Wheat Flour Milling

Cover images courtesy of Buhler Inc.
(roller mill); Satake USA

(debranning machine)
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 2004110296

International Standard Book Number: 1-891127-40-3
© 2005
by the American Association of Cereal Chemists, Inc.
Second printing 2011
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The Authors
Elieser (Elie) S. Posner graduated with honors from the Swiss Milling
School and subsequently earned his B.Sc., M.Sc., and Ph.D. degrees from
Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS. He operated mills in Europe,
Israel, and the United States. From 1983 to 1992, he was a faculty member
at the Department of Grain Science and Industry at Kansas State University.
Since the beginning of 1992, he has been a private consultant to the grain
industry operating in various parts of the world.
His experience is mostly in improving the efficiency of flour and durum
mills through technical and economic evaluation of milling systems; design,
supervision, and commissioning of mills; staff training in operating plants
by theoretical and hands-on practical learning; review and adjustment of
ISO and HACCP programs for greater mill efficiency; the development and
application of new technologies in the grain processing industry, and
assistance in decision making regarding investments and operation issues.
Posner has authored and coauthored 35 refereed journal articles, one
book, and five book chapters. He holds two U.S. patents, one for wheat
germ separation and the other for a process of wheat milling to obtain
gluten and starch. He is a member of the American Association of Cereal
Chemists (AACC), the Institute of Food Technologists (IFT), and the
International Association of Operative Millers (IAOM).
Arthur N. Hibbs has spent his entire career in the grain processing
industry and has experience in all aspects of flour milling technical
operations. He earned an M.S. degree in milling technology at Kansas State
University, Manhattan, KS. For many years, he was director of corporate
grain processing technology, International Multifoods Corp., Minneapolis,
MN. He managed and directed technical milling operations in the United
States, Canada, and South America. His work included designing flow
diagrams, providing technical specifications for new and existing mills, and
being responsible for extractions, capacity, and quality standards.
Since his retirement, his consulting firm has provided technical services
for flour milling companies in North and South America, the Caribbean, the
Pacific Rim, Eastern Europe, and North Africa.
Hibbs is a member of the AACC and the IAOM. He authored a column
of technical articles published in Milling Journal from 1998 to 2000 and is
the author of numerous journal publications on milling. He holds a patent
for impact milling of moisture-conditioned wheat.
He received the IAOM’s highest award, the Gold Medal for exemplary
service, as well as the Distinguished Service and Distinguished Member
IAOM awards.
Preface to the Second Edition
Grain handling and processing in China, Europe, Japan, the United
States, and other parts of the world have taken different directions, as indi-
viduals came up with novel ideas. Modern communication allows us to
learn about these developments, which were achieved in isolation. In this
book, we tried to bring together many ideas and new innovative approaches
to theory and practice in wheat flour milling. Professionals, students, and
persons interested in flour milling can find many significant and interesting
innovations, some of which have evolved around the world for centuries.
Comments by readers of the first edition suggested elaborating on vari-
ous subjects. Advances in technology, regulation trends, and the effects of
these on the milling industry required updates. Accordingly, chapters were
added and arranged differently in the second edition to describe and elabo-
rate on changes and developments since the first edition. Issues related to
new milling technologies, hazard analysis and critical control points
(HACCP), the standards of the International Organization for Standardiza-
tion (ISO), and mill management are some of the new subjects discussed.
Separate chapters were assigned to durum and soft wheat milling to expand
on specific characteristics. The subject of mill management has specific
characteristics when related to flour milling because management needs to
be flexible not only in response to variation in markets but also to the
“living” raw material of the wheat kernel. At the end of each chapter, we
added Internet website addresses where further information on specific sub-
jects can be found. The glossary was expanded to allow the reader easy
excess to and understanding of terms used in the flour milling industry,
including units of measurement.
This book does not intend, in its limited scope, to cover all aspects of
milling. Instead, our objective was to arouse the curiosity of the reader and
create the background for further individual development. The book should
challenge professionals and students of flour milling to look for new knowl-
edge in libraries, on the Internet, and by exposing themselves to different
milling units—each containing interesting information when analyzed and
studied with passion.
We extend our gratitude to lead reviewer Dr. Colin Wrigley and the
numerous anonymous peer reviewers for their constructive corrections, sug-
gestions, and advice, which helped bring the second edition to a level where
it will increase understanding of flour milling. Dr. Wrigley stood out for his
keen, expert eye that picked up inaccuracies and for his advice. The staff of
the American Association of Cereal Chemist deserves special thanks for
encouraging us to work on every detail needed to bring the book to a
successful conclusion.
Last but not least, we want to convey our thanks to Frances and Orna,
our wives, who again showed how wonderful they are by treating their
miller husbands with so much patience while they were writing the second
edition.
Preface to the First Edition

Flour milling is considered an art. The miller applies experience
accumulated over many generations. In the past, the art of milling was
learned through apprentice programs. Formal schooling in milling didn’t
exist until the 19th century. Even today, the miller still subjectively adjusts
the steps of the process, such as the intensity of grinding, the flow of the
sifter separations, and the air and sieves in the purifiers. Today, however,
other disciplines—mechanical, chemical, and industrial engineering;
computer controls; economics; and administration—are also used. The
miller of the future will be an expert in a very unique field that depends on
information and knowledge of several different disciplines.
The objective of the milling process is to manufacture flour as
efficiently as possible, technically and economically. This involves
purchasing, testing, storing, preparation, milling, blending of flours,
packaging, loading, and shipping. The miller must adjust the operation to
local conditions and demands in each of these stages.
Research and development of wheat flour milling machinery and
techniques are ongoing processes. Although we seldom observe sudden
breakthroughs, changes are continuously tested, criticized, improved, and
accepted. This has been the history of milling and baking since the first
attempts of the Egyptians to crush selected seeds and develop the leavening
process of dough before baking.
This book could not cover all aspects of the technology and economics
of wheat flour milling and all the methods developed in the past. Our
objective is to inform the reader about many important segments of the
milling process. We would like the book to stimulate the reader to look
beyond it to the references and additional readings suggested.
This book is Contribution 90-513-B of the Kansas Agricultural
Experiment Station, Manhattan, KS.
We want to extend our appreciation to a number of people for their great
help and assistance: to the Department of Grain Science and Industry at
Kansas State University, which allowed us to use department teaching
material for illustrations; to Eileen Schofield, the Agriculture Experiment
Station Editor, College of Agriculture, Kansas State University; to the
anonymous AACC referees of the book chapters, who contributed many
constructive ideas; and to the editorial staff of AACC. Last but not least, to
Frances and Orna, our wives, who supported us in this venture of “writing a
book by millers.”
Elieser S. Posner
Arthur N. Hibbs
Contents
1. Wheat: The Raw Material • 1
The Wheat Kernel • 1
Endosperm; Bran; Germ; Brush
Wheat Grading • 6
Wheat Sampling; Dockage; Grading Factors; Canadian Grading System;
Australian Grading System; Russian Grading System; European Grades; Other
National Grading Systems
Wheat Quality Parameters • 18
Wheat Moisture; Wheat Ash; Thousand-Kernel Weight; Kernel Size; Kernel
Shape; Pearling Value; Kernel Hardness; Protein; Falling Number Value; Sizing
Production; Flour Yield; Changes in Milling Properties of Newly Harvested
Hard Wheat During Storage; Waxy Wheat; Wheat Quality in the Future
2. The Flour Mill Laboratory • 47

Facilities; Environmental Conditions; Communications; Procedures
Determination of Wheat Quality Parameters • 50
Experimental and Laboratory Milling • 51
Wheat Preparation for Milling in the Laboratory • 53
Small-Scale Milling Units • 56
Laboratory Mills
Milling Procedures; Brabender Quadrumat Jr. Laboratory Mill; Brabender
Quadrumat Sr. Laboratory Mill; Buhler Laboratory Mill; Miag Laboratory Mill;
Chopin CD Laboratory Mill
Experimental Mills • 66
Experimental Milling Example; Special Adaptations to Experimental Milling
Guide to Selecting a Mill for the Laboratory • 77
Milling Evaluation • 78
Assessing Quality in the Mill Laboratory • 83
Color of Wheat, Flour and other Mill Products; Flour Particle Size; Near-
Infrared Control of Mill Products; Bran Specks; Starch Damage; Wet Gluten;
Flour pH; Extraneous Matter in Flours—Fragment Count; Testing Instruments;
The Baking Test
Conclusion • 95
3. Wheat Storage and Blending • 101
The Grain Elevator
Facilities and Equipment • 101
Weighing; Receiving; Unloading; Dust Control; Sampling; Analysis
Preliminary Cleaning • 110
Preconditioning of Wheat • 111
Storage Facilities and Equipment • 112
Bins; Wheat Blending Equipment; Conveying Equipment
Preserving Grain Quality • 123
Controlling Infestation; Heat in Storage Facilities; Fumigation; Aeration; Drying
of Wheat
Blending of Mill Mixes in Storage • 134
Procedures and Control • 136
4. Wheat Cleaning and Conditioning • 141

Unmillable Material • 141
Foreign Material; Damaged Wheat
Methods of Separating Wheat Impurities • 144
Magnetic and Nonmagnetic Metals; By Size and Dimensions; By Shape; By
Specific Gravity; Wheat Washing; By Air Currents; By Surface Friction,
Elasticity, Texture, and Hardness; By Friability Under Impact; By Electrostatic
Characteristics; By Color Differences
Theory of Conditioning Wheat for Milling • 163
Heat Conditioning of Wheat • 171
Wheat Conditioning Equipment • 174
Tempering Bins • 176
Different Approaches to Wheat Conditioning • 177
Cleaning of Preconditioned Wheat • 178
Cleaning-House Flow Sheet • 178
Future Trends • 180
5. The Grinding Process • 185

Grinding Machines • 186
Stone Mill; Roller Mill; Impact Mill; Hammer Mill; Ball Mill; Cutting
Machines; Disc Mill; Bran Finisher; Debranner
Prebreak • 196
Prebreak Roller Mill; Prebreak Impact Machine; Prebreak Abrasive Machine
The Roll Surface • 200
Operation of the Roller Mill • 201
Factors Influencing Grinding; Roll Accessories
Grinding • 212
In the Break System; In the Sizing System; In the Reduction System; In the
Tailings System
6. The Sieving Process • 223

Principles of Sieving • 223
Direction of Sieve Movement; Rate of Sieve Movement; Screen Aperture Size
and Percent Open Area; Sieve Material and Weave; Sieve Cleaners; Sieve
Surface; Load; Granulation vs. Sieve Aperture
Sifters • 236
Gyrating Sifters; Reciprocating Sifters; Combination Reciprocating and Gyrating
Sifters; Reel-Type Sifters
Sieve Surface and the Flow • 242
Sifter Flow
Granulation Control • 251
Flour Rebolting
Future Sieving Developments • 255
7. The Purification Process • 259

Principles of Purification • 260
Particle Dimensions; Particle Specific Gravity
The Purifier Surface • 264
The Purifier and the Flow Balance • 265
The Future of Purifiers • 267
8. Mill Design • 269

Planning • 270
Land Requirements; Mill Building; Windows; Mill Lighting; Central Vacuum-
Cleaning System; Equipment Allocation and Placement; Power Usage
The Mill Flow Sheet • 276
Steps in Mill Flow Sheet Design; Combined (Swing) Mill Flow; Bellera
(Molinostar) Milling System; Compact Mill Flow; Debranned Wheat Milling
System; “Bob-Tail” or “Booster” Unit
Special-Purpose Mills • 284
Stone Mills; Disc Mills; Mills Integrated with Bakery or Pasta Plants
Future Trends in Mill Construction • 288
9. Flour Handling and Blending • 291

Flour Sieving; Impact Machines
Flour Storage and Blending • 294
Quality Control and Analysis • 298
Infestation and Pest Control • 298
Physical Control; Chemical Control
Air Classification and Fine Grinding • 303
Flour Characteristics; Objectives of Air Classification; Fine Grinding;
Measurement of Fine Particles
Whole Wheat, Meals, Blends, and Reconstituted Flour • 313
Enrichment and Ingredients • 314
Flour Stabilization • 315
Flour Drying • 317
Packaging • 318
Loading and Shipping • 322
10. Milling of Durum Wheat • 329

Durum Wheat Quality • 330
Cleaning House • 331
Wheat Conditioning • 333
Milling • 336
Breaking Stages; Sizings System; Sieving Area in Sifters; Purification;
Extraction
Product Quality • 343
Moisture; Granulation; Color; Specks and Grit; Discolored Germ and Heat
Damage; Absorption; Protein; Gluten; Falling Number; Cooking Test;
Temperature
11. Milling of Soft Wheat • 353

Wheat Quality • 353
Wheat Preparation for Milling • 354
Milling Procedure • 356
Soft Wheat Sprout Damage Control • 358
Cake Flours • 358
Cookie Flour • 361
Conclusion • 362
12. Air in the Flour Milling Industry • 365

Principles • 365
Definitions; Temperature; Air Pressure; Velocity; Air Volume
Equipment • 372
Fans, Blowers, and Compressors; Conveying Lines; Separating Equipment
Environment in the Flour Mill • 380
Grain Aeration • 382
Air in Purification and Cleaning Machines • 383
Dust Control
Pneumatic Conveying • 385
Calculation of Pneumatic Conveying Systems; Compressed Air
13. Mill Process Control • 397

Mill Capacity • 398
Automation • 399
Sensors; On-Line Stock Quality Control; Mill Extraction Control; Automated
Conditioning Systems; Machine Design to Accommodate Automation
Break Release Control; Automated Air Control
Raw Materials • 404
Testing of Intermediate Stocks • 405
Test Sifters; Break Release Adjustment in the Mill; Scale Readout and
Calculation; The Distribution Table; Granulation Curve; Ash in the Flour Mill
and Cumulative Ash Curve; NIR Control of the Milling Process; Technical
Efficiency of Machines
The Future of Mill Process Control • 417
14. Mill Maintenance • 419

Types of Maintenance • 420
Corrective Maintenance; Operational Maintenance; Preventive Maintenance
The Mill Maintenance Program • 423
Electric Motors; Milling Machines; Cleaning Machines; Bucket Elevators and
Conveyors; Roller Mills; Sifters; Purifiers; Filters; Cyclone Dust Collectors; Air
Locks; Blowers; Fans; Building Maintenance
Planning of Maintenance • 429
Maintenance Staff; Computers as an Aid to the Maintenance Program; Safety
and Fire Protection
15. Food Safety and Hygiene in the Flour Mill • 435

Infestation and Pest Control • 435
ISO in the Flour Milling Industry • 4437
ISO 9000; ISO 14000
Good Manufacturing Practices • 440
HACCP in the Flour Milling Industry • 441
Establishing the Critical Control Points; Recall Program
Dust Emission and Risk Management Program • 446
Conclusion • 446
16. Mill Management • 449
Staffing and Organization of a Flour Mill • 449
Mill Manager; Head Miller; Shift Miller; Number of Persons to Operate a Flour
Mill; Training; Reporting Methods in the Operating Mill
Mill Management Models • 456
Financial Management
Conclusion • 458
Milling Terms • 461
Factors of Conversion • 475
Index • 477
CHAPTER 1
Wheat: The Raw Material
The flour miller is the first wheat user who is affected by the quality of
wheat. It is estimated that 25% of the flour quality is determined by the
milling technology, mill adjustment, and environmental conditions in the
mill, and 75% by the quality of the wheat. The miller evaluates incoming
raw material for its price and quality. Price is dependent on factors such as
supply, demand, and transportation costs. In the trade, quality is mainly
based on wheat grading and factors such as protein level and any damage to
the wheat. Following the wheat purchase, the miller has the power to evalu-
ate, select, segregate, prepare, and blend wheat mixes for milling. The
miller has two ultimate aims: first, to supply the customer with the specified
product quality and, second, to efficiently separate the three main parts of
the wheat kernel (bran, germ, and endosperm), the economic values of
which are related to their purity.
One of the major contributors to variance in quality is wheat variety.
Wheat is cultivated on all continents except Antarctica, and about 30,000
wheat varieties of 14 species are grown throughout the world. However, only
about 1,000 varieties are of commercial significance. Breads and other prod-
ucts made from flour reflect the characteristics typical of the wheat grown in
various parts of the world. Emigration, changes in demographics, changing
living styles, and, in many cases, supplying wheat-deficient areas are the main
reasons for the transport of wheat from one side of the globe to the other.
Wheat is harvested globally in unbroken continuity throughout the year.
Table 1-1 shows the approximate harvest months for some of the major
wheat- producing areas.
More than 500 wheat varieties are available in the United States, where
a wheat breeder can certify a new wheat variety and sell it on the market.
Wheat classification presently is based on a system established in 1916
(U.S. Congress, 1916) and put into effect in 1917. Descriptors such as brush
size, germ angle, cheek angle, kernel shape, seed coat texture, kernel color,
1
2 CHAPTER 1
and kernel vitreousness are used for classification. However, none of these
characteristics is directly related to milling and baking quality. This has led
to criticism, and currently the wheat-classification system in the United
States is under revision.
In some countries, the number of wheat varieties on the market is fixed.
For instance, in Canada, the Wheat Board certifies the varieties that farmers
can grow. The different varieties grown by farmers are brought together
from large areas and blended by local elevators before the bulk of the wheat
reaches the mill elevator for storage. The miller evaluates the incoming
wheat and segregates it to different storage bins. However, the wheat han-
dling system now also provides identity-preserved (IP) wheat, i.e., wheat
that is segregated during growing and harvesting, kept in separate bins, and
transported separately from harvest to milling because of specific qualities
or milling objectives. The extra efforts required to segregate IP wheat usu-
ally result in a premium market price.
Universally, a wheat buyer’s first concerns are the cost and sanitation of
the raw material. In addition, the buyer must consider the following end-use
quality factors: moisture level, percent flour extraction, test weight (TW),
kernel size, presence of impurities, percent of damaged kernels, protein
content, mycotoxin level, pesticide residue, and end-product functionality.
Not all of these factors are considered in the various wheat-classification
TABLE 1-1
Harvest Months in Some of the Major Wheat-Producing Areas
Month Area
January Argentina, Uruguay, Chile, and New Zealand
February Upper Egypt and Southern India
March Egypt, Libya, and India
April India, Lower Egypt, Iran, Iraq, Syria, Southern Morocco, and Mexico
May Algeria, Tunis, Morocco, Central and Southern Asia, and, in the
United States, South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, and Louisiana
June Italy, Spain, Portugal, Greece, Turkey, Asia Minor, Central China,
Southern France, and, in the United States, North Carolina,
Georgia, Arkansas, Texas, Virginia, Indiana, Illinois, Kentucky,
Tennessee, Oklahoma, Missouri and Kansas
July France, Austria, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, Yugoslavia,
Switzerland, Southern Russia, North China, Japan, Southern
Germany, and, in the United States, New York, Pennsylvania,
Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Missouri, Nebraska, Kansas,
Colorado, and Oregon
August Southern Canada, Central Russia, Great Britain, Germany, Belgium,
Holland, Denmark, Poland, Manchuria, and, in the United States,
Minnesota, North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana, Oregon, and
Washington
September Sweden, Norway, Finland, Northern Russia, Canada, Siberia, and, in
the United States, North Dakota, Montana
October Northern Scandinavia, Northern Russia, Northern Canada, and Alaska
November Peru, Brazil, and Northern Argentina
December Argentina, Australia, and South Africa
WHEAT: THE RAW MATERIAL 3
systems used for trading throughout the world. While wheat milling tech-
nology is becoming similar in different parts of the world as a result of
knowledge transfer, grading and evaluation of raw material is still inade-
quate. The lack of an internationally acceptable grading system causes lack
of uniformity in shipments, confusion between suppliers, and dissatisfaction
among customers. Uniformity among shipments will become more impor-
tant as processing technologies become more sophisticated and additional
quality factors are considered in wheat grading.
In wheat-growing countries, the miller’s selection of wheat depends upon
the market and upon the location of the mill relative to the wheat supply. A
mill located in a soft wheat-growing region usually processes soft wheat.
However, Tembo et al (1999) used a decision-making model that confirmed
the traditional conclusion that mills should be located near flour users rather
than in wheat-production areas. Wheat-importing countries tend to have mills
that process many different classes of wheat. Milling several classes requires a
more sophisticated milling operation to efficiently process the wheat.
The Wheat Kernel

A kernel of wheat is a dry, one-seeded fruit. Its color is one of the most
constant variety characteristics; length and endosperm texture are the other
two. Wheats are classed as white or red, with the exception of some
Abyssinian and durum varieties. The dark color of the red wheat is primar-
ily from pigments in the seed coat, but it is influenced also by the texture
and vitreousness of the endosperm and the level of pericarp transparency.
The endosperm length is related to variety and to the location of the kernel
in the spikelet during development. Levi and Anderson (1950) studied the
protein content of individual wheat kernels on a wheat head. The protein
content of kernels within a wheat head showed a variation of 2.7% and had
a standard deviation of 0.6%. The standard deviation of protein content for
spikelets within heads was about 1.1% (each spikelet contains one to three
kernels, Fig. 1-1). Protein contents for spikelets tended to decrease toward
Fig. 1-1. Development of a wheat head. (Adapted from Smith, 1945)

4 CHAPTER 1
the top in about the top third of the head; the top two spikelets of each head
generally had decidedly lower protein content than the remaining spikelets.
The unique morphology of the wheat kernel presents a technical chal-
lenge in the process of grinding it to flour. This is because the kernel has a
surface crease that, in commonly grown varieties, extends inward nearly to
or beyond the center of the kernel. Evers (1970) studied the creation of the
crease in a developing wheat kernel from the second day of endosperm
development until maturity. He suggested that thick-walled cells on the
developing wheat kernel’s ventral side are less active meristematically than
the other peripheral cells. Hence, in the central region, all or most of the
starchy endosperm cells originate by division on the dorsal side, whereas, in
the lateral regions, divisions occur from all areas of the peripheral layer.
Mabille and Abecassis (2003) suggested a method for modeling the
morphology of the wheat kernel from which milling yield can be predicted
better than from the hectoliter weight. The model is based on five parame-
ters: grain length, thickness, width, crease depth, and a parameter describ-
ing the furrow shape.
Endosperm
The wheat endosperm contains, on average, about 30,000 cells that vary in
size, shape, and composition of starch granules and protein depending on their
location in the kernel (Ziegler, 1969). Table 1-2 shows the various constituents
of the wheat kernel and their specific gravity. Starch, protein, and bran content
are all important in determining the potential flour yield from the wheat. The
amount of flour that can be extracted from the kernel depends mostly on the
percentage of endosperm. Heavier kernels with large endosperm contain more
starch and protein and have the potential to yield more flour. The protein and
mineral contents of the endosperm follow a pattern. For protein, distribution in
the endosperm is the lowest in the center, with a gradient of increase in protein
content through the endosperm to the bran coat (Morris et al, 1945). The
gradient in mineral content (analytically named “ash” because it is what is left
TABLE 1-2
Specific Gravity of the Wheat Kernel Constituents
Substance Specific Gravity
Starch 1.53
Sugar 1.60
Cellulose 1.53
Water 1.00
Fats 0.94
Gluten 1.297
Mineral content 2.50
Air 0.001293
after incineration of the endosperm or other parts of the wheat kernel) also
increases from the center to the outer layers of endosperm, but it is not
identical in all wheats (Hinton, 1959).
Bran
The pericarp and the outermost tissues of the wheat kernel, including large
portions of the aleurone layer, compose what is known commercially as
“bran.” The pericarp (fruit coat) consists of two layers. The outer pericarp is
made up of the epidermis (epicarp), hypodermis, and remnants of thin-walled
cells. The inner pericarp is made up of intermediate-cell, cross-cell, and tube-
cell layers. The pericarp envelops the seed and is fused with the seed coat,
which consists of the testa (or episperm), the pigment strand, and the hyaline
layers (MacMaster et al, 1971). Together, they form two protective layers
around the kernel’s interior components, the endosperm and the germ. When
tissues beneath the seed coat are exposed, moisture, mold, etc. gain access to
them more readily than when the seed coat and fruit coat are intact.
There is no natural line of cleavage between the pericarp and the seed coat
layers that envelop the germ and starchy endosperm. This fact accounts for
some of the difficulties encountered in separating the two during flour milling.
The pericarp and the seed coat layers form the “bran,” which is separated
during the milling process. The adjacent layer, the aleurone, which is actually
part of the endosperm, normally remains attached to the bran during
conventional milling. The mean thickness of bran at ordinary moisture content
(13–18%) was found to be 67 µm regardless of the type of wheat; that of the
aleurone layer was 30–36 µm (Crewe and Jones, 1951). The total bran is
about 14.5% of the whole wheat; a more detailed breakdown is epidermis
3.9%, cross-cell layers 0.9%, testa 0.6%, and hyaline and aleurone 9.0%. The
ash content of bran is known to be 10–20 times that of the endosperm.
In the classical milling process, using rolls to separate the endosperm
from the bran, the miller tries to achieve minimal abrasion or damage to the
bran layers. The goal is to keep the bran as whole as possible and in its
original thickness, so that certain spots are not weakened and likely to split
during milling.
Germ
The germ is structurally a separate entity of the kernel; therefore, the
separation of germ from endosperm should require no breaking of the endo-
sperm cell walls. The wheat germ contains the embryo and the scutellum,
which are separated from the endosperm by the epithelial layer. The embryo
draws materials for initial germination and growth from the endosperm,
through the epithelial layer. Germination is initiated by the activation of the
6 CHAPTER 1
germ enzymes via heat and moisture. These enzymes are of two main types:
proteolytic, or protein-liquefying, and amylolytic, or sugar-producing. Due to
the action of the latter type, some of the starch in the proximity of the germ is
changed to sugar and is used to feed the germ and permit growth (Scott,
1951). Fleming and Johnson (1964) recognized a “gibberellin-like” hormone
secreted from the embryo that effects the formation of α-amylase in the
endosperm during the first three or four days of germination.
The germ, usually about 2–3% of the kernel by weight, is partly embed-
ded in the endosperm at the base of the kernel. It is rich in oil and protein.
The germ is composed of two major parts, the embryonic axis, which at
germination develops into the seedling, and the scutellum, which nourishes
it. The embryonic axis is composed of the shoot (plumule), which points
toward the brush end of the grain, and the primary root, which points
toward the base. Protective sheaths cover these delicate parts; the coleoptile
sheathes the plumule, and the coleorhiza covers the primary root. This root,
the projecting lower tip of the germ, is especially vulnerable to mechanical
injury during harvesting and handling and is often broken, exposing germ
tissue. There is a direct relationship between the length of the embryo
projection and the amount of mechanical damage done to the embryo. The
embryo projection and shape of the area around the germ also affect the
ease of separating the germ from the rest of the kernel.
The “germ” separated in the commercial mill is actually the embryonic
axis of the wheat kernel; the softer and less-rigid scutellum is left attached
to the bran.
Brush
At the kernel end opposite the germ, there is a “brush” or cluster of
hairs. Wheat varieties differ materially in the size of the brush. The kernel
hairs, which are extensions of the pericarp, are about 10–15 µm in diameter
and 0.5 mm long (MacMasters et al, 1971). Undesirable materials are some-
times entangled in them. Depending on the milling practices used, the hairs
might end up in the flour. Intensive scouring of wheat during cleaning stages
usually removes the kernel hairs. A study by Keenan (1923) indicated that
flours made from purified middlings material showed a low hair count, while
flours originating in the breaks showed a higher hair count.
Wheat Grading
Advances are being made in research and regulations to grade wheat on
parameters that would exhibit its trading value and processing qualities.
Grading terms and methods are still not defined by an international stan-
dard, although processing equipment and systems are similar, and end usage
qualities are expressed with the same terms. Many trade and processing
problems would be eliminated if the same parameters and methods were
used for wheat grading and evaluation internationally. It is just a matter of
time before open markets will force wheat producers, traders, millers, and
wheat flour end users to create a global method of wheat grading.
Professionals in producing, trading, grading, and processing should identify
the factors of importance for different wheats. For example, durum wheat
for the production of bright, speck-free semolina for pasta is processed
differently from common wheat and should also be graded differently on
global standards that ensure quality. In the United States and other major
wheat-producing countries, the grain grading system is under constant revi-
sion. Proposals for change are made public in the Federal Register, allow-
ing 60 days after publication for comments before the final decision is
made.
Wheat is bought in the cash market based on a sample shown to the
buyer. In the United States, there are eight classes for wheat: durum, hard
red spring, hard red winter, soft red winter, hard white, soft white,
unclassed, and mixed. Unclassed wheat is any variety of wheat that is not
classifiable under other criteria provided in the wheat standards. This class,
which has no subclasses, includes any wheat other than red or white in
color. Mixed wheat is any mixture of wheat that consists of less than 90%
of one class and more than 10% of another class or combination of classes
that meet the definition of wheat (GIPSA, 1995).
In the grain exchange or in an export transaction, wheat is evaluated
according to official grades. Table 1-3 shows the combined factors that
determine the grade of wheat in commercial channels in the United States.
The wheat grade is determined in the United States according to various
factors, on a sample free from dockage. Wheat specifications change con-
tinuously as a result of new variety development and trade and quality
requirements. Websites listed at the end of the chapter and other informa-
tion sources should be used to follow the changes in grading procedures.
Wheat Sampling
Very large quantities of wheat can be transferred today with the
equipment available in ships and elevators. One of the greatest challenges of
modern wheat handling and milling operations is the rapid evaluation of
incoming wheat, so that the wheat can be directed to the appropriate bin. A
representative sample must be collected, weighed, and tested in a matter of
minutes. The wheat can be evaluated objectively when a representative sam-
ple of at least 2,000 g from the entire lot is available. Sampling can be a
constant source of error in all methods of wheat evaluation; therefore,
procedures should be adopted according to official standards. In the United
8 CHAPTER 1
States, and in some other countries, wheat-grading agencies use the same
sampling devices and procedures as the U.S. Grain Inspection, Packers,
and Stockyards Administration (GIPSA) for official inspection.
The probe is the best tool for obtaining a sample from a truck or rail car
awaiting unloading. To achieve accurate wheat mixing, the elevator operator
TABLE 1-3
U. S. Grades and Grade Requirements for Wheata
Grades U.S. Nos.
Grading Factors 1 2 3 4 5
Minimum Pound Limits of

Test weight
Hard red spring wheat or white club wheat,
lb/bu 58.0 57.0 55.0 53.0 50.0
All other classes and subclasses, lb/bu 60.0 58.0 56.0 54.0 51.0
Maximum Percent Limits of
Defects
Damaged kernels
Heat (part of total) 0.2 0.2 0.5 1.0 3.0
Total 2.0 4.0 7.0 10.0 15.0
Foreign material 0.4 0.7 1.3 3.0 5.0
Shrunken and broken kernels 3.0 5.0 8.0 12.0 20.0
Totalb 3.0 5.0 8.0 12.0 20.0
Wheat of other classesc
Contrasting classes 1.0 2.0 3.0 10.0 10.0
Totald 3.0 5.0 10.0 10.0 10.0
Stones 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
Maximum Count Limits of
Other material
Animal filth 1 1 1 1 1
Castor beans 1 1 1 1 1
Crotalaria seeds 2 2 2 2 2
Glass 0 0 0 0 0
Stones 3 3 3 3 3
Unknown foreign substance 3 3 3 3 3
Totale 4 4 4 4 4
Insect-damaged kernels in 100 g 31 31 31 31 31
U.S. Sample grade

Wheat that:
(a) Does not meet the requirements for U.S. Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5; or
(b) Has a musty, sour, or commercially objectionable foreign odor (except smut or garlic
odor) or
(c) Is heating or of distinctly low quality.
a
Source: Grain Inspection, Packers and Stockyard Administration (1995).
b
Includes damaged kernels (total), foreign material, and shrunken and broken kernels.
c
Unclassed wheat of any grade may contain not more than 10.0% of wheat of other classes.
d
Includes contrasting classes.
e
Includes any combination of animal filth, castor beans, crotalaria seeds, glass, stones, or
unknown foreign substance.
or the miller should install a sampler at the end of the mixing process,
before the wheat reaches the ship hold or the mill cleaning house.
Systems have been suggested that evaluate samples automatically using
a video camera to record the view of a spread-out sample and compare the
different materials observed to a given standard. The standard is based on
recorded views of foreign materials and dockage, as well as the data calcu-
lated from that material. The system, which can run a 50-g sample in 2–3
min, operates without human intervention (Conrads, 1995).
Dockage
Dockage, or nonwheat material, is separated from the sample using the
Carter-Day Dockage Tester, a machine (Fig. 1-2) that is set differently for
each kind of wheat. Dockage has never been an official part of the grade in
the United States. Dockage is traditionally deducted from wheat sale, not by
law, but rather as a long-standing practice in the trade. Usually, wheat buy-
ers would specify in the tender or contract the maximum dockage that
would be acceptable.
Fig. 1-2. Carter-Day Dockage Tester officially used by the Federal Grain Inspection
Service to separate the dockage before grading. (Courtesy of Carter Day International,
Inc.)
10 CHAPTER 1
Grading Factors
Below is a discussion of the grading factors for wheat and their relation-
ship to milling and the resultant flour quality. Additional parameters related
to wheat quality are described in Chapter 2.
Test Weight
Test weight (TW) is a factor that has served the grain-processing indus-
try for a century. It began about 1890 with the early trading of wheat from
the Mississippi Valley to East Coast mills. To the miller in the past, the
weight of a specific volume of grain, the bushel weight, was a rough guide
to the amount of flour that the wheat might be expected to produce. The
weight of a specific volume has its practical use today to estimate the
weight or content of a ship’s load, a rail car, or a storage bin. For this pur-
pose, it will be used for many years to come. However, for processing pur-
poses, it is not accurate enough to accommodate the needs of the milling
industry, which uses sophisticated equipment to improve efficiencies and
profit margins.
In the United States, TW is expressed in terms of pounds per Winchester
bushel (2,150.42 in.3 capacity) as determined on a dockage-free test portion
of the original wheat sample using an approved device in accordance with
instructions in the GIPSA manual. A test weight determination procedure is
also described in Approved Method 55-10 (AACC, 2000). In metric meas-
urements, it is the weight, in kilograms, of a hectoliter of wheat. The proce-
dures used to determine the hectoliter weight of wheat are different from
those used to determine the bushel weight (Fig. 1-3). They differ with
regard to quantity of sample used, the dimensions of the measurement ket-
tle, the grain-drop procedure, the “pack factor,” the means of striking excess
grain from the kettle and, consequently, the measured results. Therefore,
formulas were developed, instead of the previously used factor, to predict
the hectoliter weight from the TW (Orr, 1997). For durum wheat, the
following formula could be used:
MBD = [1.292 × (TW)] + 0.630
To predict the hectoliter weight of all other wheat except durum, the follow-
ing formula could be used:
MBD = [1.292 × (TW)] + 1.419
where MBD = metric bulk densities, expressed in units of kg/hL, and TW =

customary test weights, expressed in units of lb/bu. Prediction is based on
the use of a 1-L chrondrometer apparatus.
The TW of wheat is not always an indication of the amount of flour that
should be extracted from a certain quantity of wheat. When wheat varieties
and classes drawn from the same locations are used in a mill blend, the TW
may be considered as one of the factors in determining the potential yield.
This is not true when widely varying varieties and classes of wheats are
used and the percentage of types is changed. TW determination is affected
Fig. 1-3. Instruments to measure test weight (A) and hectoliter weight (B).Test
weight scale and filling hopper. (A, Courtesy of Seedburo Equipment Co.; B,
courtesy of Buhler Corp.)
12 CHAPTER 1
by the following conditions: vibrations in the testing lab, various levels of

foreign material as well as deformed or broken wheat, moisture level of the
wheat, wheat shape and roughness, ambient conditions, operator efficiency,
and equipment conditions. One of the big disadvantages of using TW in
today’s trade and processing is that the determined weight cannot be cor-
rected to a dry or fixed-moisture basis.
Minimum TWs to meet a certain grade for hard red spring wheat and
white club wheat are lower than those for all other classes and subclasses.
Heat Damage
Heat-damaged wheat is specified by the GIPSA as kernels, pieces of
wheat kernels, and other grains that are materially discolored and damaged
by heat and remain in the sample after removal of dockage and shrunken
and broken kernels. As shown in Table 1-3, not more than 0.2% (by
weight) of heat-damaged kernels is allowed in grade No. 1 of hard red win-
ter (HRW) wheat.
The chief causes of heat damage to wheat are unfavorable weather
conditions at the time of harvest and faulty methods of handling the crop
during the period from harvest to marketing. The conditions under which
the wheat is stored on the farm, in the country elevator, or in the terminal
elevator are important factors affecting heat damage to wheat. Heat damage
can be caused by cutting wheat when it is too green or too wet and storing it
in bulk without first reducing the moisture content to below 12.5%. Under
damaging circumstances, rapid respiration takes place in the kernel, and
heat develops. The action is accelerated as the temperature rises. Depending
on the intensity of the heat developed, the wheat kernel becomes darkened
in color, the gluten is weakened, or the wheat becomes unfit for human
consumption.
Results of tests performed with samples of HRW, hard red spring
(HRS), durum, white, and soft red winter wheat with various degrees of
heat damage have indicated that wheat discolored to the shade known as
“skin-burned” is of inferior milling quality (Coleman and Rothger, 1927).
Chemical analyses show that the flour milled from badly discolored wheats
does not contain as much crude protein as the flour milled from sound
(undamaged) wheat. Also, a higher ash content is associated with the ker-
nels showing the greatest amount of discoloration. This characteristic can be
observed during milling, where bran from discolored samples chips rather
than flakes off and is associated with less efficient separation from the
endosperm.
Compared with the bread made from samples of sound wheat, bread
made from a skin-burned sample showed a reduction of 30% in loaf vol-
ume, whereas bread made from mahogany-colored kernels suffered a reduc-
tion in loaf volume of approximately 50% (Coleman and Rothger, 1927).
The texture of the crumb, the shade of the crumb, and the color of the
crumb in the bread made from samples of wheat with skin-burned and
mahogany discoloration were progressively inferior to those found in bread
made from the sound sample.
Heat-damaged kernels also affect farina and semolina quality by caus-
ing high speck counts. Millers should limit these kernels to a maximum of
four per 100 g of wheat for milling of farina and semolina.
Shrunken and Broken Kernels
Shrunken and broken kernels are defined by GIPSA as the matter that
can be removed from a test portion of the dockage-free sample by use of an
approved device in accordance with procedures described in the Grain
Inspection Handbook (FGIS, 1989). The approved device is the 0.064- ×
3/8-in. oblong-hole sieve.
The term shrunken is the same as shriveled, the term used in some
countries. Shrunken kernels may be distinguished from sound kernels,
regardless of size and texture, by their low content of endosperm, low spe-
cific gravity, and high ratio of length to width (Simmons and Meredith,
1979). The kernel width may be used as a simple field technique to estimate
kernel weight. In normal grains, kernel weight gives a useful prediction of
flour yield, but this is not applicable to frost-shrunken grains. Frosting may
prevent or slow the processes of pericarp degradation, so frosted grains have
a greater relative amount of bran. Schwimmer (1947) stated that shriveled
kernels display a disproportionately higher amylase concentration. The
effect of percent broken and shrunken wheat kernels on flour yield is
summarized in Table 1-4. For example, addition of 3% broken kernels to
the wheat fed to the first break caused an average reduction of 0.3% and
0.8% in the laboratory and the commercial mill, respectively.
Foreign Material
Foreign material in a wheat sample is defined as all matter other than
wheat that remains in the sample after the removal of dockage and shrunken
and broken kernels. The foreign material content varies among wheat-grow-
TABLE 1-4
Reduction in % Flour Extraction as a Result of Percent
Broken and Shrunken Kernels in the Wheat Mixa
Added Broken Added Shrunken
3% 6% 9% 3% 6% 9%
Laboratory average 0.3 0.6 1.0 0.6 1.6 1.8
Commercial mill average 0.8 1.7 3.3 1.1 4.2 6.3
a
Source: Schäfer (1956).
14 CHAPTER 1
ing locations and is dependent on harvest and grain-handling methods. The

variations in foreign material content in wheat loads demand the miller’s
alertness and continuous examination of results in order to make the necessary
adjustments and screen changes in the cleaning house equipment.
Total Defects
Total defects is the sum of total kernel damage, foreign material, and
shrunken and broken kernels (Table 1-3). To be within a grade, the sum of
total defects cannot exceed the limits shown in the table.
Wheat of Other Classes
Wheat of other classes has some significance to the operative miller.
Limits of “Wheat of Other Classes” are divided into two categories: “Con-
trasting Classes” and “Total of Other Classes.”
Contrasting classes are regarded as follows: 1) durum wheat, hard white
wheat, soft white wheat, and unclassed wheat in the classes hard red spring
wheat and hard red winter wheat; 2) hard red spring wheat, hard red winter
wheat, hard white wheat, soft red winter wheat, soft white wheat, and
unclassed wheat in the class durum wheat; 3) durum wheat and unclassed
wheat in the class soft red winter wheat; and 4) durum wheat, hard red
spring wheat, hard red winter wheat, soft red winter wheat, and unclassed
wheat in the classes hard white wheat and soft white wheat.
Total of Other Classes refers to the maximum allowed amount of wheats
from the contrasting classes as well as from other classes that are not regarded
as contrasting. For example, in the first case above, soft red winter wheat,
which is not regarded as a contrasting class to hard red spring and hard red
winter wheats, counts toward the allowed maximum Total of Other Classes.
The following are other special grade requirements, some of which
interfere with the milling process and final products: Ergoty wheat is wheat
that contains ergot at more than 0.05% by weight. Garlicky wheat con-
tains, in a 1,000-g portion, more than two green garlic bulblets or an equiva-
lent quantity of dry or partly dry bulblets. Light smutty wheat has an
unmistakable odor of smut or contains, in a 250-g portion, smut balls, por-
tions of smut balls, or spores of smut in excess of a quantity equal to five
smut balls, but not in excess of a quantity equal to 30 smut balls of average
size. Smutty wheat contains, in a 250-g portion, smut balls, portions of
smut balls, or spores of smut in excess of a quantity equal to 30 smut balls
of average size. A representative sample (~500 g) of infested wheat
contains two or more live weevils, or one live weevil and one or more other
live insects injurious to stored grain, or two or more live insects injurious to
stored grain. Treated wheat has been scoured, limed, washed, sulfured, or
treated in such a manner that the true quality is not reflected by either the
numerical grades or the U.S. Sample grade designation alone.
Canadian Grading System

In Canada, the Canadian Grain Commission (CGC) is responsible for
setting grain standards for wheat. The Commission establishes “export
standard samples” for a number of grades. The export standard for each
grade, established each year, is a mixture of three parts of wheat, equal to
the average quality of the grade for the respective crop year, and one part of
wheat equal to the minimum quality permitted by the basic grade. All
Canadian varieties are registered and are equal to reference varieties of
acceptable end-use quality. Non-registered varieties are referred to as wheat
of other classes. Determination of excess dockage in graded wheat samples,
using the Carter-Day Dockage Tester, designates them as not commercially
clean.
The Canadian grading system lists several classes of wheat, subdivided
into Canada Western and Canada Eastern. Spring wheats include Canada
Western Red Spring (CWRS), in which there are three subclasses; Canada
Western Amber Durum (CWAD), which has four subclasses; Canada West-
ern Soft White Spring (CWSWS), in which there are three subclasses; Can-
ada Prairie Spring White (CPSW), with two subclasses; and Canada Utility,
with two subclasses. Canadian winter wheats include Canada Western Red
Winter (CWRW), in which there are two subclasses; Canada Eastern Red
Winter (CERW), which has five subclasses; and Canada Eastern White
Winter (CEWW), with five subclasses. Feed wheat could be any variety of
nondurum wheat.
Contrasting classes. This term refers to color and applies only to the
grading of red spring, utility, red winter, red and white prairie spring and
eastern winter wheats such as soft white spring in red spring wheat or
amber durum in red winter wheat.
Wheat of other classes or nonregistered varieties. When the percentage
by weight of other classes or nonregistered varieties exceeds the tolerance
specified for the lowest schedule grade, samples are graded “Wheat,
C.W./C.E. Feed.”
Australian Grading System

The Australian Wheat Board annually issues receiving standards and
dockage schedules that list grade specifications and tolerances for Austra-
lian standard white, Australian general purpose, and Australian feed wheat.
The Australian wheat is classified into classes that fall into two categories:
milling and nonmilling wheats. The milling wheat group includes Austra-
lian prime hard, Australian standard white, Australian soft wheat, and
Australian durum wheat. They are further classified into grades based on
the state of origin, protein content, grain hardness, milling quality, and
16 CHAPTER 1
dough properties. Two additional classes, Australian general-purpose wheat

and Australian feed wheat, contain grains that do not conform to the stan-
dards of milling wheat in term of test weight, weather damage, levels of
unmillable material, or inclusion of foreign matter. The minimum falling
number is 300 sec, 350 sec, and 300 sec for Australian standard white,
Australian prime hard, and Australian hard wheats, respectively. Only
Australian hard wheat from northern New South Wales and Queensland is
allowed a minimum falling number value of 250 sec. The maximum mois-
ture content of Australian wheat is 12.5%. The maximum allowed unmilla-
ble material other than wheat is 1% for Australian standard white, 1% for
Australian prime hard, 1% for Australian hard, 1% for Australian soft, 2%
for Australian general purpose, and 3% Australian feed wheat.
Russian Grading System

All member states in the Commonwealth of Independent States continue
to operate the state standards (Gosudarstvennye Standarty, or GOST) estab-
lished under the Soviet Union. GOST standards cover Food Wheat (OST
VKS 7064); Strong Wheat, Requirements for State Grains (GOST 9354-
67); Durum Wheat, Requirements for State Grains (GOST 9353-67); and
Wheat for Provision Distribution (OST VKS 7006) (State Standards of the
USSR, 1971). The Russian wheat is described in five classes and their sub-
classes, based on their color and vitreous structure. The classes include
I. Red-grain spring (subclasses: vitreous dark-red spring, red spring,
light-red spring, yellowish red spring, and yellow spring)
II. Spring durum (subclasses: dark-amber spring [durum], light-amber
spring [durum])
III. White-grain spring (subclasses: vitreous white-grain spring, white-
grain spring)
IV. Red-grain winter (subclasses: vitreous dark-red winter, red winter,
light-red winter, yellowish red winter, yellow winter)
V. White-grain winter
In general, all classes and subclasses are typified with characteristics
inherent in leading designated varieties.
The grading system, which contains five grades, is based on factors such
as wet gluten, hectoliter weight, impurities, and wheat defects. (An addi-
tional “Extra” grade is designated by GOST 9353-90 mainly for its high
gluten content.) The maximum moisture level is 15.5% for grades 1–3 and
16.0% for grades 4 and 5. Zelinskiy et al (2002) reviewed the issue of wet
wheat gluten as a quality and grading factor in Russia. The minimal wet-
gluten-content values for bread wheat, according to the GOST 9353-90, are
36, 32, 28, 23, and 18% for wheat grades Extra to grade 4, respectively. No
minimal wet-gluten content is designated for wheat grade 5. Grades differ
also by the gluten quality, which is determined using the gluten deformation
index. For example, a value between 43 and 77 is determined as “good” for
the grade Extra. The minimum falling number for grade Extra to grade 2 is
above 200 sec. The falling number value for grade 3 is 200–251 and for grade
4 is 80–150. Specific to this grading system is the effect of kernel size. The
maximum percentage of kernels allowed through a 1.70 × 20 mm sieve is 5%
for grades 1 and 2, 7% for grade 3, 8% for grade 4, and 10% for grade 5.
Originally, the GOST grading system was not designed for international
trade. Logistics, seed availability, farming methods, production costs (about
nine times higher than in other major grain-producing countries), adequate
storage facilities (postharvest losses up to 25%), and traditional bread
requirements existing in different parts of the country created a situation in
which the GOST standards are not implemented in all transactions.
European Grades
The European wheat grading standards are based on the approach of the
International Association of Cereal Chemistry (ICC) and have been
accepted as the European Economic Community (EEC) official method
(EEC, 1975). Wheat is evaluated on the basis of its besatz (extraneous
matter) content, which is made up of three parts: Kornbesatz, Schwartzbe-
satz, and Insect material (Zwingelberg and Zwingelberg, 1999). Kornbesatz
contains broken and shrunken kernels, other grains, sprouted kernels,
insect-damaged kernels, frost-damaged kernels, and kernels with discolored
germ. Schwartzbesatz contains weed seeds, ergot, damaged kernels, and all
other foreign materials. Insect material contains insect fragments and live
beetles.
The proper category is determined by sieving a known-weight sample
with two sieves. The upper sieve has 3.5-mm perforations and the lower has
1.75-mm perforations. The material that remains on the upper sieve is
designated Schwartzbesatz. The material that passes through the lower sieve
contains shrunken and broken kernels that are part of the Kornbesatz. The
fraction between the sieves is inspected, and all defects are separated and
divided into broken kernels, other grains, and sprouted kernels. The weight
obtained for each class of besatz is expressed as a percentage, based on the
original sample weight. In the trade, discounts are made based on the
variation from the besatz allowed for a particular year. As an example, the
specification for a particular year could be maximum 1% black besatz
(Schwartzbesatz), maximum 1% broken kernels and grain besatz (Kornbe-
satz), and maximum 2% sprouted kernels.
All sections of the French cereal industry contributed to a new grading
system for wheat that has been used in trading contracts since the 1999 har-
vest. The new French wheat classes are based on protein content, baking
18 CHAPTER 1
strength (W determined with the Chopin alveograph), falling number, and

physical criteria (Anonymous, 2000). The Office National Interprofession-
nel des Céréales (O.N.I.C.) determines four classes. The highest class, E,
shows the following specifications: protein >12%, W >250, falling number
>220, and physical criteria 76/15/4/2/2. These physical criteria indicate,
respectively, specific weight 760 kg/m³, less than 15% moisture, less than
4% broken kernels, less than 2% sprouted kernels, and less than 2% impuri-
ties.
Other National Grading Systems

China is the leading producer of wheat and also the largest consumer of
wheat. Only a small fraction of the wheat produced in China is traded on
international markets. On the other hand, Argentina exports most of the
wheat it produces. Argentina produces two classes of wheat: hard durum
and semihard bread wheat. Standards consist of five grades for common
wheat and three grades for durum. In many cases, wheat importing and
exporting countries grade wheat grown for internal consumption by stan-
dards different from those accepted on the international markets.
Wheat Quality Parameters

Wheat Moisture
Wheat moisture is not a grade factor, but some countries indicate a
maximum allowed moisture content in wheat (France, 16% and Australia,
12.5%). In Canada, five levels of moisture content can be applied to grades:
straight, tough, damp, moist, and wet. Red spring wheat, for example, is
straight grade if its moisture content is 14.5% or lower; tough if its moisture
content is between 14.6% and 17.0%; and damp if its moisture content is
over 17% (CIGI, 1982). Proximate data such as protein content are cor-
rected in the United States to 12% moisture basis and in European countries
to dry basis. The logic behind the usage of 12% as the moisture basis for
wheat is that, in general, at about 25°C and 60% relative humidity, wheat
moisture will equalize to 12%. Under the same conditions, flour moisture
would equalize to about 14%. Accordingly, wheat farmers, traders,
inspectors, and millers recognize wheat moisture determination as one of
the major parameters. In the United States, the Motomco 919 moisture
meter is the approved instrument used by GIPSA (Fig. 1-4). Various testing
methods for wheat moisture exist, of which the most popular are based on
the following principles; drying, distillation, chemical, electrical resistance,
electrical capacity, microwave, and infrared absorption.
Fig. 1-4. Motomco moisture meter. (Courtesy of Seedburo Equipment Co.)
Wheat Ash
Ash is the residual inorganic material left after incineration and is
expressed as a percentage of the original sample. The ash value is corrected
to a dry basis or any moisture basis for comparison. Ash is another quality
factor used to evaluate wheat flours and other mill products in the trade.
Millers are always looking for wheats that will produce low-ash flours, but
there are unusual instances that affect this objective. Certain wheats produce
relatively low-ash straight grade flour, but, regardless of the amount of
clear flour that is taken out, it is difficult to produce a low-ash patent
flour. Other high-ash, straight-grade flours lose ash rapidly as clears are
removed. These examples show that inorganic material is not always pro-
duced in the same way in the bran and endosperm of different samples of
grain.
The gradient of ash content increases from the center to the outer layers
of the wheat kernel (Hinton, 1959). This variability of mineral content can
20 CHAPTER 1
be attributed to environmental and genetic factors and to their interaction.

Several mineral elements show high positive correlation with protein con-
tent in both flours and bran.
In some varieties, ash is concentrated in the outer layers of the endo-
sperm. In this case, the ratio between straight-flour ash content (FA) and
whole-wheat ash content (WA) is lower. When this value is known, the
efficiency of the mill can also be determined by comparing the actual
FA/WA to the optimum FA/WA. Small variations of ash in flour do not nec-
essarily imply the presence of different amounts of bran.
In general, the ash itself does not affect flour properties, and thus it can
be argued that ash content should not be regarded as a flour quality parame-
ter in bakers’ specifications. However, as is shown later, ash values of
wheat, intermediate streams in the mill, and final products can be important
means and tools for mill adjustment and control.
Thousand-Kernel Weight
Thousand-kernel weight (TKW) is determined today using semiauto-
matic counting instruments. The weight of 1,000 counted kernels is deter-
mined, or the number of kernels is counted in a preweighed sample and the
weight of 1,000 kernels is calculated from it (Fig. 1-5). The count includes
sound, whole kernels from which all foreign material and broken kernels
have been removed. The weight of 1,000 kernels can be corrected to a dry
basis or any moisture basis. TKW can give the miller important information
about the wheat’s millability potential. If two samples have the same size
distribution of kernels but different TKWs, that indicates that the heavier
kernels have a higher percentage of endosperm than the lighter ones. This
Fig. 1-5. Count-A-Pak seed counter, used to determine thousand-kernel weight.

(Courtesy of Seedburo Equipment Co.)
can be explained by the fact that the specific gravity of endosperm, 1.46
g/cm3 (made up of about 87.5% starch at 1.48 g/cm3 and 12.5% protein at
1.32 g/cm3), is higher than that of bran, which is about 1.27 g/cm3. TKW is
one of the wheat quality parameters highly correlated with flour yield.
Kernel Size
One of the major wheat physical characteristics that influence process-
ing in the mill is kernel size. In a given mill with fixed corrugations and
sieves apertures, change in kernel size affects grinding performance. Wheat
kernels break up differently when acted upon with different corrugation
specifications. Accordingly, the miller should consider the parameter of
kernel size distribution and strive to be within a certain tolerance for opti-
mum results. The size distribution of kernels in a wheat sample can be
determined by using the following procedure. Two hundred grams of wheat
are placed on the top sieve of a stack of three Tyler standard sieves (num-
bers 7, 9, 12). The stack of sieves is placed in a Ro-Tap sifter (Fig. 1-6) and
sifted for 60 sec. The Ro-Tap sieve, with its rotating and bouncing action,
has an advantage over plain shaking action in causing a maximum of ker-
nels to pass a certain sieve mesh. The percentage remaining on each sieve is
then determined, multiplied by factors, and summed to obtain a single num-
ber denoting the theoretical flour yield. The factors can be calculated using
a multiple regression analysis for a mill, based on a database in which per-
centages of wheat sizes are the independent variables and actual flour yields
Fig. 1-6. Ro-Tap sieve shaker, used to determine size distribution in a wheat
sample. (Courtesy of Seedburo Equipment Co.)
22 CHAPTER 1
are the dependent variables. Each mill has its own specific factors that are
related to its technical parameters.
Physical and chemical differences are found not only among different
wheat varieties, but also among differently sized kernels of the same wheat
variety. In the latter case, the differences are due to environmental influ-
ences, particularly those that affect the rate of photosynthesis just preceding
the ripening of the grain. Soil, moisture, humidity, sunshine, temperature,
fertilization, and wind are considered the most potent factors.
Plumper wheat kernels or those that weigh more have a larger percent-
age of endosperm. Data show that, in the last 15 days of growth, single-
kernel weight increased two and a half times (Bailey, 1915). The percentage
of endosperm steadily increased, and the percentage of the seed coat plus
germ decreased. The data also indicate that, in wheat that has been prema-
turely ripened by lack of moisture or other unfavorable growing conditions,
the percentage of endosperm is less than that in fully matured wheat.
Although no significant difference in bran thickness can be seen between
large kernels and small kernels, a difference in the ratio of total kernel vol-
ume to bran volume exists. The representative values of the percentage of
endosperm, germ (embryo and scutellum), and outer layers (pericarp, testa,
and aleurone) are 81.0, 3.5, and 15.5%, respectively, for smaller kernels and
83.5, 2.5, and 14.0%, respectively, for larger kernels (Kent, 1966).
A fairly regular decrease in flour yield is found as wheat kernels
decrease in size. The ash content of flour milled to the same extraction level
from small kernels is significantly greater than that of flour from larger ker-
nels. Within the same wheat variety, large kernels possess lower protein
content than small kernels. The same tendency is found in the protein con-
tent of flour from wheat varieties with different-sized kernels. However,
comparison of protein content between the whole wheat flour and the
finished flour shows a smaller protein loss with the large kernels. Thus, a
higher flour protein content may not be guaranteed by paying a premium
for high-protein wheat, if it is made up of small kernels.
The behavior of different sizes of wheat kernels in the milling process
was studied to examine the influences of kernel size on water absorption
during tempering and break release in the break system, the relationship
between kernel size and the intermediate stock distribution in the milling
system, and the rheological properties of flours from different sized ker-
nels (Li and Posner, 1987). Table 1-5 shows that TW and TKW decrease as
the wheat kernel size decreases. The tendency for pearling value to
increase with a decrease of wheat kernel size indicates that pearling values
of wheats are comparable only when kernel size distributions are similar.
Wheat kernels differing in size show a great difference in the amount of
water absorbed. Amount of absorbed water is negatively related to wheat
kernel size (Fig. 1-7). The higher ratio of surface to volume of small kernels
is believed to contribute to their greater water absorption. Apparently, small

wheat kernels also offer greater resistance to water diffusion into the
endosperm than large wheat kernels do. Moisture can be observed to
migrate from small wheat kernels to large ones. This equilibration process
occurs after water addition if enough time is allowed for moisture migration
and if no stratification or separation by size occurs as a result of early with-
drawal of wheat from the bin.
Figure 1-8 explains a procedure to evaluate the effect of kernel size on
milling performance. All original wheat samples were conditioned to 16%
TABLE 1-5
Wheat Physical Tests as Affected by Kernel Sizea,b
Large Medium Small
Test weight (lb/bu) 60.0 a′ 54.7 b′ 53.4 c′
TKW,c g 31.7 a′ 18.7 b′ 12.1 c′
Pearling value, % 51.7 a′ 60.3 b′ 78.8 c′
Wheat ash, %d 1.702 a 1.798 b 1.914 c
Wheat protein, % d 11.3 a 12.2 b 12.1 b
Straight flour yield, %d 71.1 a′ 64.5 b′ 62.8 c′
Straight flour ash, % d 0.390 a 0.421 b 0.490 c
Straight flour protein, %d 9.5 a 10.2 b 9.8 b
a
Source: Li and Posner (1987); used by permission.
b
Values designated by different letters are significantly different at the 5% level. Values
designated by different letters with a prime sign are significantly different at the 1% level.
c
Thousand-kernel weight.
d
Expressed on 14% moisture basis.
Fig. 1-7. Relationship between kernel size and water penetration rate into three
sizes during tempering. (Reprinted, with permission, from Li and Posner, 1987)
24 CHAPTER 1
moisture and milled in triplicate. The working conditions of each break mill
stand were fixed. Consequently, the kernel size of the wheat became the
only factor influencing the break releases. In other words, the ratio of the
minimum dimension of wheat kernels to the width of the milling gap deter-
mined how severe the grinding action would be. In the first and second
break, this ratio was greater for large wheat kernels than for small ones.
Therefore, a more severe grinding action, especially squeezing action, was
forced on the large wheat kernels (Table 1-6). This resulted in more com-
plete detachment of endosperm from the outer layers of the kernels. Also,
the lower surface-to-volume ratio of the large wheat kernels provided less
available outer-layer area to which the endosperm might adhere. As a result
Fig. 1-8. Three procedures to evaluate the effect of kernel size on milling
performance. (Reprinted, with permission, from Li and Posner, 1987)
TABLE 1-6
Break Releasesa,b as Affected by Kernel Sizec,d
Break Large Medium Small System A System B
I 37.14 a 24.80 b 20.57 c 30.76 d 30.92 d
II 49.25 a 44.38 b 42.11 c 46.02 d 45.95 d
III 60.90 a 61.64 a 62.26 a 62.35 a 60.80 a
IV 52.73 a 55.46 a 53.27 a 51.33 a 51.21 a
a
Break releases are weight percentages of the stock over 20 W sieve in each break system.
b
Values are expressed on “as is” moisture basis.
c
d
Values designated by different letters are significantly different at the 1% level.
of these two factors, high break releases were obtained from large wheat
kernels in the first and second break. The data for total cumulative break
releases (Table 1-6) show the behaviors of different sized kernels in the
break system. More stock is released from larger kernels in the head break
systems.
Because the grinding action of the tail break rolls is much more severe
than that of the head break rolls, the chance for the bran to be powdered is
greater. The milling stock (over a sieve 20W or 910 µm) of large wheat
kernels coming to the tail break rolls is much less than that of medium-sized
and small wheat kernels. Therefore, with large kernels, fewer fine bran
particles result from the severe grinding action of the late break rolls.
The yields of different sizes of intermediate stocks (coarse, medium,
and fine) in break systems are presented in Table 1-7. It can be seen that
more coarse stocks, also called “sizings,” and fewer fine stocks were pro-
duced from large wheat kernels than from small and medium-sized ones. A
positive relationship exists between wheat kernel size and the sizings yield.
Maximum sizing production is favorable for a high yield of low-ash flour.
Therefore, the high sizing yield of large wheat kernels is one of the reasons
for their high yield of low-ash flour.
Figure 1-9 shows the cumulative ash curves of the HRW wheat samples
milled by the different procedures shown in Figure 1-8. The highest ash
curve was obtained from milling the separated, small wheat kernels. For a
given ash content, the smaller the wheat kernel, the lower the flour extrac-
tion. The cumulative ash curve of milling system C is lower than that of the
other two systems (Fig. 1-8). Therefore, milling system C seems to be better
than systems A and B in terms of low-ash flour yield.
It is technically possible to increase the cumulative break releases of the
early break systems and the sizing production of small wheat kernels by
adjusting the technical specifications of the rolls, such as pitch, spiral,
action, and grinding gap. Especially by adjusting the first and second break
roll surfaces and grinding, it should be possible to increase the yield of low-
TABLE 1-7
Percent Yields of Different Sizing Stocks in the Break System
Affected by Kernel Sizea,b
Stockc Large Medium Small System A System B
Coarse 53.26 a′ 47.22 b′ 44.07 c′ 49.95 d′ 50.11 d′
Medium 14.53 a′ 15.82 b′ 16.54 c′ 15.72 d′ 15.77 d′
Fine 10.82 a 13.17 b 13.60 b 11.43 a 13.25 b
Flour 8.02 a 6.71 b 7.37 b 5.78 c 7.58 b
a
b
Values designated by different letters are significantly different at the 5% level. Values
designated by different letters with a prime sign are significantly different at the 1% level.
c
Coarse, overs on 50 GG; medium, overs on 70 GG; fine, overs on 10 XX.
26 CHAPTER 1
Fig. 1-9. Cumulative ash curves from three testing procedures (described in Fig. 1-7),
showing the effect of kernel size on wheat millabillity. (Reprinted, with permission, from
Li and Posner, 1987)
TABLE 1-8
Protein Content and Gluten Yield of Straight-Grade Flour
from Different Sized Wheatsa,b
Large Medium Small System A System B
Protein, % 9.5 a 10.2 b 9.8 c 9.7 ac 9.9 c
Wet gluten, % 23.9 24.5* 23.4 23.7 23.9
Dry gluten, % 9.7 10.1* 9.8 9.6 9.7
a
b
Values designated by different letters are significantly different at the 5% level. The values
designated by an asterisk are significantly greater at the 10% level. All values are expressed
on 14% moisture basis. Results are averages of triplicate experiments.
ash flour from each kernel size category. Milling procedure C potentially
could be a better alternative, especially in the primary breaks. Nevertheless,
research is needed to determine the corresponding optimum technical
specifications for each kernel size category and to economically evaluate
this practice.
Flours from different sized wheat kernels differed in their gluten yields
(Table 1-8). A significantly higher gluten yield was found in the flours
milled from medium-sized wheat kernels. The higher protein content of
flour from medium-sized kernels relative to flours from the other kernels
may contribute to the corresponding higher gluten yield.
TABLE 1-9
Farinograph Data of Straight-Grade Flours Milled from Different Sized Wheatsa,b
Large Medium Small System A System B
Absorption, % 55.3 a 54.7 b 54.5 b 54.6 b 54.6 b
Arrival time, min. 1.9 a 1.2 b 1.0 b 1.3 c 1.2 c
Departure time, min. 13.2 a 19.3 b 26.2 c 17.5 b 19.0 b
Stability, min. 11.3 a 18.3 b 23.2 c 16.2 b 17.8 b
Peak time, min. 5.2 a 2.4 b 2.2 b 4.9 c 3.8 d
MTI,c BU 40 20 20 20 30
a
b
Values designated by different letters are significantly different at the 5% level.
c
Mixing tolerance index, in Brabender units.
The farinograph mixing curves of straight-grade flours milled from

