built to pump water from mines. This engine used atmospheric
pressure to power the thrust of the piston (by cooling the steam to create a vacuum). Later ver-
sions used steam to power the thrust of the piston.
● The Coliseum of Rome, constructed in the first century. The Coliseum was constructed to a height
of 160 feet and could seat about 50,000 spectators. Its purpose was for games of entertainment.
● The catacombs of Alexandria, Egypt (second century A.D.), are the graves of a single family.
These catacombs, opposite of the Great Pyramids of Egypt, are more than 100 feet below
ground at their lowest point.
● The dikes of Holland, started in the thirteenth century. The dikes of Holland are a form of water
management system that recovers land. The levees and dams retain the water while windmills
pump excess water out. This represents recovery and use of more than 160,000 hectares of land.
● The Siberian Transcontinental Railroad (1891–1905). This railroad was built to link Moscow with
Vladivostok in the east—a distance of some 6000 miles. This commercial link aided in transport-
ing materials in both directions.
● The exploratory journeys of Ponce de Leon (1540–1621) resulted in the discovery and claiming
of Florida for Spain. Ponce de Leon accompanied Columbus on his second voyage to America in
1593 and stayed in the Dominican Republic as its governor.
● The inventions of Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790). Benjamin Franklin was a man of science as
well as a statesman. He is probably best known for his experiments flying a kite during an electri-
cal storm thus “discovering” electricity. He helped draft the Declaration of Independence, was a
scientist of international celebrity, with a half-dozen significant inventions to his credit. The light-
ning rod is considered to be the most notable of his inventions. Clearly he understood the mean-
ing of a project and how a successful project can lead to strategic changes in an environment.
14 INTRODUCTION
1.9 THE MODERN PROJECTS
Projects of the past two centuries have greatly affected nations’ growth and
economy through improved commerce.
The nineteenth and twentieth centuries were fertile grounds for projects and some of the best-
known project management of those centuries. These projects have significantly altered the world
through creating change in a disciplined fashion under great difficulty. Table 1.3 lists the projects
and the descriptions.
Lewis and Clark Expedition (1803–1806)
In 1801, President Jefferson long had an interest in exploration of the western area of America lead-
ing to the Pacific. What helped to prompt Jefferson to dispatch the first American exploration to the
Pacific was the publication of a small book detailing the first British expedition to reach the Pacific
from Canada in the late eighteenth century. Rival Canadian competitors in the fur trade, the Hudson
Bay Company and the Northwest Company were striving to dominate the fur trade in what now is
western Canada and the western United States. In one of the trading posts in what is now Alberta,
Canada, Alexander Mackenzie, a member of the Northwest Company began to consider how far it
might be to the Pacific coast, which had been explored by James Cook, George Vancouver, and
other English seamen. Mackenzie followed the river named for him, and the river took him to the
shores of the Arctic Ocean. In a journey in 1792, he had better success by following the Peace River
and its tributaries, reaching the Continental Divide. From the western slope of the Rockies, he
struck the upper reaches of the Fraser River, hoping that it would lead him to the coast. He found
that the canyons of the Fraser River were impossible to traverse. Following some suggestions made
by a group of Indians, he set out on an overland journey and reached the coast of British Columbia
in July 1793. It was another eight years before he published a full account of the journey. A year
later, Thomas Jefferson received a copy in the United States.
An American captain, Robert Gray, had already found the Columbia River. It was a massive river
that Jefferson believed must reach inland to the Rockies. He believed that if Americans could travel
up the Missouri River and reach the Columbia from the east, they might find what MacKenzie had
missed: an effective water route from the American heartland to the Pacific coast and the markets of
Asia. Apparently the fact that the Missouri River flowed through territory not belonging to America
did not bother Jefferson.
The prize that Jefferson sought was a practical route to the Pacific. The U.S. Congress could
sponsor such a journey. The earliest assessment of cost for the journey was $2500 for equipment
and provisions, including gifts for the Indians. During the spring and summer of 1803, Jefferson
and Lewis worked feverishly to get the expedition under way.
In the charter given to Lewis, Jefferson stated that the mission was to find “the most direct and
practicable water communication across the continent for the purposes of commerce” and to ensure
that the U.S. Government received accurate information about it. Jefferson also instructed Lewis
TABLE 1.3 Nineteenth and Twentieth Century Projects
● Lewis and Clark Expedition from 1803 to 1806

