MODULE 2: Display Systems

Memory Devices: Introduction, Basic concepts of Display Systems: Photo-active and electro active materials,
electronic memory, History of organic/polymer Nanomaterials and organic materials used in optoelectronic
electronic memory devices, Classification of devices. Liquid crystals (LC’s) - Introduction, classification,
properties and application in Liquid Crystal Displays (LCD’s).
electronic memory devices. Types of organic memory
Properties and application of Organic Light Emitting Diodes
devices (organic molecules, polymeric materials, (OLED’s) and Quantum Light Emitting Diodes (QLED’s),
organic inorganic hybrid materials). Light emitting electrochemical cells.
Self-learning: Properties and functions of Silicon (Si), Germanium (Ge), Copper (Cu), Aluminum(Al), and Brominated
flame-retardant in computers.
Memory Devices
A memory device is a piece of hardware used to store data. Most electronic devices such as computers,
mobile phones, tablets, etc. All have a storage device that stores data and/or programs
The basic goal of a memory device is to provide a means for storing and accessing binary digital data
sequences of “1’s” and “0’s”.
Classification of Electrical (electronic) Memory Devices based on Types of Materials used: Electronic
memory devices can be divided into 4 types depending the type of material it is made of.
1. Transistor-Type Electronic Memory Devices: Transistor-based memory devices use transistors as the
primary storage elements.
• Transistors are made from silicon, a semiconductor. It is converted to p-type and n-type
semiconductors by doping trivalent and pentavalent impurities.
• A transistor is a miniature electronic component that can work either as an amplifier or a switch. A
computer memory chip consists of billions of transistors; each transistor is working as a switch, which
can be switched ON or OFF.
• Each transistor can be in two different states and store two different numbers, ZERO and ONE.
• Since the chip is made of billions of such transistors and can store billions of Zeros and ones, almost
every number and letter can be stored.
• Examples: Static Random Access Memory (SRAM) and Dynamic Random Access Memory
(DRAM) are common examples of transistor-based memory.

2. Capacitor-Type Electronic Memory: Capacitor-based memory devices use capacitors to store electrical
charge as a representation of data. The presence or absence of charge in the capacitor corresponds to a
binary 0 or 1.
• A capacitor consists of two metal plates that are capable of storing an electric charge. It is used to
store data.
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 • It is like a battery that holds data based on energy. If the capacitor is charged, it holds the binary
numeral, “1” and holds “0” when the cell is discharged.
• Examples: Dynamic Random Access Memory (DRAM) is a well-known capacitor-based memory
device. Each memory cell in DRAM consists of a capacitor to store charge, along with a transistor
for access control.

3. Resistor-Type Electronic Memory Devices: Resistor-based memory devices use the electrical resistance
of certain materials to store data. The resistance of the material can be altered to represent binary values.
• Resistor-type electronic memory usually has a simple structure, having a metal-insulator-metal
structure generally referred to as MIM structure.
• The structure comprises an insulating layer (I) sandwiched between the two metal (M) electrodes
and supported on a substrate (glass, silicon wafer, plastic, or metal foil).
• Initially, the device is under a high resistance state or “OFF” and logically “0” state.

4. Charge-Type Electronic Memory Devices: Charge transfer memory devices rely on the movement
of charge carriers (typically electrons) within a material to store and retrieve data.
Examples: Charge-Coupled Devices (CCDs) and Charge-Coupled Memories (CCMs) are examples
of charge-transfer memory devices.

Classification of electronic memory based on the storage type of the device:

Electronic memory can be divided into two primary categories: volatile and non-volatile memory.
• Volatile Memory: This type of memory loses its stored data when the power is turned off. It is
typically used for temporary storage and quick data access. Examples: Random Access Memory
(RAM).

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 • Non-Volatile Memory: Non-volatile memory retains data even when the power is disconnected. It
is used for long-term storage. Examples: Read-Only Memory (ROM), Flash memory, and hard
drives.

