Innovative Building Materials - Lecture 4

FRP
FUNDAMENTAL

Prof. Andrea Prota

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Fiber Reinforced Polymeric Materials
Fibers Resin

+ =

2
 Fiber Reinforced Polymer

Fiber
SEM Image of Epoxy/Glass

Polymer Matrix (Resin)

3
 Introduction
FRP as structural stand-alone material or reinforcement to
concrete. New construction and repair
1-, 2-, and 3-D forms with different cross-section shapes
FRP consists of strong fibers impregnated with a thermoset
(thermoplastic) resin
Physico-mechanical properties different from steel (e.g.,
anisotropy, linear-elasticity, higher strength, lower modulus)
Desirable properties: corrosion resistance, high strength &
modulus, low relaxation/creep, high fatigue resistance, and
dimensional stability

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 Introduction
meters Multiscale design

10-0

10-1

10-2

10-3

10-4

10-5
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 FRP Constituents
Fibers

Fibers are the load-carrying elements, have highly-

oriented, defect-free micro structure

Three fiber types have been used in products

commercially available:
Aramid
Carbon
Glass
Basalt
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 Fibers - Overview
Aramid (e.g., Kevlar) -- exceptional toughness, high
tensile strength
Carbon/Graphite -- high modulus, high strength
 Pitch, higher stiffness

 PAN (rayon), higher strength

E-Glass -- most common fiber type

 S-Glass -- high modulus glass fiber

 Other glasses: AR-Glass, E-CR glass, C-glass --

tailored for higher resistance to environmental
exposure, used, for example, where exposure to alkali
environments is expected (e.g., concrete porewater)
Sizing is added to fibers to protect them and to ensure
their bond with the resin system. Not all sizing is
compatible with all resin systems. Silane sizings are
used for glass fibers, epoxies for carbon fibers.

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Fibers - Overview
 Fiber Nomenclature
Filament -- individual fiber, from 9 to 13 m in
diameter
Strand -- small bundle of fibers
Yarn -- bundles of twisted strands
Roving -- large yarns, typically not twisted
Tow -- carbon fiber rovings are known as Tows,
often designated 1K, 3K, 6K, and 12K for the
number of filaments in thousands per tow
Yield (yards per pound), e.g., 113 yards / pound
for roving

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Fiber Technical data sheet

Textile unit

Tex = Weigth (g) of 1000 m a filament

dTex = Weigth (g) of 10000 m a filament

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Fiber Technical data sheet

Fabric
characteristics

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 Fiber Technical data sheet
Non impregnated fabric :

Fabric unit weigth [ g/m2 ] : Tx  N f

px 
10

where : Tx : yarn count, direction x [Tex – g/km];

Nf : no. of yarns per unit width, direction x [no/cm]

Example : Unidirectional sheet

Nf Tx
[yarns/cm] [Tex- g/km] px = 304 g/m2
3.8 800
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Aramid fibers FRP CONSTITUENTS

Longitudinal Properties
elastic modulus: 62 - 142 GPa
ten. strength: 2,410 - 3,150 MPa
ultimate elongation: 1.5 - 4.4%

- E function of molecular orientation

- More than 80% of strength retained after temp. conditioning
- Creep slightly higher than that of PC steel (temperature and alkaline
solutions raise creep)
- Effect of moisture decreases tensile properties < 5%
- Non-linear, ductile in compression
- Good resistance to chemical attack (degraded by strong acids and
bases)
- Susceptibility to UV radiation
- Usable temp. range -200 to +200oC (not usable for long-term above
150oC)
- Electrical conductivity is low

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 TYPICAL PROPERTIES OF ARAMID FIBERS

Fiber Typical Tensile Tensile Strain Coefficient of Poisson

Thermal
Diameter Modulus Strength to ’s Ratio
Expansion
(microns) GPa GPa Failure 10-6/°C
(106 psi) (103 psi) (%)
KelvarTM 11.9 131 (19) 3.6 (525) 2.8 -2.0 long. .35
49d +59 radial
TwaronTM 12.0 127(18) 3.6 (533) 2.5 -2.0 long. .35
1055e +59 radial
Technoraf 12.0 74 (11) 3.5 (507) 4.6 -3.0 long. .35
N/A radial

d Dupont de Nemours & Co.; e Akzo-Nobel Fibers; f Teijin Co.;

