DSE-4 (Group B4): Hydrology and Oceanography

B.A Honours 6th Semester

A.B.N Seal College
1. Hydrological Cycle: Systems approach in
hydrology, human impact on the hydrological cycle;
Precipitation, interception, evaporation, evapo-
transpiration, infiltration, ground-water, run off and
over land flow.
2. River Basin and Problems of Regional
Hydrology: Characteristics of river basins, basin
surface run-off, measurement of river discharge; floods
and droughts.
 Hydrology
‘Hydor’ + ‘Logos’ (Greek Words)= Hydrology (Study of water / Science of water)
Phases/State of Water The study of the Earth's water, particularly of water
❖ Liquid
on and under the ground before it reaches the
❖ Solid
❖ Gaseous ocean.

➢ Properties (Physical: Melting point, Boiling point, Maximum density)

➢ Occurrence (Surface, Subsurface and Atmosphere)
➢ Distribution of water (Fresh, Saline and Brackish water)
➢ Movement / Circulation of water
➢ Reactions of waters with the environment
➢ Their relation to living things
➢ Processes of depletion and replenishment of water
➢ Components of water cycle (Precipitation, Interception, Evaporation, Transpiration,
Evapotranspiration, Infiltration, Ground water, Runoff and Overland flow)
Global Water Storage
Total global water storage (TGWS):𝟏. 𝟑𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎𝟖 m.ha.m (million hectare meter)
/ 1386 million cubic km
TGWS = 100 %
• Saline Water: 97.2%
• Fresh Water: 2.8%
▪ Surface water: 2.2%
o Glacier and ice cap: 2.15%
o Lakes and streams: 0.01%
o Other Forms: 0.04%
▪ Ground Water: 0.6%

Static????
 Water Cycle / Hydrological Cycle
Definition: Total 510,000 cubic km (TGWS 1386 million cubic km) of water beneath the
land surface, on the surface and the atmosphere is in constant motion in different forms is
called hydrological cycle.

Travelling of water among surface, sub surface and above surface via different components
is called Hydrological cycle.
Components/Elements:
• Evaporation • Through, Inter flow
• Transpiration and Base flow
• Evapo-transpiration • Infiltration
• Transport • See page
• Condensation • Base flow
• Precipitation • Ground Water
• Runoff (Surface
runoff and subsurface
runoff)
Types of Hydrological Cycle:

➢Biological Water Cycle

➢Global Water Cycle

Basin Hydrological Phenomena

• Atmospheric phenomena
• Surface phenomena
• Sub-surface phenomena
Drainage basins are the principal hydrologic unit considered in fluvial geomorphology. A
drainage basin is the source for water and sediment that moves from higher elevation through
the river system to lower elevations as they reshape the channel forms.

Area of land that contributes water to a stream/river–Also

known as “catchments” (UK) or “watersheds” (US)

Geomorphological study of a basin is important for understanding the

overall basin characteristics which are helpful for the management of
water resources, construction along the river bank and
natural hazard mitigation within the area.
 Characteristics of the Drainage Basin
•Drainage basin - the area of land drained by a river.
•Watershed - the edge of highland surrounding a drainage basin which marks the boundary
between two drainage basins.
•Source - the beginning or start of a river.
•Confluence - the point at which two rivers or streams join.
•Tributary - a stream or smaller river which joins a larger stream or river.
•Mouth - the point where the river comes to the end, usually when entering a sea.

SYSTEM
A closed system has no transfer of energy or material
across the boundaries of the system: an open system has
transfer of energy and/or material across the boundaries of
the system.
The Drainage Basin as an Open System
Basin Hydrological Phenomena
1. Atmospheric Phenomena
2. Surface Phenomena and
3. Sub-surface Phenomena