A. Non-Volatile Memory
1. ROM: Read Only Memory
• ROM is a non-volatile memory.
• Information stored in ROM is permanent.
• Information and programs stored on it, we can only read.
• Information and programs are stored on ROM in binary format.
• It is used in the start-up process of the computer.
• WORM (Write Once Read Many times)
• Describes a data storage device in which information once written, cannot be modified.
• This write protection affords the assurance that the data cannot be tampered with once it is
written to the device, excluding the possibility of data loss from human error, computer bugs,
or malware.
• EPROM (Erasable programmable read-only memory)
• EPROM also called EROM is a type of PROM but it can be reprogrammed.
• The data stored in EPROM can be erased and reprogrammed again by ultraviolet light.
Reprogrammed it is limited. Before the era of EEPROM and flash memory, EPROM was used
in microcontrollers.

2. Hybrid Memories: These can be read and written as desired, like RAM, but maintain their contents
without electrical power, just like ROM. It is a Non-Volatile memory
• FLASH
• It is an electronic non-volatile computer memory storage medium that can be electrically erased
and reprogrammed.
• Flash memory is a non-volatile memory chip used for storage and for transferring data between a
personal computer (PC) and digital devices.
• EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory)
• EEPROM is usually used to store small amounts of data in computing and other electronic
devices..
• It is a type of data memory device using an electronic device to erase or write digital data.
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 B. Volatile Memory: Random Access Memory (RAM):
•It is a computer's short-term memory. It can be read and changed in any order, typically used to
store working data and machine code.
• RAMs consist of ferromagnetic particles embedded in a polymer matrix having a high
dielectric constant.
• DRAM (Dynamic Random Access Memory)
• It is a type of semiconductor memory that is typically used for the data or program code needed
by a computer processor to function.
• All DRAM chips manufactured to date use capacitors containing electrodes made of doped silicon.
• SRAM (Static Random Access Memory)
• It is a type of RAM that holds data in a static form, that is, as long as the memory has power.
• SRAM: It is made up of metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistors (MOSFETs).

Types of memory devices.

I. Organic memory device stores data based on different electrical conductivity states (ON and OFF
states) in response to an applied electric field. There are three types of organic memory devices
• Molecular memory devices: Organic molecular material used to store the data is called organic–
based memory device
1. The p-Type Organic Semiconductor Material “Pentacene” is An Organic molecule with π
conjugated system that possesses holes as a major charge carrier and is called p-type
semiconductors. Pentacene shows bistable states when an external field is applied i.e. ON and OFF
states.
• It is a linearly fused aromatic compound with five benzene rings.
• It can be obtained in crystal and thin film form.

2. The n-type organic semiconducting material Perfluoropentacene. When all the hydrogen atom
of pentacene is replaced by Fluorine atoms, it forms Perfluoropentacene. Basically, Fluorine is an
electron-withdrawing nature. Hence it is a n-type semiconductors.

II. Polymeric Molecules.

• The polymer used for organic memory devices is Poly-imide (PI) with Donor-Tri-phenyl-amine
and Acceptor- phthalimide. This polymer has high thermal stability and mechanical strength.
• The donors and acceptors of PIs contribute to the electronic transition based on an induced charge
transfer (CT) effect under an applied electric field.

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 • Polyimide (sometimes abbreviated PI) is a polymer containing imide groups belonging to the class
of high-performance plastics.

Display Systems
Photoactive and electroactive organic materials:
• Photoactive and electroactive organic materials are types of organic compounds that exhibit
specific properties in response to light (photoactive) or an electric field (electroactive).

Photoactive Process:
• Absorption and emission of light radiation in the wavelength region from ultraviolet to Near-infrared.
• Photogeneration of charge carriers (photons of light creates electron-hole pair in the semiconductor)
• Transport of charge carriers (Charge carriers are particles or holes that freely move within a material
and carry an electric charge)
Advantages
• Light weight and flexible
• Easily synthesized by chemical method.
• Production cost is less
• Used in thin-film flexible devices
• Properties can be fine-tuned

Photoactive Process:
• Electroactive Process Injection of charge carriers from the electrode (The process whereby light is
emitted at the junction of N- and P-type semiconductors when an external electric source is applied
to drive the electrons and the holes into the junction)
• Optoelectronic Process
• Absorption and emission of light radiation in the wavelength region from ultraviolet to near-
infrared.
• Photogeneration of charge carriers: photons of light create electron-hole pair in the
semiconductor).
• Transport of Charge carriers: Charge carriers are particles or holes that freely move within a
material and carry an electric charge). Further Injection of charge carriers from the electrode to
the p-n junction.

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 • Exhibit excellent non-linear optical properties (originate from the interactions between the
electrons in the molecule and the electric fields in light (electromagnetic radiation).

Nanomaterials for Optoelectronic Devices

• Quantum Dots (QDs): Quantum dots are nanoscale semiconductor particles that exhibit quantum
confinement effects, leading to size-tunable optical properties. They can emit light at specific
wavelengths based on their size, making them ideal for applications such as displays, LEDs, and solar
cells. QDs can also be used as highly efficient fluorescent probes for biological imaging.
• Nanowires: Semiconductor nanowires are elongated, nanoscale structures with diameters typically
in the range of a few nanometers. They can be used in photodetectors, solar cells, and light-emitting
devices. Nanowires offer advantages such as high surface area, improved charge transport, and
compatibility with flexible substrates.
• Graphene: Graphene, a single layer of carbon atoms arranged in a hexagonal lattice, exhibits
exceptional electrical conductivity, transparency, and mechanical strength. It is used in optoelectronic
devices like transparent conductive films for touchscreens, photodetectors, and modulators.
Functionalized graphene can also enhance the performance of photovoltaic cells.
• Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs): Carbon nanotubes are one-dimensional nanostructures with excellent
electrical and thermal conductivity. They can be used in various optoelectronic applications,
including flexible and transparent conductive films, field-effect transistors, and light-absorbing layers
in solar cells.
Organic materials for Optoelectronic devices

Organic optoelectronic devices are based on organic semiconductors, which are carbon-based
materials that can conduct electricity.
1. Poly-thiophenes as Optoelectronic devices: Poly-thiophenes, specifically poly(3-hexyl-
thio-phene) (P3HT), are widely used as light-absorbing materials in organic photovoltaic
(OPV) cells.
Structure of P3HT: P3HT is a polymer composed of repeating units of 3-hexyl-thio-phene. The
structure is essential for its semiconducting properties and light-absorbing capabilities.

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 Light Absorption: P3HT absorbs light in the visible range of the electromagnetic spectrum,
typically in the range of 400 to 700 nanometers (nm).
Role in Organic Photovoltaic (OPV) Cells: P3HT is often used as the donor material in organic
cells. It serves as the light-absorbing layer to generate electron-hole pairs (excitons). When P3HT
absorbs photons, it creates electron-hole pairs. The electrons are then transferred to an acceptor
material
Tunability: P3HT's optical and electronic properties can be tuned by varying factors such as
molecular weight, regioregularity, and processing conditions.
Applications:
• P3HT-ITO forms a p-n junction that permits the charge carriers to move in opposite
directions and hence, is used in Photovoltaic devices.
• It can be used as a positive electrode in Lithium batteries.
• Used in the construction of Organic Solar Cells.
• Manufacture of smart windows.
• Used in the fabrication new types of memory devices.
2. Poly[9-vinylcarbazole] (PVK): Poly[9-vinylcarbazole] (PVK) is a polymer that has been
extensively used in organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs) and other optoelectronic devices.
Structure of P3HT: PVK is a polymer composed of repeating units of 9-
vinylcarbazole. The structure allows for the efficient transport of charge
carriers and the generation of electroluminescence. PVK emits light when
subjected to an electric field, a phenomenon known as
electroluminescence. The electrons and holes injected into the PVK layer
recombine, releasing energy in the form of light.