● The Suez Canal constructed from 1859 to 1869
● The US Transcontinental Railroad link from 1862 to 1869
● The Pennsylvania Turnpike constructed from 1935 to 1940
● The Internet started in 1962
and Clark to take careful note of the latitude and longitude of all remarkable points between them
from the Missouri River and the coast of the Pacific Ocean. Jefferson had another assignment for
Lewis and Clark—to be Jefferson’s roving ambassador to the western Indians. Lewis and Clark
were to compile as much information as they could about the Indian nations through the lands in
which they passed. They were instructed to meet with Indian leaders and make them acquainted
with our wish to be friendly and useful to them.
It is widely known by the project management community that a project has to have a strong
sponsor—an individual or organization that justifies the project, sets a time schedule, establishes
the technical objectives, and provides resources is essential. This is what was done in the planning
for the Lewis and Clark expedition.
The Suez Canal (1859–1869)
The Suez Canal is one of the wonders of the nineteenth century. It was a French initiative, designed
by a Frenchman, financed by Frenchmen, and opened up by a French symbol of power. French
entrepreneur Ferdinand de Lesseps led the Suez Canal effort. The canal ended up being one of the
strengths of British imperial power.
During the campaign of Napoleon in Egypt in the late eighteenth century, the French had seen
the commercial and military possibilities of linking the Mediterranean and Red seas. One man, a
diplomat in the French Foreign Service, saw his career eroding in the diplomatic service. His per-
sonal life was saddened by the loss of his wife and one of his children. He dedicated himself to a
one-man canal-building campaign from 1853 until 1869 and was obsessed with the building of the
Suez Canal.
He convinced the Egyptians that the building of the canal would prove that they still had the
potential to be a powerful force in world affairs. To the French he said that the canal would offer a
grand example of their national capability more than wars and revolutions. Rich Frenchmen invest-
ed in his company. Unfortunately, he was considered to be somewhat of a crackpot in other coun-
tries. In England, British leaders trashed his plans. A spokesman in England called it “among the
many bubble schemes that from time to time have been put on gullible capitalists.” Whether this
trashing was a reflection of British stupidity, a lack of foresight by British leaders, or a subtle cun-
ning on the part of the British leaders is not known.
The Franco-Egyptian feat of engineering was advantageous to the British, who were the most
skeptical. Britain’s ocean links to India would benefit most from a canal. Before the canal opened,
it had taken at least 113 days for a steamship to sail the 6000 miles from London to Calcutta via the
Cape of Good Hope. The canal cut the distance by a third under the terms of the concession
obtained by Lesseps, whose company had the clearance to dig a channel across the arid Suez
Isthmus, a distance of 100 miles, and to operate it for 99 years. The Egyptian government would
receive 15 percent of the profits, the founders 10 percent, and the shareholders the rest.
Experience with modern major construction projects indicates that they cost at least twice the
amount stated in the prospectus and that the expected revenues usually are about half of what is
projected. In the Suez Canal there were additional reasons for cost overruns. A huge labor force
would have to be obtained from the Egyptian peasantry. In addition, there were major problems in
cutting the canal through its pathway in arid land.
Transcontinental Railroad, Omaha, Nebraska,

to Sacramento, California (1862–1869)
In the United States in the mid-1800s, a project was initiated to join the continent of North America
by railroad. The two biggest corporations in America, the Central Pacific and the Union Pacific rail-
roads, had armies of men at work building separate railroad lines. This project was an epic of logis-
tics, organization, and endurance. When the two railroads were joined in Promontory, Utah, a single
transportation system became operational from the east coast to the west coast of the United States.
16 INTRODUCTION
Completion of this project linked the east and west coasts of the United States through a rail
system to conduct commerce. Between Omaha and Sacramento, there were few towns on the path
to benefit from the commerce. The railroad, however, provided the incentive to build communities
both to service the system and to use it.
The Pennsylvania Turnpike (1935–1940)
Building the Pennsylvania Turnpike in the late 1930s is an example of the early use of project
management in the United States. The Pennsylvania Turnpike opened on October 1, 1940, and was
completed on time and within budget. Moreover, it attained its objective as an innovative means for
improving highway systems.
The initial turnpike was envisioned as a four-lane road extending from just east of Pittsburgh to
Carlisle—a distance of 160 miles—using the right of way for a planned railroad. The turnpike incorpo-
rated the latest in design features to accommodate modern travel, such as no road or rail crossings,
gentle curves and slopes, and 10 service plazas for travelers. This turnpike set the example for road-
ways in the future and subsequently was incorporated into the overall system of major highways.
The Internet (August 1962)
The creation and building of the Internet was not a monolithic project. Rather, it was a patchwork
of individual and organizational contributions pieced together through the years. It was an immense
integration of much solitary effort and cooperative work. It came into being where knowledge and
competency resided in thousands of uncelebrated places—laboratories, classrooms, offices, social
gatherings, and so forth—where people knowledgeable in computers and telephone lines got
together and tried to improve communication among themselves.
Professor and innovator J. C. R. Lickrider played a role much akin to a “virtual project manager,”
throwing out ideas and concepts to fertile minds that worked informally together to create a means
of communication that led to the World Wide Web and other supporting technologies and protocols
that are known today as the Internet. [A fascinating summary description of the evolution of the
Internet can be found in James Tobin, “The Internet,” Chapter 8 in Great Project (New York: Free
Press, 2001).]
1.10 THE RESULTS OF HISTORICAL PROJECTS
The results of many projects of the past have contributed to improved living
conditions for many people and have created changes that benefit society
in general.
Projects of the past have been challenging and have contributed to the well-being of millions of
people by creating changes that advanced society. In some instances, the project was a response to a
situation such as a natural disaster that threatened lives. Change through making the best use of
resources is project management. The resulting benefits throughout history have been delivered in
the form of new or enhanced projects, valuable services, and improved organizational processes.
Projects have ranged in length throughout antiquity from perhaps a single day to hundreds of
years. A battle fought in a single day could change the future of generations. Some of the effects of
projects include
● Change or reactions to change
● New or enhanced products, services, or organizational processes
● Varied degrees of risk and uncertainty