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 FRP CONSTITUENTS
Carbon Fibers
Longitudinal properties
elastic modulus: 290 - 400 GPa
ten. strength: 2,400 - 5,700 MPa
ultimate elongation: 0.3 - 1.8%

- Two organic precursors such as polyacrylonitrile (PAN) and liquid

crystalline pitches (pitch)
- High strength and stiffness-to-weight ratios
- Low ultimate strain
- Low long. and transv. CTE
- Low impact resistance
- Low sensitivity to fatigue loads
- Excellent moisture and chemical resistance
- Sensitivity to galvanic corrosion
- Thermal stability up to 2000°C
- Highly conductive to heat and electricity

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 A 6 μm diameter carbon filament (running from
bottom left to top right) compared to a human hair

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 TYPICAL PROPERTIES OF COMMERCIAL CARBON FIBERS

Fiber Diameter Tensile Tensile Strain to Coefficient of

(microns) Modulus Strength GPa Failure Thermal
GPa (103 psi) (%) Expansion
(106 psi) 10-6/°C
PAN-Carbon

T-300a 7 230 3.53 (512) 1.5 -0.41 (long)

(33.4) 7-12 (radial)
Fortafil 6 231 3.80 (550) 1.64 -0.1 (long)
502-505 (33.5)
PITCH-Carbon

P-555 10 380 (55) 1.90 (275) 0.5 -0.9 (long)

P-100 10 758 (110) 2.41 (350) 0.32 -1.6 (long)
a Toray; c Fortafil Fibers
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 FRP CONSTITUENTS
Glass Fibers
Longitudinal properties
elastic modulus: 72 -87 GPa
ten. strength: 3,300 - 4,500 MPa
ultimate elongation: 4.8 - 5.0%

- Available in several types: E-, S-, C-, and AR-glass

- Individual fibers coated with a sizing agent to minimize abrasion
damage and aid coupling with resin
- Low cost
- Low tensile modulus
- High strength
- Relatively low resistance to sustained and cyclic loads
- Softening point of about 800-1000oC
- Sensitivity to alkaline environment
- Relatively low resistance to moisture
- High insulating properties

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 TYPICAL PROPERTIES OF COMMERCIAL GLASS FIBERS

Fiber Typical Tensile Tensile Strain to Coefficient Poisson’s

Diameter Modulus Strength Failure of Thermal Ratio
(microns) GPa GPa (%) Expansion
(106 psi) (103 psi) 10-6/°C
E- 10 72.4 3.45 4.8 5.0 0.2
Glass (10.5) (500.0)
S- 10 86.9 4.30 5.0 2.9 0.22
Glass (12.6) (625.0)

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 FRP CONSTITUENTS

Property Fiber Prestressed

Aramid Carbon E-Glass Steel
Tensile Strength + ++ + 0
Long-term Strength 0 + 0 +
Fatigue Strength ++ + - +
Multiaxial Strength - 0 - +
Durability in:
Alkaline Environment 0 + - ++
(like concrete)
Aggressive Acidic Env. + ++ + -
Carbonated Concrete ++ ++ ++ -
Weight ++ ++ + -

Note: Classified from poor (-) to excellent (++)

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 FIBER MATERIAL BEHAVIOR

Carbon
Tensile Stress

Aramid

Glass

0
Tensile Strain

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FIBERS – MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

STEEL for constructions

Specific strength :
500 MPa /7.8 g/cm3 = 0.064 GPa/g/cm3
Specific Stiffness :
210 GPa /7.8 g/cm3 = 27 GPa/g/cm3

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 CARBON FIBER vs. STEEL
700
600
Carbon Fiber
500
Stress (ksi)

400
300 Grade 270 PT Strand

200

100 Grade 60 Rebar

0
0.000 0.010 0.020 0.030 0.040 0.050 0.060
Strain (in/in)
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 Fabrics & Mats
Assembled from fibers, typically yarns or
rovings
Woven like cloth (fabrics)
Very heavy cloths are known as woven
rovings
Non-woven or stitched fabrics pack more
fiber in a tighter layering

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Fabric made of woven carbon
filaments

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 Resins FRP CONSTITUENTS

The resin matrix performs three major roles:

- binds the fibers together
- allows load transfer between fibers
- protects fibers from environment

Resins usually determine the FRP composite temperature limitations

and environmental resistance

Resins are classified into two major groups:

- thermoplastics (softened upon heating and hardened upon cooling)
- thermosets (when cured undergo irreversible chemical change)

Thermosets account for more than 80% of all resins used

Common types of thermoset resins are:

- unsaturated polyesters
- vinyl esters
- epoxies
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 Polymers
Polymerization -- formation of very large molecules via
the repetitive addition of sub-molecules or monomeric
units onto a long chain. Chain structures are known as
linear polymers; polymers with long chains and cross-
linking are stiffer and more resistant to breakdown
Thermoplastics -- commodity plastics, PE, PVC, PET,
Nylon, etc.
For the most part, thermoplastics are not reinforced or
are reinforced with very short, chopped fibers. Formed
and reformed with heat and pressure, e.g., by injection
molding.
Thermosets -- liquid or semi-solid monomers formed in a
batch reaction. Addition of promoters and catalysts
initiate the non-reversible reaction -- used for most fiber
reinforced composite materials.

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 Resins – cont.
Liquid monomer along with promoters, catalysts (i.e.,
hardeners), additives, fillers, etc.
Resins encapsulate, protect, and bind the fiber
reinforcements together
Resins provide adhesive bond between layers of
reinforcement fabrics and the composite and the
substrate
Resin system selection
 viscosity (processability)

 pot life

 curing temp. requirements (ambient or elevated)

 mechanical performance

 compatibility with fiber system

 cost

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 Resin Systems - Polyester
Polyester -- most common resin in the boat-
building industry and the overall FRP market
Cure via lengthening of the ester molecular chain
and cross-linking of styrene into the polymer
Least expensive at approximately $1 per pound
Diluted with styrene monomer which acts as the
bridge molecule and as a viscosity reducer
Subject to environmental degradation at rates
higher than other resin systems
Orthophthalic or “ortho” polyesters are less
expensive and more susceptible to environmental
degradation; isophthalic polyesters are more
expensive and are generally more durable
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 Resin Systems - Vinyl ester
Processed using the same techniques as
polyesters. At least 50% more expensive than
polyester. Known as a modified epoxy due to its
internal structure
Generally better environmental resistance than
polyester resins and slightly higher toughness
compared to polyester
Also used with a large fraction of styrene as the
neat resin is too thick to be processed
Requires addition of DMA initiator and Cobalt
Octanoate promoters both of which are highly
toxic (polyester resins are also promoted with
cobalt octoates)
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 Resin Systems - Epoxies
High performance resin system
Cures by cross-linking of polymer
More difficult to process compared to poly/vinyl ester;
many require elevated temperatures for cure or at
least can only be applied in warm weather
Low shrinkage make epoxies good adhesives
Best compatibility with carbon fiber systems as
carbon fibers are typically sized with epoxy resins
About twice as expensive as vinylester

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 Adhesives
Used to bond pre-cured laminate to a substrate or to
bond two laminates together
Usually a thick epoxy that is activated to cure in thin
layers (different from so-called laminating epoxies or
resins)
Control of bond line thickness is important
Cleaning and preparation of substrates is critical
Three failure modes:
 adhesive (undesirable)

 cohesive (desirable)

 substrate (desirable)

Other structural adhesives

 methacrylates

 urethanes

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 Filler & Additives
Fillers used to reduce the volume of
polymer resin without degrading the
properties of the composite

Additives are available for enhancing the

resistance of matrices and FRP to flames,
smoke generation, moisture, oxidation,
chemicals, etc.

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 Composites
Composites are in most cases a non-homogeneous and aniisotropic
material
Composites
Sistemi di Rinforzo

• manufactured by pultrusion or lamination

Preformati • various shapes and thickness
precured systems • directly bonded to the structural member to be
strengthened.

• unidirectional or multidirectional
Impregnati in situ FRP sheets
wet layup systems • in site impregnation with resin to
the support

• unidirectional or multidirectional FRP sheets pre-

Preimpregnati impregnated at the manufacturing plant with partially
prepreg systems polymerized resin
• they may be bonded to the member with (or without)
the use of additional resins
 Composites
Fibers
Provide loading carrying capacity ffib,max FIBRA
High stiffness and strength

Composite
FRP
Stiffness and strength lower than that of fibers fm,max MATRICE

FRP failure at strain εfib,max fib,max m,max

Resin
 load transfer among fibers
 fibers protection
 Low stiffness and strength
 Composites
• Comparison between mechanical properties of a pre-cured
laminate and fibers

Pre cured Modulus of Ultimate Ultimate

laminate elasticity [GPa] strength [MPa] strain [%]

CFRP FRP Fibers FRP Fibers FRP Fibers

Ef Efib ff ffib εfu εfib,u

Low modulus 160 210-230 2800 3500- 1.6 1.4-2.0

4800
High Modulus 300 350-500 1500 2500- 0.5 0.4-0.9
3100

FRP < fibers

FRP ≈ fibers
 Composites
• Comparison between mechanical properties of a pre-cured
laminate and fibers

Pre cured Modulus of Ultimate Ultimate

laminate elasticity [GPa] strength [MPa] strain [%]

CFRP FRP Fibers FRP Fibers FRP Fibers

Ef Efib ff ffib εfu εfib,u

Low modulus 160 210-230 2800 3500- 1.6 1.4-2.0

4800
High Modulus 300 350-500 1500 2500- 0.5 0.4-0.9
3100

FRP < fibers

FRP ≈ fibers
 Composites
Micro-mechanical models to compute
FRP mechanical behavior

Ef =VfibEfib+ (1-Vfib)Em,
ff  Vfibffib+ (1-Vfib)fm

Vfib volumetric fraction of fibers

= Volume of fibers / overall composite volume

This expression is reliable for:

 FRP made of unidirectional fibers

 Modulus of eslasticity
 Composites
Stress strain
relationship as a Resin amount
function of the uknown
volumetric fraction

ff (MPa) VV
fibf
4000 Fibre 100%
Properties of components

3000 FRP 70%

Fibers
50% Efib= 220 GPa
2000
ffib= 4000 MPa
30%
1000
Matrix
0
f Em= 3 GPa
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2 fm= 80 MPa
 Composites
When the above mentioned properties are referred to the overall section of the composite,
both Young modulus of elasticity and strength at failure decrease as the resin content
increases. The same does not apply if one were to look at both ultimate force, Ffu , and axial
stiffness ( Ef ⋅ Af )whose variations (3-4 %) are negligible. In fact, the reduction of Ef and ff
are compensated by the increase of the overall cross-sectional area with respect to that of
fibers only. V
ff (MPa) f
4000 Fibre 100%

3000 FRP 70%

2000
50%
Ef , ff decrease as the
resin content increases 1000
30%

f
Fuf = ff Af They do not 0
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2
Ef Af change
significantly
 Composites
Preformati
precured systems

Vf = 50-70 %

Experimental tests provided by manufacturer

 Composites
Wet lay-up systems

final thickness of the FRP laminate can not be estimated in a deterministic way

it is recommended to refer to both mechanical and geometrical properties

of dry fabric according to the technical data sheets provided by FRP
manufacturer
 Composites
Laminate cross sectional area [ mm2/m ]
Wet lay-up systems
Equivalent thickness [ mm ] :
Tx  N f pt Art
Art  Art  teq 
10 r n r 1000
balanced fabrics
dove : Tx : yarn count [ Tex – g/km] pt : unit weigth [ g/m2 ]
Nf : number of yarns r = fiber density [g/m3]
per unit width [ n°/cm ] n = 1 : unidirectional fabric;
n = 2 : bidirectional fabric
EXAMPLE: unbalanced fabric
weft 2
Art = 15.2 mm
pt r n° yarns/ m
titolo [ Tex ]
[ g/m2 ] [ g/cm3 ] cm warp 2
weft warp weft warp Art = 90.9 mm
m
weft warp
187 1.76 4 8 67 200 t eq ≠ t eq
 Composites
Wet lay-up systems

Mechanical properties

Mode 1) safety factors for stiffness and strength

Resin type and

fE and ff on the basis of strengthening
experimental tests on samples geometry are taken
with well defined volumetric into account
fractions

AfEf=fEAfibEfib Nature of support

can not be
considered for
Afff=ffAfibffib calibration
 Composites
Wet lay-up systems

Mechanical properties

Mode 2) tests on samples applied on the support

Resin type and
It is possible to take strengthening
into account all the geometry are taken
parameters affecting into account
the system behavior
costs
 Composites
Prepreg (pre-impregnated systems
…IN SUMMARY…

