ASM Handbook, Volume 9: Metallography and Microstructures
G.F. Vander Voort, editor, p23–28
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v09.a0003721
Introduction to Structures in Metals
FOR MORE THAN A CENTURY, dating
back to the pioneering contributions of Henry
Clifton Sorby, metallurgists have not been sat-
isfied merely to describe their metallographic
observations, but have striven to explain them
and to understand their implications (Ref 1–4).
In addition, new techniques of structural inves-
tigation have yielded new observations and
posed new problems. The quest for meaningful
and precise explanations of metallurgical struc-
tures has been the primary driving force in the
development of the science of physical metal-
lurgy (Ref 5–8), which is a very broad topic that
includes the structure of metals.
The general structural features of metals are
introduced in this article, while more details on
the physical metallurgy of metal structure are
given in the other articles in this Section. The
purpose of the articles in this Section is to assist
in the interpretation of microstructure. Such in-
terpretation requires an understanding of crystal
structure, physical metallurgy, and the processes
by which various structures are formed. There-
fore, articles are organized accordingly, begin-
ning with crystal structure and general alloying,
and followed by the major processes that pro-
duce characteristic structures. A special article
describes textures that can result from several
of these processes.
This article provides background, general
references, and some connections among the
subject matter explored more fully in the spe-
cialized articles. This article also treats impor-
tant topics, such as grain structure and sub-
structure, that are not covered systematically
and comprehensively in the other articles. Fi-
nally, it introduces the scale of structural fea-
tures and the concept of hierarchical relations
among them.
General Features of Structure
The term structure, as used here, refers pri-
marily to the study of those microstructural fea-
tures that can be investigated using optical
(light) and electron microscopy (Ref 9–17). The
results of investigations using other techniques,
such as x-ray diffraction, are included when per-
tinent (Ref 18, 19). Macrostructural features,
which can be observed with little or no mag-
nification, are also considered. The principles
applicable to various types of structures are il-
Downloaded from http://dl.asminternational.org/handbooks/edited-volume/chapter-pdf/483017/a0003721.pdf
by Ben Gurion University of the Negev user
Copyright © 2004 ASM International®
lustrated by micrographs in other articles. Sev-
eral works that treat the interpretation of micro-
structures systematically are cited in Ref 9 to
13.
Size Scales and Hierarchical Structures.
The structure of metals comprises features of
various magnitudes. The size scales of structural
features of metals extend from the atomic level,
⬃0.1 nm (⬃1 Å) to the size of entire metallic
objects, ⬃1 m (⬃31⁄4 ft). This range spans 10
orders of magnitude. The techniques for observ-
ing structural features requires adequate resolv-
ing powers, and Fig. 1 shows the sizes of some
common structural features of metals and vari-
ous techniques for their observation with limits
of resolution.
Frequently, several structural features on dif-
ferent levels in a given metallic system are of
interest. For example, a polycrystalline single-
phase metal has a grain structure, and within
each grain a substructure may be present, or, in
a polycrystalline long-range ordered binary al-
loy, a substructure of antiphase boundaries may
exist within each grain. In a forging, the mac-
roscopic flow lines may coexist with a structure
of matrix grains in which precipitates are dis-
persed. These examples of structural features
that coexist at different levels are typical hier-
archical structures.
The major structural features, listed generally
in increasing size, are:
● Atomic and electronic structures, which are
below the resolving power of light and elec-
tron microscopy and are covered in texts on
general physics and in specialized presenta-
tions (Ref 21–23)
● Crystal structure: perfect crystals and crystal
imperfections (such as dislocations, disloca-
tion dipoles, dislocation networks, disloca-
tion loops, and stacking faults)
● Substructure: subgrains, other cellular struc-
tures
● Microstructure: grains of single-phase met-
als and alloys, shapes and sizes of microcon-
stituents, and their arrangement/morphology
in multiphase systems
● Textured structure, when the crystal lattices
of grains in a polycrystalline material are ar-
ranged in a correlated or organized manner
from a preferred orientation of the grains
● Structural features from composition effects
on phase relations and from compositional
All rights reserved.
www.asminternational.org
variations such as microsegregation in solid-
ified metals, and solute-enriched regions in
or near grain boundaries or other regions of
crystal imperfections (Ref 24)
● Structural gradients such as grain-size gra-
dients within a plate product, composition
gradients in case-hardened steel, reinforcing
phases in composites (Ref 25)
● Porosity and voids, which are structural fea-
tures that are characterized by a large range
of sizes
● Macrostructural features, including various
macroscopic inhomogeneities that develop
solidification and deformation, as discussed
later in this article
Other special features of metal structure in-
clude:
● Twins, which occur within grains, are special
imperfections that may originate during
growth processes, for example, the annealing
of cold-worked metal, or during deforma-
tion.
● Antiphase domain boundaries occur in solid
solutions with long-range order, reducing the
perfection of the order.
● Ferromagnetic domains are characteristic of
ferromagnetic materials. Unlike typical met-
allurgical processes, a change in ferromag-
netic domain structure requires a variation in
magnetic field. Antiferromagnets also have
domain structures.
Origins of Structures
At the atomic structure level, individual at-
oms exhibit differences in the number of elec-
trons in the various electron shells. This results
in different types of bonding and bond strength,
such as the relatively strong covalent and ionic
bonds, the intermediate metallic bonds, or the
weak van der Waals bonds. The bonds between
atoms also may occur in specific directions and
periodic spatial orientations. The formation of
crystal lattices occurs as a result of bonding be-
tween atoms. Strong bonding forces between at-
oms cause atoms to pack efficiently (high pack-
ing densities). These arrangements exhibit
planes of high atomic density, which contain
close-packed directions.
 24 / Metallurgy and Microstructure

In most metals, the metallic bonds between Single-Phase Microstructures ture are grain size, grain shape, and grain-shape
atoms typically result in a crystalline structure, anisotropy.
although amorphous or random spatial arrange- The major types of microstructures—solidifi- Types of Grain Structure. Typical grain
ment of atoms can be achieved in metallic ma- cation structures, solid-state transformation structures include impingement structure, co-
terials (see the article “Metallic Glasses” in structures, and deformation and annealing struc- lumnar structure, equiaxed grain structure, ma-
Properties and Selection: Nonferrous Alloys and tures—are shown in Fig. 2 to 4. The character- ture grain structure, deformed grain structure, in-
Special-Purpose Materials, Volume 2, ASM istic structural features of single-phase metals hibited recrystallization structure, and duplex
Handbook, 1990). Most engineering alloys are and alloys, such as grain structure and substruc- grain structure.
polycrystalline materials with crystal types that ture, are discussed below. Some of the features Impingement structure forms when grains
are face-centered cubic (fcc), body-centered cu- of single-phase metals are also found in multi- grow until they meet or impinge, producing
bic (bcc), or hexagonal close-packed (hcp) struc- phase structures (Ref 34, 35). characteristic ragged interfaces. This type of
tures. Crystal structures often found in metallic Grain Structure. Grains are small crystals structure is rarely observed, because the inter-
phases are described in the article “Crystal Struc- (crystallites) that form a three-dimensional ag- faces usually are smoothed while the specimen
ture” in this Section, and some texts apply the gregate; they are normally viewed in sections, remains at elevated temperature. Impingement
fundamentals of crystallography to metals (Ref which by their nature are limited to two dimen- grains have been observed after secondary re-
26, 27). Crystal imperfections include point de- sions. The main characteristics of a grain struc- crystallization (Ref 36).
fects, such as impurity atoms, vacancies and
vacancy aggregates, and interstitial atoms; line
defects (dislocations); and area defects, for ex-
ample, stacking faults, twin interfaces, subboun-
daries, and grain boundaries. They are described
in specialized texts on the theory of dislocations
and other crystal imperfections (Ref 28–30).
Electron microscopy is capable of resolving vari-
ous crystal defects such as dislocations, dislo-
cation dipoles, dislocation networks, and dislo-
cation loops.
The characteristic structures of metals and al-
loys are produced by (1) transformations in
which one or more parent phases are converted
into one or more new phases, (2) deformation
processes, (3) thermal processes, (4) thermo-
mechanical processes, or (5) diffusion processes
that do not result in a transformation, such as
sintering. A typical deformation process is cold
working. Examples of thermal processes are the
annealing of a cold-worked metal and the ho-
mogenization of an alloy with microsegregation.
The principles underlying and governing these
processes are the subject of physical metallurgy
(see Ref 5–8, 31–33).
The production of typical structures involves
transformations and processes such as solidifi-
cation and solid-state transformation. The most
important mechanisms of solid-state transfor-
mation are diffusion, nucleation, and growth;
more complex mechanisms operate in marten-
sitic and bainitic transformations.
Basic deformation mechanisms include slip,
twinning, and grain-boundary sliding. Annealing
processes leading to recovery, recrystallization,
and grain growth proceed by the mechanisms of
polygonization, nucleation and growth, and
grain-boundary migration, respectively.
Processes developed in recent years, such as
rapid solidification, mechanical alloying, ion
implantation, deformation of superplastic al-
loys, and laser annealing, have introduced new
structural morphologies. For example, rapid so-
lidification can result in structures without
dendritic or cellular microsegregation. In addi-
tion, rapid-solidification techniques, such as
melt spinning and splat cooling, can produce
metallic glasses, that is, amorphous (noncrys-
talline) metals. Fig. 1 Size scale relating structural features of metals to techniques of observation (after Ref 20)

Downloaded from http://dl.asminternational.org/handbooks/edited-volume/chapter-pdf/483017/a0003721.pdf

by Ben Gurion University of the Negev user

Columnar structure forms by unidirectional
growth processes, especially during solidifica-
tion, and by a growth process involving diffusion
accompanied by a solid-state transformation. A
columnar structure is typical of ingot castings.
Equiaxed grain structure may form by several
processes, such as solidification and recrystalli-
zation after or during deformation processes.
Mature grain structure forms when the inter-
faces—for example, those resulting from im-
pingement—adjust themselves under capillary
driving forces.
Deformed grain structure is the product of
cold working. In such cases, the grain shapes are
anisotropic. Deformed grain structure also oc-
curs from hot working and is an important
feature during controlled rolling of some high-
strength low-alloy (HSLA) steels. In conven-
tional controlled rolling of HSLA steels, austen-
ite is conditioned into a “pancake” shape that
promotes transformation into fine-grain ferrite.
Inhibited recrystallization structure forms
when second-phase particles arranged in a non-
random pattern inhibit the motion of grain
boundaries and impose their nonrandom pattern
on the resulting recrystallized structure (see Fig.
5b).
Duplex grain structure consists of discrete re-
gions of larger and smaller grain sizes, that is, a
bimodal distribution of grain sizes (see Fig. 6b).
This structure is not related to microduplex al-
loys, which have characteristic duplex structures
involving composition of two coexisting micro-
constituents rather than grain size (see the sec-
tion “Multiphase Microstructures” below).
Three-Dimensional Grain Structure. Grain
structures exist in three dimensions. In a typical
structure, two grains are separated by an inter-
face; three interfaces join along a line or edge,
and four edges join at a point or junction. Six
interfaces and four grains join at a junction in
addition to the four edges. Junctions of four
grain edges are the basic units of a mature grain
structure; these junctions can be connected in in-
numerable ways without structural symmetry or
exact repetition of detail (Ref 36, 37).
The major factors controlling grain structure
are the requirement of space filling and the ten-
dency toward minimum interfacial energy. Space
filling implies that adjoining grains interact to
determine each other’s shapes. The problem of
filling space with regular geometrical bodies has
been studied for many years, beginning with
Lord Kelvin in 1887 (Ref 36, 37). These studies
have contributed to the understanding of grain
structure, although actual grains may have irreg-
ular shapes.
The tendency toward minimum interfacial en-
ergy operates by reducing the grain-boundary
area as much as possible or, when applicable, by
rotating the grain boundary into low-energy ori-
entations. The reduced grain-boundary area is an
essential characteristic of mature grain struc-
tures.
Topological relations for three-dimensional
grain structures, such as the average number of
sides of a grain face, have been analyzed. The
Downloaded from http://dl.asminternational.org/handbooks/edited-volume/chapter-pdf/483017/a0003721.pdf
by Ben Gurion University of the Negev user
relations applicable to metal grains resemble
those for certain nonmetallic materials, such as
biological cell structures and foam structures
(Ref 36–38).
Crystallography of Grain Boundaries. Vari-
ous models have been proposed for the grain-
boundary region, ranging from simple models
for low-angle tilt boundaries to complicated
transition regions in high-angle boundaries (Ref
39). Coincidence and twin boundaries are dis-
cussed in the article “Solidification Structures of
Pure Metals” in this Section.
Two-Dimensional Grain Structure. Sec-
tioning of a three-dimensional grain structure
presents the grain structure in only two dimen-
sions for observation. In a typical grain structure,
the following simple relations between the three-
dimensional and the two-dimensional structures
can be established:
● A volume—three-dimensional cell or spatial
grain—becomes an area, that is, a two-
dimensional cell or planar grain.
● An interface in a three-dimensional structure
becomes a line or a grain boundary in a two-
dimensional structure.
● An edge becomes a point.
● A corner or junction (zero-dimensional cell)
has an infinitesimal probability of being in-
tersected by the plane of observation.
● The true dihedral angle becomes an apparent
dihedral angle, as discussed below.
In the transition from a three- to a two-dimen-
sional grain structure, another basic relation is
that a structure consisting of uniformly sized
three-dimensional, or spatial, grains becomes a
two-dimensional structure in which the planar
grains are not of uniform size. This is because a
random plane cuts grains at random positions,
ranging from a corner to the largest cross section.
However, the resulting two-dimensional distri-
bution of a grain structure of uniform three-di-
mensional grain size has definite statistical reg-
ularity. In general, the true three-dimensional
grain size is more nearly uniform than the ap-
parent two-dimensional grain size. The problems
of grain-size measurement, grain shape, and
grain-size statistics are covered in texts on quan-
Fig. 2 An outline of solidification structures
Introduction to Structures in Metals / 25
titative metallography such as Ref 40 to 42 (see
also the article “Quantitative Metallography” in
this Volume).
The topological relations of grains in two di-
mensions (planar grains) have been observed,
demonstrating that the average planar grain in a
mature structure is a hexagon. Consequently, a
seven-sided grain in a microsection must be bal-
anced by a five-sided grain, a nine-sided grain
by a three-sided grain, or by three five-sided
grains, and so on. In addition, correct sampling
for polygon distribution ensures better sampling
for size (see Ref 36–38).
Grain Shape. Quantitative description of
grain shape in three dimensions (Ref 41) may be
approximated by a sphere when the average
shape of grains are equiaxed. Similarly, none-
quiaxed grains may be represented by ellipsoids.
When viewed in two dimensions, nonequiaxed
grains have extended shapes.
Dihedral Angles. In three dimensions, the
true dihedral angle is the angle between two
faces of a grain measured in a plane normal to
the edge at which the faces intersect. In any ac-
tual section, the faces are intersected by planes
oriented randomly at all angles. Therefore, the
apparent angle in two dimensions generally dif-
fers from the true angle in three dimensions.
Stated differently, the apparent or observed angle
is the angle between the traces of grain faces in
the plane of a random section. The angles in a
two-dimensional section are statistically random
in the absence of any orientation effect or pre-
selection.
Quantitative relations exist between the true
angle in three dimensions and the apparent angle
observed in two dimensions. If the true angle is
120⬚, as in a mature grain structure, the proba-
bility of finding an angle within 5⬚ of the true
angle is greater than the probability of finding
an angle in any other 10⬚ range (Ref 43). In fact,
four angles out of five are expected to be within
25⬚ of the true angle. However, in actual grain
structures, the true angles and, to a greater ex-
tent, the observed angles will have a distribution
range.
In two-phase structures, the true dihedral an-
gles may differ from 120⬚ even if the structure
 26 / Metallurgy and Microstructure

Fig. 3 An outline of solid-state transformation structures

is equilibrated. The extent to which the true an- plest of these boundaries consists of periodically pending on the nature of phase transformations
gles differ depends on the relative interfacial ten- spaced dislocations. In more complex instances, during heating, cooling, or solidification (see the
sions between grains of the two phases present. particularly in structures resulting from defor- article “Physical Metallurgy Concepts in Inter-
It has been suggested that the true angle can be mation, dislocation tangles can form cellular pretation of Microstructures” in this Volume).
found by matching calculated and observed fre- structures. For example, most ferrous metals as well as
quency plots. The most probable angle is in The subgrains that constitute substructure in many nonferrous alloys, especially the age-hard-
every instance the true dihedral angle (Ref 44). the conventional sense have a large range of pos- ening and precipitation-hardening alloys, consist
A simpler procedure for finding the true angle sible sizes. The angular misorientations resulting of more than one phase.
uses a cumulative distribution curve. The median from subboundaries range from a fraction of 1⬚ The characteristic multiphase structures can
angle differs only slightly, and correctably, from to well over 1⬚. be related to their modes of origin (see Fig. 2
the true angle. In addition, fewer measure- and 3). The major types of multiphase structures
ments—perhaps 25 instead of several hundred— are discussed below.
are sufficient (Ref 45). Errors in measurement Structures in which both phases form en-
have been systematically analyzed, and dihedral Multiphase Microstructures tirely distinct grains have been called aggre-
angles with nonunique values have been consid- gated two-phase structures or random duplex ag-
ered (Ref 46). Although many industrial alloys are single- gregates. They develop most clearly in alloys in
phase materials—for example, cartridge brass, which both phases are present in approximately
silicon steel, and austenitic stainless steels— equal volume fractions (Ref 47). In microduplex
Substructure multiphase alloys are more often encountered. alloys, the two phases are distributed uniformly
The shapes, sizes, and configuration of two or such that the boundaries are predominantly in-
Crystal imperfections of all kinds, including more microconstituents in a multiphase system terphase interfaces. This structure is usually fine
subboundaries, may occur in single crystals and produce a variety of typical microstructures, de- scale and resistant to microstructural coarsening.
within the grains of polycrystalline metals. In the
broadest sense, substructure comprises all im-
perfections within the grains of a polycrystalline
metal or a single crystal. In the conventional
sense, substructure refers to the subgrains
formed by subboundaries (low-angle bound-
aries). This structure is revealed at intermediate
magnifications; crystal imperfections, such as
dislocations and stacking faults, can be revealed
individually only at much higher magnifications.
Examples of special kinds of substructure are:
● Lineage structure, mosaics originating by so-
lidification
● Veining originating by transformation of fcc
iron to bcc iron
● The cellular structure resulting from cold
work
● Impurity substructure involving solute at-
mospheres associated with dislocations
● Dislocation networks originating by solidifi-
cation, cold work, or fatigue (cyclic loading)
● Polygonized structure resulting from cold
work followed by annealing
● Imperfections resulting from quenching or ra-
diation damage
Subgrains and cellular structures are formed by
subboundaries (low-angle boundaries). The sim- Fig. 4 An outline of deformation and annealing structures

Downloaded from http://dl.asminternational.org/handbooks/edited-volume/chapter-pdf/483017/a0003721.pdf

by Ben Gurion University of the Negev user

Structures in which each phase is closely
interconnected can result from spinodal de-
composition (see the article “Spinodal Transfor-
mation Structures” in this Volume). The scale of
these spinodal structures is very small. They are
characterized principally by their high degree of
connectivity and often by crystallographic align-
ment of the phases (Ref 48).
Structures consisting of one continuous
phase and isolated particles of a second
phase (the matrix-plus-dispersed-phase
structure) are the most varied of the multiphase
structures. Among their characteristic variables
are the relative volumes of the two phases, the
size of the particles of the dispersed phase, the
interparticle distance, the shape of the dispersed
particles, and any special orientation of the dis-
persed particles with respect to each other and
the matrix. Some of these variables are interde-
pendent; all of them can be measured. Examples
of the matrix-plus-dispersed-phase structure are
rod-shaped particles embedded in a matrix and
cellular precipitates. Another important example
is the type of dual-phase HSLA sheet steels char-
acterized by a microstructure consisting of about
20% hard martensite particles dispersed in a soft
ductile ferrite matrix (Fig. 7). The term dual
phase refers to ferrite and martensite as the two
dominant phases, although small amounts of
other phases, such as bainite, pearlite, or retained
austenite, may also be present (Ref 49).
Structures in which the two phases are ar-
ranged in alternate layers or lamellas form as
eutectics, as pearlites in steels, and as pearlites
in nonferrous eutectoid alloys. Their character-
istic variable is the interlamellar spacing or
thickness of the lamellas.
A second phase can be distributed along the
grain boundaries of a matrix phase, as in copper
that is contaminated by bismuth. Particles of a
dispersed phase can also be located at other pref-
Fig. 5 Partly recrystallized (a) and completely recrystallized (b) commercially pure molybdenum rolled to 1.0 mm
(0.040 in.) thick sheet. (a) Longitudinal section of partly recrystallized structure after anneal at 900 ⬚C (1650 ⬚F)
for 1 h. (b) Completely recrystallized after a 15 min anneal at 1350 ⬚C (2460 ⬚F) with structure indicative of inhibited
recrystallization. No voids are visible. Murakami’s reagent (mod). 200⳯
Downloaded from http://dl.asminternational.org/handbooks/edited-volume/chapter-pdf/483017/a0003721.pdf
by Ben Gurion University of the Negev user
Introduction to Structures in Metals / 27
erential sites, such as at slip planes after cold uents of the microstructure. A macrostructure
work followed by a precipitation process. may also comprise other inhomogeneities, such
Crystallography of Interphase Interfaces. as blowholes or porosity in cast or weld metal
The two phases that meet at an interface may
differ in lattice constants, lattice type, and ori-
entation. These differences result in a mismatch
or disregistry at the interface.
This mismatch can be accommodated in one
of the following three ways (Ref 39, 50): (1) A
coherent interface exists when, in two adjoining
structures, corresponding rows and planes of lat-
tice points are continuous across the interface.
However, the rows and planes may change di-
rection, resembling a coherent twin boundary.
Fully coherent interfaces between crystals of ap-
preciable size are rare. However, in limited areas,
elastic straining can make it possible for coher-
ency to exist. The particles of transformation
products with such coherency generally are too
small to be observed using optical microscopy.
(2) At a semicoherent interface, the two lattices
are elastically strained into coherence over lim-
ited areas; they accumulate misfit that is cor-
rected periodically by discontinuities (disloca-
tions). In other words, regions of forced elastic
coherence alternate with regions of misfit. (3) At
an incoherent interface, the two lattices are dis-
continuous. It was thought that such an interface
could be explained in terms of dislocations com-
pensating for the mismatch; however, such ex-
planations have no physical significance, and the
dislocation model of incoherent interfaces re-
tains little interest.
Macrostructure
Fig. 6 Examples of ferrite grains in rolled rimmed steel
(0.013% C) (a) finish rolled at 940 ⬚C (1720 ⬚F)
The macrostructure of metals and alloys con- and coiled at 725 ⬚C (1340 ⬚F). The relatively fine ferrite
sists of inhomogeneities on a fairly large scale. grain is unusual for a steel rolled at a temperature this high.
(b) Finish rolled at 845 ⬚C (1550 ⬚F) and coiled at 695 ⬚C
For example, gradients in a macrostructure exist (1280 ⬚F). At this rolling temperature, low carbon content
on a much larger scale than that of the constit- contributed to development of a duplex ferrite grain. Nital.
100⳯
Fig. 7 Ferrite-martensite microstructure of a dual-phase
steel (0.06% C, 1.5% Mn; water quenched from
760 ⬚C, or 1400 ⬚F). Source: Ref 49
 28 / Metallurgy and Microstructure
and flow lines in forgings. Flow lines in forgings
may be caused by elongated inclusions or by in-
homogeneities in grain-shape alignment. Other
examples of macrostructures are presented in the
articles in this Volume dealing with metallo-
graphic procedures and representative micro-
structures of specific metals and alloys.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This article is adapted from Michael B. Bever,
Introduction (to Structures), Metallography and
Microstructures, Vol 9, ASM Handbook, 1985, p
601 to 606.
REFERENCES
1. R.F. Mehl, A Brief History of the Science of
Metals, American Institute of Mining and
Metallurgical Engineers, 1948
2. C.S. Smith, A History of Metallography,
University of Chicago Press, 1960
3. C.S. Smith, Ed., Sorby Centennial Sympo-
sium on the History of Metallurgy, Gordon
and Breach, 1965
4. R.F. Mehl and R.W. Cahn, The Historical
Development of Physical Metallurgy, Physi-
cal Metallurgy, Part I, 3rd ed., R.W. Cahn
and R. Haasen, Ed., North-Holland, 1983, p
1–35
5. R.W. Cahn and P. Haasen, Ed., Physical
Metallurgy, Parts I and II, 3rd ed., North-
Holland, 1983
6. A.G. Guy and J.J. Hren, Elements of Physi-
cal Metallurgy, 3rd ed., Addison-Wesley,
1974
7. W.F. Smith, Structures and Properties of
Engineering Alloys, McGraw-Hill, 1981
8. R.E. Smallman, Modern Physical Metal-
lurgy, 4th ed., Butterworths, 1985
9. A. Tomer, Structure of Metals through Op-
tical Microscopy, ASM International, 1991
10. R.H. Greaves and H. Wrighton, Practical
Microscopical Metallography, 4th ed.,
Chapman & Hall, 1957
11. H. Gleiter, Microstructure, Physical Metal-
lurgy, Part I, 3rd ed., R.W. Cahn and P. Haa-
sen, Ed., North-Holland, 1983, p 650–712
12. G.F. Vander Voort, Metallography: Princi-
ples and Practice, McGraw-Hill, 1984, re-
printed by ASM International, 1999
13. W. Rostoker and J.R. Dvorak, Interpretation
of Metallographic Structures, 2nd ed., Ac-
ademic Press, 1977
Downloaded from http://dl.asminternational.org/handbooks/edited-volume/chapter-pdf/483017/a0003721.pdf
by Ben Gurion University of the Negev user
14. J.W. Edington, Practical Electron Micros-
copy in Materials Science, Van Nostrand
Reinhold, 1976
15. P.J. Goodhew, Electron Microscopy and
Analysis, Wykeham Publications, 1975
16. M.H. Loretto and R.E. Smallman, Defect
Analysis in Electron Microscopy, Chapman
& Hall—Halsted/Wiley, 1975
17. G. Thomas and M.J. Goringe, Transmission
Electron Microscopy of Materials, John Wi-
ley & Sons, 1979
18. C.S. Barrett and T.B. Massalski, Structure
of Metals, 3rd ed., Pergamon Press, 1980
19. B.D. Cullity, Elements of X-ray Diffraction,
2nd ed., Addison-Wesley, 1978
20. S.M. Allen and M.B. Bever, Structure of
Materials, Encyclopedia of Materials Sci-
ence and Engineering, MIT Press, 1986
21. H.W. King, Structure of the Pure Metals,
Physical Metallurgy, Part I, 3rd ed., R.W.
Cahn and P. Haasen, Ed., North-Holland,
1983, p 37–79
22. D.G. Pettifor, Electron Theory of Metals,
Physical Metallurgy, Part I, 3rd ed., R.W.
Cahn and P. Haasen, Ed., North-Holland,
1983, p 73–152
23. W.A. Harrison, Electronic Structure and the
Properties of Solids, Freeman, 1980
24. R.W. Balluffi, Grain Boundary Structure
and Segregation, Interfacial Segregation,
W.C. Johnson and J.M. Blakely, Ed., Amer-
ican Society for Metals, 1979, p 193–236
25. M.B. Bever and P.E. Duwez, Gradients in
Composite Materials, Mater. Sci. Eng., Vol
10, 1972, p 1–8
26. A. Kelly and G.W. Groves, Crystallography
and Crystal Defects, Addison-Wesley, 1970
27. E. Prince, Mathematical Techniques in
Crystallography and Materials Science,
Springer-Verlag, 1982
28. H.G. van Bueren, Imperfections in Crystals,
North-Holland, 1960
29. J.P. Hirth and J. Lothe, Theory of Disloca-
tions, 2nd ed., John Wiley & Sons, 1982
30. D. Hull, Introduction to Dislocations, 3rd
ed., Pergamon Press, 1975
31. J.W. Christian, The Theory of Transforma-
tions in Metals and Alloys, Pergamon Press,
1965; 2nd ed., Part I, Pergamon Press, 1975
32. D.A. Porter and K.E. Easterling, Phase
Transformations in Metals and Alloys, Van
Nostrand Reinhold, 1981
33. R.W.K. Honeycombe, The Plastic Defor-
mation of Metals, 2nd ed., St. Martin’s
Press, 1982
34. R.D. Doherty, Stability of Grain Structure in
Metals, J. Mater. Educ., Vol 6, 1984, p 845
35. A.P. Sutton, Grain Boundary Structure, Int.
Met. Rev., Vol 29, 1984, p 377
36. C.S. Smith, Some Elementary Principles of
Polycrystalline Microstructure, Met. Rev.,
Vol 9, 1964, p 1–62
37. C.S. Smith, Grain Shapes and Other Met-
allurgical Applications of Topology, in
Metal Interfaces, American Society for Met-
als, 1952, p 65–133
38. C.S. Smith, Microstructure, Trans. ASM,
Vol 45, 1953, p 533–575
39. R.W. Balluffi, Ed., Grain Boundary Struc-
ture and Kinetics, American Society for
Metals, 1979
40. G.F. Vander Voort, Examination of Some
Grain Size Measurement Problems, Metal-
lography: Past, Present, and Future, STP
1165, Vander Voort, Warmuth, Purdy, and
Szirmae, Ed., ASTM 1993, p 266–294
41. L. Karlsson and A.M. Gokhale, Stereologi-
cal Estimation of Mean Linear Intercept
Length in Metallography Using Vertical
Sections and Trisector, J. Microsc., Vol 186,
1997, p 143–152
42. B.R. Morris, A.M. Gokhale, and G.F. Van-
der Voort, Estimation of Grain Size in An-
isotropic Materials, Metall. Mater. Trans.,
Vol 29A, 1998, p 237–244
43. D. Harker and E.R. Parker, Grain Shape and
Grain Growth, Trans. ASM, Vol 34, 1945, p
156–195
44. C.S. Smith, Grains, Phases and Interfaces:
An Interpretation of Microstructure, Trans.
AIME, Vol 175, 1948, p 15
45. O.K. Riegger and L.H. Van Vlack, Dihedral
Angle Measurement, Trans. Met. Soc.
AIME, Vol 218, 1960, p 933–935
46. C.A. Stickels and E.E. Hucke, Measurement
of Dihedral Angles, Trans. Met. Soc. AIME,
Vol 230, 1964, p 795–801
47. R.W. Cahn, Metal Systems, Composite Ma-
terials, L. Holliday, Ed., Elsevier, 1966, p
65–90
48. J.W. Cahn, A Model for Connectivity in
Multiphase Structures, Acta Metall., Vol 14,
1966, p 477–480
49. G.R. Speich, Dual-Phase Steels, Properties
and Selection: Irons, Steels, and High-Per-
formance Alloys, Vol 1, ASM Handbook,
1990, p 424
50. G.B. Olson and M. Cohen, Interphase
Boundaries and the Concept of Coherency,
Acta Metall., Vol 27, 1979, p 1907–1918