1. Atmospheric Phenomena 2. Surface Phenomena 3.Sub-surface Phenomena

a. Transport b. Condensation c. a. Depression Storage
Precipitation d. Rain (Negative landforms) b.
Abstraction/Rainfall Piracy/Rainfall Surface Detention/
Hijack e. Interception Layer (Vegetation Detention Storage c.
and Building) f. Interception Storage Splash, Sheet, Rill, Gully
and Stream Erosion d.
and Evapo-transpiration g. Aerial
Runoff
Streamlets (Stem flow, Foliage flow and
Wall creep) h. Through Fall
 Components of Water Cycle / 1. Precipitation
Hydrological Cycle A. Forms of Precipitation:
1. Precipitation a. Drizzle: Drop size < 0.5 mm in dia. and intensity
2. Interception is usually < 1 mm/hr
b. Rain: Drop size is between 0.5 to 6 mm in dia.
3. Evaporation
Drops bigger than 6 mm tend to break up as they
4. Transpiration
fell.
5.Evapotranspiration c. Glaze: It is the ice coating formed when drizzle or
6. Infiltration rain freezes as it comes in contact with cold
7. Runoff and Overland Flow objects on the ground.
8. Ground Water d. Sleet: It is frozen raindrops cooled to ice stage
while falling through air.
e. Snow: It is a precipitation in the form of ice
crystals resulting from sublimation, i.e., directly
from water vapor to ice.
f. Snow Flake: It is made of a number of ice
crystals fused to gather.
g. Hail: It is precipitation in the form of balls or
lumps of ice over 5 mm diameter
B. Types of Precipitation

C. Rainfall Measurement Raingage: The purpose of the raingage is to measure the depth
and intensity of rain falling on a flat surface without considering
infiltration, runoff or evaporation.
Raingage D. Raingage Network
WMO Recommended Indian Standard
Precipitation Network Density Recommendation

➢ One station per 600 to 900 km2 ➢ One station per 520
– in flat regions of temperate, km2 –in plains.
Mediterranean and tropical ➢ One station per
zone. 260-390 km2– in
➢ One station per 100 to 250 km2 regions of average
– in mountainous regions of elevation of 1000
temperate, Mediterranean and m.
tropical zone. ➢ One station per 130
➢ One station per 25 km2 – in km2 – in
small mountainous land with predominantly hilly
irregular precipitation. areas with heavy
➢ One station per 1500 to 10,000 rainfall.
km2 – arid and polar zones.
 E. Presentation of Rainfall Data

Fig. Mass Curve (Duration and Fig. Hyetograph

magnitude of Storm)
 2. Interception and Depression Storage
Interception losses are described by the following equation Interception is high when
Li = S + KEt 1. Onset of rainfall when vegetation is
dry
2. Evaporation due to windy
Where,
conditions
Li is the total volume of water intercepted.
S is the interception storage. 3. Duration of rainfall (till
K is the ratio of the surface area of the leaves to the area of the entire canopy. interception storage capacity)
E is the rate of evaporation during the precipitation event, and
t is time.

There are three Main Depression Storage

Components of The volume of water in depression storage at any time during a
Interception: precipitation event can be approximated as (Linsley 1982):
1. Interception Loss Factors Affecting Depression
(Evaporation and Where, Storage
(1) Type of soil surface
Absorbed) V is the volume of water in depression storage. (2) Land use
2. Throughfall (Direct and Sd is the maximum storage capacity of the depression. (3) Antecedent rainfall
(4) Time
drops) Pe is the rainfall excess, and (It is equal to the total amount of rainfall minus all abstractions including interception
3. Stemflow (Along) k is a constant equal to 1/Sd. depression storage and infiltration)
 3. Evapo-transpiration

Evapo-transpiration includes all processes by which water returns to the atmosphere as water
vapour:

Factors Affecting Evaporation

Measurement of
1. Wind: When wind speed is high it assists evaporation.
Evaporation
2. Heat: Evaporation is more in summer as compared to
winter.
1. Lysimeter (Evapo-
3. Exposed surface area: For instance, a wet cloth spread out
transpiration)
dries faster than when folded.
2. Pan Evaporation
4. Humidity: Dryness assists evaporation; for instance, clothes
3. Evaporation Pan
dry faster in summer than during the monsoon when the air is
humid.
5. Nature of the liquid: Rate of evaporation depends upon the
type of liquid; for example, petrol evaporates faster than water.
Determination of Evapotranspiration
Blaney-Criddle Method
Where, PET = potential
evapotranspiration, mm of water per
day (mean value over the month)
P= monthly percent of total day time
hours of the year
T= mean monthly temp. In °C
(Average of daily max and min
values)
Hargreaves’ Method
PET = reference crop potential consumptive use
t = mean daily temperature (°C)
Rs= incident solar radiation in langlay/day, it can be
calculated using the following relationship,
Where, S is the percent possible sunshine hour and
Rso is the clear daysolar radiation in langlay/day.
 4. Infiltration
Factors Affecting Infiltration Rate Measurement of Infiltration
1. Initial moisture content Infiltrometer.
2. Condition of the soil surface There are two kinds of infiltrometers:
3. Texture ▪ Flooding-type infiltrometer
4. Porosity ▪ Rainfall simulator
5. Organic matter
6. Vegetative cover
7. Duration of irrigation or rainfall
 5. Runoff
Runoff means the draining or flowing off of precipitation from a catchment area through a
surface channel enters into a stream channel.
Components of Runoff Types
1. Sheet like movement/Sheet Flow Based on the time delay
(Unconcentrated Flow/Overland Flow) between the precipitation
2. Concentrated Flow: Rill, Gully (Surface and the runoff, the runoff
Channel)
is classified into two
1+2= Surface Runoff
3. Through Flow
categories;
4. Inter Flow as (a) Direct / Prompt
1+2+3+4= Surface Runoff runoff (b) Base /
5. Base Flow (Sub-surface Runoff) Delayed runoff.
1. Storm Characteristics b. Wind 4. Storage Characteristics
a. Intensity c. Humidity a. Depressions
Runoff can be expressed
b. Duration 3. Basin Characteristics b. Pools and Ponds
1. Rate (Discharge)
c. Frequency a. Size c. Reservoir
d. AMC b. Shape 5. Anthropogenic Characteristics
2. Volume
2. Meteorological Characteristics c. Land use a. Dams 3. Depth
a. Temp. d. Soil b. Filling of swamp
 Calculation and Estimation of Runoff
➢ Direct Method: R= Width * Depth * Velocity (Distance/Time)
➢ Empirical Methods/Formulae:
▪ R = aP+b Where, a,b and n are constants
▪ R = aPn R=Runoff, P= Rainfall

➢ Rational Methods/ Formulae:

▪ Yield = CAP Where, A=Area, P= Rainfall, C= Runoff Coefficients

➢ Rainfall-Runoff Relations:
▪ R = kP Where, R=Runoff, P= Rainfall, k= Runoff Coefficients, F = Monsson duration
Factor (0.5-1.5), S= Catchment Factor (0.25 for Flat Areas and 3.45 For
Hilly Areas), T = Temperature
▪ C.C. Inglis Formula R = 0.85 P + 30.5 (For Ghat Areas)
P −17.8 P
R= (For Plain Areas)
254
▪ Lacey’s Formula
𝑃
R= 30.48 𝐹 (For Indo-Gangetic Region)
1+ ( )
𝑃 𝑆
𝑇
▪ A.N. Khosla Formula R = P-
3.74
 Rational Method

Yield = CAP
Where, A=Area, P= Rainfall, C= Runoff Coefficients

Runoff Coefficient Given By Richards

 Overland Flow
Overland flow is the term used to describe surface flow that is outside the
confines of a stream channel. The generation of overland flow is traditionally
divided into two primary mechanisms,

Infiltration excess (Horton; after Horton (1945)) and saturation excess (Dunne;
after Dunne and Black (1970a, 1970b).

Infiltration-excess overland flow develops when the rate of water input on the
land surface is higher than the infiltration rate.
 The Drainage Basin as an Open System

The drainage basin forms part of the hydrological cycle and can
be described as an ‘open system’ involving a series of:

INPUTS: ways in which water enters the system.

OUTPUTS: ways in which water leaves the system. You must be

able to define these terms!

STORES: ways in which water is held in the system.

TRANSFERS: ways in which water is moved through and

within the system.
 Human Impact on the Hydrological Cycle
Components of Water 1. Land cover of river basins:
Cycle / Hydrological A. Agriculture: Intensive irrigation has resulted in almost full
Cycle cessation of the water inflow from the Syr-Darya River and
1. Precipitation the Amu-Darya River, as well as the drastic drop in the Aral
2. Interception Sea level.
B. Deforestation: Other well-documented examples include the
3. Evaporation
increased drought risks in the Mediterranean and the Sahel,
4. Transpiration following removal of vegetation by forest clearing and
5.Evapotranspiration overexploitation respectively. There are also some indications
6. Infiltration that the considerable changes in scale and frequency of
7.Runoff and Overland flooding in the Ganges basin may be explained by
Flow deforestation in the local mountainous region.
8. Ground Water 2. Dams, Levees and Barrages: Increase of evaporation and a rise of
groundwater table.
3. Urbanization: