A.

1 Kinematics
Notes

Kinematics is the study of moving objects.

Distance & Displacement.

 Distance is the total length of a specified path between two points. SI unit: metre, m
 The displacement of an object is the distance in a straight line from a fixed reference
point in a specified direction.

Speed & Velocity.

 Speed, v Average speed = distance travelled/time taken. Instantaneous speed is

determined over a very short time interval, during which it is assumed that the speed
does not change.

 Velocity, v, is the rate of change of position. It may be considered to be speed in a

specified direction.

 The instantaneous velocity is the specific rate of change of position (or displacement)
with respect to time at a single point (x,t).

 Average velocity is the average rate of change of position (or displacement) with
respect to time over an interval.

 Constant velocity, If the velocity is constant, then the instantaneous velocity is the
same all the time so: instantaneous velocity = average velocity.

 Since velocity is a vector, this also implies that the direction of motion is constant.

Relative velocity.

We encounter occasions where one or more objects move in a frame which is non-stationary
with respect to another observer. For example, a boat crossing a river that is flowing at some
rate or an aeroplane encountering wind during its motion. In all such instances, to describe
the object’s complete motion, we need to consider the effect that the medium is causing on
the object. While doing so, we calculate the relative velocity of the object considering the
velocity of the particle as well as the velocity of the medium. Here, we will learn how to
calculate the relative velocity.

Let us consider two objects, A and B moving with velocities Va and Vb with respect to a
common stationary frame of reference, say the ground, a bridge or a fixed platform.
The velocity of the object A relative to the object B can be given as,
Acceleration.

 Acceleration, a, is defined as the rate of change of velocity with time:

 Constant acceleration in one dimension

 In one-dimensional motion, acceleration, velocity and displacement are all in the
same direction.

 Acceleration due to gravity g is known as the acceleration of free fall due to gravity
(sometimes called acceleration due to free fall).
 Free fall Motion through the air under the effects of gravity but without air
resistance.
 In the absence of air resistance, all objects (close to the Earth’s surface) fall towards
the Earth with the same acceleration, 𝑔 = 9.81 𝑚𝑠 −1
 Deceleration Term commonly used to describe a decreasing speed.

Graphs.

 Displacement–time graphs and distance–time graphs

Line A represents an object moving away from the reference point (zero displacement) such that equal
displacements occur in equal times. That is, the object has a constant velocity.
Line B represents an object moving with a greater velocity than A.
Line C represents an object that is moving back towards the reference point.
Line D represents an object that is stationary (at rest). It has zero velocity and stays at the same distance from
the reference point.

 Gradients of displacement–time graphs

∆𝑠
The gradient of the graph = ∆𝑡 which is the velocity of the object. A downwards sloping graph
would have a negative gradient (velocity).

The gradient of a displacement–time graph represents velocity.

The gradient of a distance–time graph represents speed.
  Velocity–time graphs and speed–time graphs

Line A shows an object that has a constant positive acceleration.

Line B represents an object moving with a greater positive acceleration than A.
Line C represents an object that has a negative acceleration.
Line D represents an object moving with a constant velocity – that is, it has zero acceleration.

Speed–time

Velocity–time graphs for an object thrown upwards.

 Gradients of velocity–time graphs

The acceleration of an object is equal to the gradient of the velocity–time graph.

The area under a velocity–time graph is always equal to the change of displacement.
The area under a speed–time graph is always equal to the distance travelled.

 Acceleration–time graphs

Line A shows zero acceleration, constant velocity.

Line B shows a constant positive acceleration (uniformly increasing velocity).
Line C shows the constant negative acceleration (deceleration) of an object that is slowing
down at a uniform rate.
Line D shows a (linearly) increasing positive acceleration.
Line E shows an object that is accelerating positively, but at a (linearly) decreasing rate.

 Equations of motion for uniformly accelerated motion (SUVAT)

u = velocity (speed) at the start of time t

v = velocity (speed) at the end of time t
a = acceleration (constant)
s = displacement occurring in time t
t = time taken for velocity (speed) to change from u to v and to travel a distance s.

Projectile motion.

 Projectile motion with air resistance

Air resistance reduces the range of a projectile and its trajectory will not be parabolic.