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 Role in OLEDs: In an OLED, PVK serves as the matrix that emits light of a specific color.
The guest material, typically an organic molecule or complex, is doped into the PVK host to achieve the
desired emission color (e.g., blue, green, or red).
Tunability: PVK's emission properties can be tuned by varying the type and concentration of the guest
dopant molecules. This tunability allows for the creation of OLEDs with different colors and spectral
characteristics.
Applications:
• OLEDs using PVK as a host material find applications in displays, including OLED
TVs, smartphone screens, and wearable displays.
• Additionally, PVK-based OLEDs are used in lighting applications, such as organic
light-emitting diode lighting panels and flexible lighting sources.
Liquid Crystals
• Liquid crystals are matter in a state that has properties b/w liquid and solid.
• It possesses properties and characteristics of both liquid and solid
Liquid Crystal Displays (LCDs)
• Liquid crystals can be used to create electronic displays, leading to the development of liquid crystal
displays (LCDs) commonly used in televisions, computer monitors, and other electronic devices.
• It was first observed by Friendrich Reinitzer in 1888 on heating Cholesteryl benzoate
Types of Liquid Crystals
1. Thermotropic phase: Here phase transition depends on the temperature
a) Smectic phase: 1st liquid crystal phase, Layer-like arrangement and has transitional and
rotational motion.
b) Nematic phase: Increase in the temp. of the Smectic phase to get the Nematic phase and
molecules rapidly diffuse out to form layered like structure.
c) Isptropic liquid phase: At the highest temperature, the Material becomes an Isotropic liquid
phase and molecules are more randomly arranged.

2. Lyotropic phase: Lyotropic crystals are formed by more than 2 components

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 a. In Lyotropic crystals phase, Solvent molecules fill the space around the compounds to
provide fluidity
b. In contrast to the thermotropic liquid phase, these enable another degree of freedom that
enables different phases
c. Ex: Soap and Water
3. Metallotropic phase: These are low melting point inorganic phases like ZnCl2 that are linked to
gathering to form tetrahedral structure and easily form glass.
Properties of Liquid crystal:
• Liquid crystal can flow like a liquid, due to loss of positional order
• Liquid crystal is optically birefringent, due to its orientation order
• Transition from crystalline solids to liquid crystals caused by the change in temperature gives rise to
thermotropic liquid crystals
Applications of Liquid crystal:
• LCD Displays
• Dyes
• Membranes
• Temperature measurement by change in colour
• Drug delivery
Organic Light Emitting Diode (OLEDs)
An organic light-emitting diode (OLED), is also known as an organic electroluminescent (organic
EL) diode. It is a light-emitting diode (LED) in which the emissive electroluminescent layer is a film of
organic compound that emits light in response to an electric current. OLED is a solid-state device that consists
of thin films of organic molecules that generate a bright light on the application of electric current. They are
made by a series of organic thin films placed between two conductors.
Components:
• OLED’s has 6 Layers in it as shown in the figure.
• SEAL and SUBSTRATE are the two protective layers of OLED,s
• OLED’s has two electrode system Cathode and Anode.
• In-between cathode and anode, two organic layers are present one
Emissive layer and Conductive layer.
Working:
• OLED light up, by attaching a voltage across the anode and cathode.
• When electricity flow and cathode receive electrons and the anode loses to form holes.
• Electrons move towards emissive layer creating negatively charged (n-type).
• The conductive layer becomes positively charged due holes (p-type).

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• Positive holes are much more mobile than negative electrons so they jump across the boundary from the
conductive layer to the emissive layer.
• When a hole meets an electron, releases energy in the form of a particle of light (photon).
• Thus, OLED produces continuous light for as long as the current keeps flowing.
Properties Applications
OLED displays have many outstanding characteristics Backlighting
Very saturated, vivid colors Automotive lighting
Deepest black, highest contrast ratio Airport runway
A wide viewing angle (180°) Interior car lighting
Low power consumption Smart card
Extremely thin form factor, flexible Advertisement boards
Response time in microseconds for very crisp motion Display systems
picture quality and 3D applications
QUANTUM DOT LIGHT EMITTING DIODES(QLEDS)
A quantum dot display is a display device that uses quantum dots (QD) semiconductor nanocrystals
which can produce pure monochromatic red, green, and blue light. The purpose of a quantum dot is to
produce different colours of light depending on the size of the particle.
Although the QD colour filter technology is primarily used in LED-backlit LCDs, it is applicable to
other display technologies which use colour filters, such as blue/UV active-matrix organic light-emitting
diode (AMOLED) or QNED/Micro LED display panels.

Properties Applications
Very Accurate, vivid colors which are more realistic Backlighting
High brightness. Automotive lighting
Deepest black, highest contrast ratio Airport runway
A wide viewing angle (180°) Interior car lighting
Low power consumption Smart card
Extremely thin, flexible and light weight Advertisement boards
Response time in microseconds for very crisp motion Display systems
picture quality and 3D applications

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