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 FRP Materials
FRP Systems
Fibers
 Carbon (CFRP), E-Glass (GFRP), Aramid
(AFRP)
Resins
 Epoxy, Vinyl Ester, Polyester
Forms
 Fiber Sheet (uni- and bi-directional)
 Circular and rectangular bar
 Precured laminate 49
 FRP Materials
FRP Forms
Sheet

Unidirectional &
Multidirectional
 Dry
 Pre-preg

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 FRP Materials
Example of commercially available dry-fiber
sheet product: MBrace
CF 130 CF 530 EG 900
Design
0.0065” 0.0065” 0.0139”
Thickness
Guaranteed
550 ksi 510 ksi 220 ksi
Strength
Elastic
33 Msi 54 Msi 10.5 Msi
Modulus
Elongation
1.7% 0.9% 2.1%
at Rupture

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 FRP Materials
FRP Forms
Plates,
Laminates

Unidirectional
precured
laminates

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 FRP Materials
FRP Forms
Glass Bars Carbon Bars

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 FRP Materials
Fiber Comparison
Carbon Aramid E-Glass
 High strength  High strength  High strength
 High modulus  Intermediate modulus  Low modulus
Excellent moisture,
  Good moisture,  Low moisture,
chemical resistance chemical resistance chemical resistance
Susceptible to
  Excellent impact • Sensitive to
galvanic corrosion resistance sustained loads
 High cost  High cost  Low cost

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 CREDITS

 T. Russell Gentry, Ph.D., PE, Composite Material

Constituents, Georgia Tech, College of Architecture,
Presented to Montana DOT, University of Wisconsin
EPD Short Course, Bridge Strengthening with
Composites, 24-25 May 1999

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 WEB RESOURCES
Market Development Alliance
http://www.mdacomposites.org/
Owens Coring, All About Composites
http://www.owenscorning.com/owens/composites/about/
MiningCo Guide to Composite Materials
http://composite.miningco.com/
Elsevier Science’s Composites On-Line
http://www.elsevier.co.uk/CompositesOnline/
FRP Bridges and Bridge Decks
http://www.umeciv.maine.edu/rla/FRP/FRP.htm
International Research on Advanced Composites for
Construction (IRACC)
http://www.iper.net/co-force/iracc.htm
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 REFERENCES
P.K. Mallick, "Fiber-Reinforced Composites, Materials,
Manufacturing and Design," 2nd. edition, M. Dekker, 1994.
B. D. Agarwal and L. J. Broutman, Analysis and Performance of
Fiber Composites, 2nd Ed., John Wiley, 1990.
S. W. Tsai, Composites Design, 4th Ed., Think Composites,
Dayton OH, 1988.
L.A. Carlsson and R.B. Pipes, "Experimental Characterization of
Advanced Composite Materials," Prentice-Hall, 1987.
Structural Plastics Design Manual, American Society of Civil
Engineers, 1998.
Structural Design of Polymer Composites, EUROCOMP Design
Code and Handbook, Ed. J. L. Clarke, E& FN Spon, 1996.
Composites for Infrastructure - A Guide for Civil Engineers, Ray
Publishing, Wheat Ridge, CO, 1998.
Handbook for Infrastructure Applications of Composite Materials,
SAMPE, 1997.

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REFERENCES –Cont.
Strong, A. Brent, Plastics: Materials and Processing,
Prentice-Hall, 1996.
Fiberglast Developments Corporation: 1997-1998 Product Catalog.
Lee, Stuart M. (Ed.), Handbook of Composite Reinforcements,
VCH, 1993.
Lee, Stuart M. (Ed.), International Encyclopedia of Composites,
VCH, 1990.
Lee, Stuart M. (Ed.), Reference Book for Composites Technology,
Technomic, 1989.
Marshall, Andrew, Composite Basics, 4th Edition.
Rosato, Donald V., Designing with Plastics and Composites: A
Handbook, New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1991.
Tsai, S. W. and Hahn, H. T., Introduction to Composite Materials,
Technomic, 1980.
Engineered Materials Handbook, 1988, Vol. 1, Composites, and
Vol. 2, Engineering Plastics, ASM Int. Handbook Committee.

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