● Benefits and/or destructive results
● Modest to spectacular results
● Creation of something that did not exist previously
● Integrated results into the strategic or operational initiatives of the owner
● Social progress (or lack of progress)
1.11 THE PAST, THE PRESENT, AND THE FUTURE FOR PROJECTS
Projects of antiquity have left their mark on society and contributed to positive
change. Present projects benefit from the growth of project management theory,
concepts, procedures, and practices. Future projects will continue to be refined
through technological advances and greater competency of project participants.
The Past in Project Management
The previous portion of this chapter has given a glimpse into the evolution of project management
by using evidence of projects and has provided selected examples of projects over nearly 5000
years. The artifacts attest to the need for and the obvious employment of some fundamental form of
project management. One might assume that modern project management came into being during
the 1950s when concepts and processes were being fully documented in literature. The 1950s
brought forth a more robust form of project management beyond the foundation areas of cost,
schedule, and technical performance.
The Present in Project Management
The present project management practices, while still not perfect, are being employed to create
change through the efficient use of resources to deliver predetermined benefits. Project manage-
ment theory and practice continues to be refined toward a purpose of managing change to achieve
greater efficiency with less risk and uncertainty. Techniques have been developed that give more
positive control over resource consumption to achieve desired objectives. New tools, primarily
computer software, have brought forth the means to better manage projects from initiation through
delivery of benefits.
Senior managers in many organizations are familiar with the promise of project management as
the most effective means of performing unique work to convert resources to new products, service,
or organizational change. A significant number of individuals from a variety of professions are
becoming more involved in project management practices and they are learning to employ project
management techniques to achieve the desired results. The professionals seeking to use project
management in their workplace include engineers, architects, physicians, and nurses to name a few.
The level of interest and emphasis in project management may be realized by the growth of pro-
fessional associations. The Project Management Institute, headquartered in the United States, has
experienced rapid growth in the past 5 years to now total more than 230,000 members. The
International Project Management Association, headquartered in Switzerland, has 40 member asso-
ciations with a total membership exceeding 100,000 individuals. The Japanese Project Management
Forum, headquartered in Tokyo, has about 5,000 members and is growing.
There is an effort for a limited number of organizations to assess their maturity of project man-
agement, both from a practice perspective and from the knowledge and skills possessed by their
project managers. Tools and methodologies play a major role in organizational maturity in the field
of project management.
18 INTRODUCTION
Certification programs for project management personnel continue to expand and more individ-
uals are seeking validation of their qualifications. It is estimated that more than 100,000 individuals
have demonstrated their knowledge or competence in project management through a certification
program.
The Future of Project Management
In considering the future of project management, some of the major forces that have emerged in the
field of the management discipline have appeared. One of the fascinating predictions about the
future of project management was stated by Thomas A. Stewart, who wrote in 1995, “Project man-
agement is the wave of the future.”8 Since 1995, this prediction is supported by a wider and more
thorough use of project management in the United States and in International projects. There is no
indication that Stewart’s prediction will wane in the near future.
The need for rapid change under controlled situations dictates that the future demand for pro-
jects and the inherent management of those projects will drive the need for newer and better prac-
tices and techniques to prosecute the work. Faster initiation and decisions to proceed with projects
can be expected that places a requirement for more highly skilled project management practitioners—
be they managers, leaders, or team members.
The mantra of “faster, cheaper, quicker” will continue to be the driving force for senior man-
agers of organizations to achieve their business and strategic goals. Survival in a global economy
where more and more international projects are conceived as the answer to border spanning inter-
ests will be common place. Seeking and selection of less expensive human resources to achieve
organizational objectives will also drive how projects are conceived and implemented either as
international projects or as projects with foreign suppliers of components of projects.
International projects will face new challenges as the number increases worldwide. Developing
nations that have an abundant source of inexpensive labor will become involved and build on their
project management capabilities so as to be good partners for international projects as well as good
providers of products and service within their national boundaries. It will be the responsibility of the
leading organization in international projects to nurture and grow the developing nations’ project
management capabilities.
Technology plays a major role in today’s projects and will continue to expand to embrace more
applications for collection and formatting of information, communication of information between
stakeholders, and storing relevant information for rapid retrieval and use. Technology will continue
to grow to support the function of resource selection, resource allocation, and resource tracking to
reduce waste of effort for human resources assigned to projects. Technology will also play an
important role in capturing information that relates to project risks and risk management.
Project managers will enhance their competence through experience and training in the relevant
areas of project management and interpersonal skills. New certification programs will provide the
impetus that defines professional goals and will validate qualifications of project managers at several
levels such as small project leader, project manager, project director, program manager, and project
portfolio manager. The defined roles will establish the responsibilities and accountabilities associated
with each level of organizational need for project management.
New thinking in project management will change the orientation from a single project view to
an enterprise view with projects and programs being considered building blocks that meet the enter-
prise’s business and strategic objectives. The linkage will be established between the enterprise’s
goals and objectives for every project started and maintained over the life of the project. Projects
conducted outside the parameters of the selection criteria will be reviewed for possible termination.
Project portfolio management—the selection and management of projects as groups—will
expand in use to make the best use of resources. Project selection will be against criteria aligned
with enterprise goals for projects. Grouping of multiple projects will be a routine matter to obtain
8. Thomas A. Stewart, “The Corporate Jungle Spawns a New Species: The Project Manager,” Fortune, July 10, 1995,
pp. 170–180.
the most efficiency and effectiveness from human resources. Low value projects will be terminated
and replaced by more viable projects that align with enterprise goals and objectives.
Projects will be smaller in the future, but more complex in their management. Organizations will
elect to initiate and implement short-duration projects to achieve early benefits rather than long-
duration projects. Compexity to managing projects will be inherent in the number of owners
involved in the project and the geographic separation of components of the projects such as interna-
tional projects spanning several borders.
Formal training of project participants will be required, especially those skills that contribute to
working in teams. Training will focus on “team work”—collaborative efforts of groups of people
with a single agenda and similar goals—as well as “team work” the work effort required to be
accomplished by a group of people.
Some trends that affect the growth and application of project management in the future are:
● Reengineering application teams will be used to bring about a fundamental rethinking and radical
design of business processes to achieve improvements in organizational efficiency.
● Concurrent engineering applications will continue to use concurrent product, service, and organi-
zational development teams to develop, produce, and market products and services earlier, of a
higher quality, and at a lower cost.
● Benchmarking initiatives will be conducted by teams to compare organizational products, ser-
vices, and processes against the most formidable competitors and industry leaders to establish
new performance standards for the enterprise.
● Business development opportunities will use teams to explore, design, develop, and execute new
ventures for the enterprise.
● Improvements will be made for application of project management in managing operational and
strategic change.
● The influence of stakeholders as legitimate claimants of those things of value being created by the
enterprise will continue to grow.
● There will be an increase in the use of alternative team organizational designs to cope with the
need for the integration of interfunctional and interorganizational activities to support product,
service, and process development.
● Downsizing and restructuring of organizations to improve efficiency and effectiveness has resulted
in the elimination and shifting of managerial and professional positions.
● The relative roles of “managers” and “leaders” will continue to come under scrutiny and redefinition.
● More emphasis will be placed on the interpersonal capabilities of executives and the role of tradi-
tional first-level supervisors changing from a traditional to a facilitator, coach, mentor, counselor,
coordinator, and oversight person in obtaining and using resources in the enterprise.
● Global competition will drive the demand for products and services in countries, as well as the
need for infrastructure improvement throughout the world, for project management services.
● The maturation of a philosophy of strategic management of the enterprise, the management of the
enterprise as if its future mattered, is reflected in more proactive strategic planning and execution
strategies in contemporary enterprises.
One of the major contributions of project management, and alternative team management during
the past 25 years, has been a modification to the management discipline. These modifications have
changed management philosophies, processes, techniques and the performance standards by which
an enterprise’s efficiency can be judged. These modifications and their likely continuation include:
● Acceptance and virtual institutionalization of the “matrix” organizational as the normal business
process.
● Acceptance of the importance of project planning as a means for determining the resources
required and how these resources will be used during the life cycle of the project. In the future,
20 INTRODUCTION
project planning will gain in importance as the means for identifying and committing resources to
deal with operational and strategic change in the enterprise.
● Opportunities will continue for workers to perform managerial and leadership functions in opera-
tional and strategic teams in the enterprise while gaining an appreciation of the challenges facing
organizational managers and leaders.
● Individuals will serve on the various teams and recognize that “self-control” is important to indi-
vidual productivity.
● New applications for project management will continue to grow in a variety of different industries
and organizations both for profit and not for profit.
● International issues over scarce energy resources will continue to challenge organizations and will
create new demands for more efficiency in projects.
● Experience and competence in team management and leadership will become major considera-
tions in the selection and promotion of senior managers.
● New products and services will be created at unprecedented rates in the future by projects
because of competitive factors emerging through relentless changes to the global marketplace.
1.12 TO SUMMARIZE
Project management has evolved over many centuries of use. It was not until the 1950s that the lit-
erature began to reflect the evolving theory and practice of this discipline. An early rudimentary
form of project management was used over the centuries in the creation of artifacts and cultural
enhancements in world societies.
Project management, as a methodology for efficiently accomplishing work, continues to advance
both its application to different situations and in the refinement of the process for a wide variety of
efforts. Examples of projects through artifacts and literature that span more than 5000 years demon-
strate the utility and versatility of project management as effecting change in an organization through
the judicious use of resources to create and deliver products, services, and organizational change.
For more than 50 centuries, project management has evolved to become the principal means for
dealing with change in modern organizations. Today, project management is widely known and
acknowledged as the means to convert resources to create something more valuable. Peoples of
many nations on earth embrace project management concepts and practices to design, develop, and
deliver products and services.
Although project management has taken nearly 5000 years to evolve to its current state, there
are still improvements to be realized because of the global nature of the economy and the growing
number of international projects. It is anticipated that project management will evolve to accommo-
date new needs and resultant demands for better efficiencies. These changes will take advantage of
new technology for information interchange, raising the level of competence in project manage-
ment for all participants, and changes to methodologies to bridge across processes. Project man-
agement professional associations will play a major role in advancing the state of the art through
volunteer efforts and sharing experiences.
1.13 ADDITIONAL SOURCES OF INFORMATION
The following additional sources of project management information may be used to complement
this chapter’s topic material. This material complements and expands on various concepts, practices,
and the theory of project management as it relates to areas covered here.
● Claude S. George Jr., The History of Management Thought (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-
Hall, 1968). This book knits together into a meaningful whole with many of the fragments of
management thought that make up the history of this still emerging profession. George brings
together in one summary volume the most pertinent examples of the fragments of management
practice and theory. It includes a chronological bibliography of management literature. The care-
ful and imaginative reader will find some seeds, which become part of the evolving practice and
process of project management.
● Henri Fayol, General and Industrial Management (Sir Isaac Pitman & Sons, 1949). Fayol’s book
was the first one to describe the overall management of an industrial enterprise. He put forth the
idea of management principles, suggesting that such principles are flexible and capable of adapta-
tion to every management need. He was also the first to describe the managerial functions of
planning, organization, command, co-ordination, and control. In his description of the chain of
superiors ranging from the ultimate enterprise authority to the lowest ranks, he introduces the idea
of lateral contact between people in different organizational chains who need to work together
across organizational boundaries to do their work. He thus sowed the seed for what has become
known in contemporary project management theory as the matrix organization.
● Daniel J. Boorstin, The Discoverers (New York, NY: Random House, 1983). This book is a vivid,
sweeping and original history of man’s greatest adventure: his search to discover the world
around him and the relationships of the heavens to his own planet. His narrative reveals
mankind’s imaginative leaps forward in the discovering, understanding, and development of the
heavenly empire, the measurement of time, the opening of the new Western worlds, and the mas-
tery of technological, social, and economic systems in the global community. As one reads this
wonderful and massive book, there is the realization that man’s search for change throughout his-
tory is directly related to what we call project management today!
● Dr. Alan A. Zeitoun and Dr. Andy W. Helmy, “The Pyramids and Implementing Project
Management Processes,” Proceedings, Project Management Institute (Chicago: 28th Annual
Seminar/Symposium, 1977), pp. 593–596. This paper addresses the building of the pyramids
and the concepts behind this enormous project. The authors build a case that many of the con-
cepts and processes of modern project management were applied in building these major
antiquities.
1.14 DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1. What is the reason for learning about the historical evolution of project management?
2. The authors have identified three areas for categorizing historical projects. These areas are:
artifacts, cultural strategies, and literature and documents. Are there any additional areas that
could be included in such a categorization?
3. Identify several historical projects and discuss how these projects created change in their
environment.
4. Discuss how the theory and practice of project management might change in the future.
5. The authors state that general management theory and practice contains some seeds that ulti-
mately germinated and became a part of project management. Identify and discuss some of
these seeds.
6. Identify and discuss some of the projects that are described in Daniel Defoe’s Essay on Projects.
How could some of the ideas that he puts forth apply to the management of contemporary projects.
7. Identify and discuss some historical projects that have not been included in this chapter. What
changes did these projects bring about in the past?
8. Discuss why the United States Air Force policy and procedural documents had such an influ-
ence in the emerging project management literature.
9. Discuss why the practice of project management existed long before the development of litera-
ture in the field.
22 INTRODUCTION
10. Identify and discuss some of the reasons why the Pennsylvania Turnpike was completed on
time, within budget, and attained its objective as an innovative means for improving highway
systems.
11. It can be assumed that a form of project management can be found in all ancient societies.
Discuss what evidence supports such a statement.
12. It is stated in the Bible: “there is no new thing under the sun.” Discuss how this statement
might or might not be applied to the evolution of project management.
1.15 USER CHECKLIST
1. What projects has the organization had in the past?

2. What’s been the “success” or “failure” record on these projects?
3. How have the organization’s projects in the past influenced the manner by which the organiza-
tional mission was attained?
4. What reasons might be learned by doing a review of the relative success/failure of organiza-
tional projects in the past?
5. Does the organization have a library, which contains some of the basic literature described in
this book?
6. Are actual or pending changes in the organization’s market place being identified? What
projects should be initiated to deal with these changes?
7. Would it be useful for the managers of the organization to read and discuss Henri Fayol’s
book?
8. In an evaluation of the relative effectiveness with which contemporary projects are being man-
aged in the organization, how might a study of the history of past projects in the organization
be useful?
9. What are the five or six major reasons for the success of projects in the organization? What
have been the five or six reasons for the failure of projects in the past?
10. Is there any information in this chapter that could be of assistance in the management of
current projects in the enterprise?
11. How well do the current project team members in the organization know the long heritage in
the history of project management?
12. Does the organization conduct a post-audit of major projects in the company to assess the
effectiveness with which the project has been managed? If so, are the results of such audits
added to the history of how projects have been managed?
1.16 PRINCIPLES OF PROJECT MANAGEMENT
1. A study of the historical evaluation of project management can enhance an understanding of

contemporary project management.
2. The practice of project management precedes the development of related literature in the field.
3. Project management has evolved from the practice and theory of general management.
4. Changes in antiquity were aided and facilitated through early forms of project management.
5. Projects were the building blocks of change in ancient societies.
1.17 PROJECT MANAGEMENT SITUATION—PROJECTS

OF ANTIQUITY
Select a project of antiquity that is briefly described in this chapter. Do as much research as possi-
ble to learn more about this project in order to answer the following questions:
1. What were the general background environmental forces and factors that prompted the need for
this project?
2. How was the need for the project recognized?
3. What strategic objectives and goals were established for the project? By whom?
4. What resources were required to support the project? Were the original estimates for these
resources realistic?
5. How effective was the oversight of the project carried out? Who had the responsibility for this
oversight?
6. What lessons can be learned from a study of this project from the perspective of the management
of a contemporary project?
1.18 STUDENT/READER ASSIGNEMENT
1. Prepare a “database” that provides answers to the above questions.

2. Prepare a short update of the information concerning this project.

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PROJECT

David I. Cleland, Ph.D.

Lewis R. Ireland, Ph.D.

A Dynamic Online Source of

Digital Engineering Library Features:

Browse list of topics, search, preview and purchase individual articles!

Chapter 1. The Evolution of Project Management 3

Chapter 2. Why Project Management? 25

2.17. User Checklist / 48

Chapter 3. The Project Management Process 51

Part 2 The Strategic Context of Projects

Chapter 5. The Strategic Context of Projects 103

5.1. Introduction / 103

5.7. The Vision / 109

Chapter 6. The Board of Directors and Major Projects 119

6.1. Introduction / 119

Chapter 7. Project Stakeholder Management 139

7.1. Introduction / 139

7.22. Discussion Questions / 161

Chapter 8. Strategic Issues in Project Management 165

8.1. Introduction / 165

Part 3 Organizational Design for Project Management

9.1. Introduction / 183

Chapter 10. Project Portfolio Management 209

10.1. Introduction / 209

Chapter 11. Project Authority 221

11.1. Introduction / 221

Chapter 12. Project Management Maturity 243

12.1. Introduction / 243

12.13. Principles of Project Management / 260

Part 4 Project Operations

13.1. Introduction / 265

Chapter 14. Project Management Information System 297

14.1. Introduction / 297

14.9. Information Value / 306

Chapter 15. Project Monitoring, Evaluation, and Control 319

15.1. Introduction / 319

Chapter 16. The Project Earned Value Management System 347

16.1. Introduction / 347

Chapter 17. Project Termination 365

17.1. Introduction / 365

Part 5 Interpersonal Dynamics in the Management

Chapter 18. Project Leadership 381

18.1. Introduction / 381

Chapter 19. Project Communications 401

19.1. Introduction / 401

19.13. Additional Sources of Information / 418

Chapter 20. Successful Project Teams 423

20.1. Introduction / 423

Part 6 The Cultural Elements

Chapter 21. Continuous Improvement through Projects 445

21.1. Introduction / 445

Chapter 22. Cultural Considerations in Project Management 463

22.1. Introduction / 463

22.3. The Nature of an Organizational Culture / 464

Part 7 New Prospects

23.1. Introduction / 489

David I. Cleland, Ph.D.