different sized wheat kernels and different milling systems were evaluated
(Li and Posner, 1987). Statistical analysis of the data from these curves is
summarized in Table 1-9. The flour from large wheat kernels had higher
water absorption and a longer peak time than the flours from small and
medium-sized wheat kernels. The flour from small wheat kernels showed
greater mixing stability than the flours obtained from large and medium-
sized wheat kernels. (The farinograph instrument is described in Chapter 2.)
Two peaks were obtained on the farinograph curves of the flour from
medium-sized wheat kernels and the flours from “original” wheats used in
milling procedures A and C. However, this two-peak phenomenon could not
be seen on the curves of the flours of small and large wheat kernels. Interest-
ingly, if the curves of the flours from large wheat kernels are superimposed on
those of flours from small wheat kernels, the resulting curves are quite similar
to those of the flours from medium-sized wheat kernels.
The rheological variation among the flours from different sized wheats
indicates the potential differences in their baking qualities.
Uniformity of wheat kernel size plays an important role in milling
stability. From the miller’s standpoint, wheats that are uniform in kernel size
are desirable because they allow the use of technical specifications for milling
equipment and produce consequent economic benefits. Each mill has an
optimum specific kernel size distribution. It has been suggested that wheat
kernel size distribution should become one of the wheat-grading criteria.
Kernel Shape
Kernel shape is a physical characteristic that is of interest because of its
use in classification. It is used to classify wheat as hard or soft but in the
future probably also will help in refining the technology of milling. Image
analysis is used to determine kernel shape. Algorithms have been produced
to characterize shape parameters of entire grains and the germ.
28 CHAPTER 1
Pearling Value
To determine pearling value, 20 g of wheat with all foreign material and
broken kernels removed is retained for 1 min in a Strong Scott laboratory
barley pearler (Fig. 1-10) equipped with a No. 30 grit stone and a 10-mesh
screen made of wire 1.041 mm (0.041 in.) in diameter (Tyler Code “Fijor”).
Pearling value is the percent of original sample remaining over a 20-mesh
wire after pearling. This value can be used as a measure of kernel hardness.
Results are affected by kernel size distribution because the smaller kernels
are pearled to a lesser extent in the fixed distance between the emery wheel
and the screen. To generate meaningful information for the miller, equally
sized kernels (throughs and overs of a sieve size) should be pearled.
Kernel Hardness
Kernel hardness is regarded mainly as a segregation parameter used in
the trade, where the main parameters influencing different end uses of soft
and hard wheat are the level of protein and its quality. Some new hard
wheats function as hard wheat but have the kernel appearance traditionally
associated with soft wheats, and vice versa. The importance of the distinc-
tion in marketing and use is commonly acknowledged. Hardness plays a
very important role with regard to quality and the suitability of grinding a
Fig. 1-10. Barley pearler, used to determine resistance to abrasion. (Courtesy of

the Seedburo Equipment Co.)
certain wheat on a mill. Different approaches have been described by vari-

ous researchers. Particle size index (PSI) is regarded as an indication of the
milling performance of wheat. Moisture content affects hardness determina-
tion using the PSI method, as does the grinding device (Method 55-30;
AACC, 2000). PSI values obtained by grinding wheat samples through a
properly calibrated, burr-type grinder correlate significantly with break
flour yield from an Allis-Chalmers, batch type, experimental mill
(Yamazaki and Donelson, 1983).
The deficiency of the current practice of segregating hard and soft
wheat is that the determined hardness value is not related to the processing
quality of the wheat. Mill flows of soft and hard wheats differ substantially
in their roll surface and sieving area, and therefore wheat should be classi-
fied to reflect millability in addition to protein specifications. Obuchowski
and Bushuk (1980) evaluated wheat after conditioning to five different
moisture levels. Results showed that protein content had no effect on
endosperm hardness but the wheat kernel bran content did.
The single-kernel characterization system (SKCS 4100) was developed by
the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service Grain
Marketing Research Laboratory (Martin et al, 1993) (Fig. 1-11). The device
measures kernel texture by crushing the kernels one at a time, recording the
force required, and reporting the average force for crushing the kernels in
terms of a hardness index (HI). Figure 1-12 shows a schematic description of
the SKCS working principle (Method 55-31, AACC, 2000). This device is
used to rapidly and accurately measure individual wheat seed hardness, mois-
ture, weight, and size at a rate of approximately 110 kernels per minute.
Fig. 1-11. Single-kernel characterization system—SKCS 4100. (Courtesy of the

Perten Co.)
30 CHAPTER 1
Fig. 1-12. Schematic description of the single-kernel characterization system

working principle, showing Singulator and crushing mechanism. (Courtesy of the
Perten Co.)
Satumbaga et al (1995), Gaines, et al (1996), Osborne et al (1997), and

Williams (2000) worked with different wheats to determine the correlation
with relevant reference data (e.g., wheat characteristics, potential storage
ability, optimization of wheat conditioning, and prediction of flour milling
performance). High correlation (r² = 0.83) was obtained between SKCS data
on wheat and the starch damage contents of flours produced on a pilot mill.
Price is a major factor in wheat-buying decisions. However, experience
has shown that suitable quality for producing the desired flour characteris-
tics and maximum flour extraction is, in the long run, more significant than
low price for economical operation of the commercial mill. Kernel hardness
and protein quantity and quality are among the most important parameters
affecting wheat usage. Figure 1-13 shows a schematic description of the
relationship between wheat kind, protein percentage, kernel hardness, and
end product utilization.
Protein
Though not a grading factor in all wheat-growing countries, most ten-
ders and buying contracts specify wheat protein content. In the United
States, wheat protein in the trade is corrected to 12% moisture basis.
Correction of the protein content from one moisture basis to another can be
calculated using the following equation:
100 − DMB (%)
Protein (mb) = DPPC ×
100 − DM (%)
Fig. 1-13. Schematic description of relationship between wheat kind, protein

percentage, kernel hardness, and end-product utilization.
where DPPC = determined percent of protein content in the lab, DMB =

desired moisture basis, and DM = determined moisture.
Protein quality and quantity are two parameters that the miller considers
in the preparation of a wheat blend for milling. Those two values are
adjusted by wheat mixing to reach the flour end user’s specifications. How-
ever, the milling process affects both the quantity of protein recovered in
the wheat flour and the protein’s quality.
Protein quantity is determined through assessing the nitrogen in wheat
or flours. The standard Kjeldahl method for nitrogen determination is based
on a process of digesting the sample and distilling off the nitrogen, which is
then measured. Because of the high nitrogen content caused by the high
level of glutamine in wheat, the nitrogen level is multiplied by a factor of
5.7 to approximate the protein content in wheat and flour. The 5.7 factor is
used also for rice, while the protein content of other cereals is estimated as
the nitrogen content times 6.25. Protein determination of HRS wheat
according to the AACC method gave a correlation coefficient with loaf vol-
ume of 0.67, whereas a sedimentation test by itself could not give a decisive
indication, having a correlation coefficient of only 0.51 (Gilles and Sibbitt,
1963). For HRW wheat, the correlation between wheat protein and loaf vol-
ume was 0.71 and between sedimentation and loaf volume, 0.57. New
developments for fast protein determination using the Kjeldahl method can
32 CHAPTER 1
supply important information to the miller for segregating received wheat to

storage bins and later for blending of mill mixes. Currently, near-infrared
transmittance (NIRT) instruments are used by GIPSA to determine protein
content in wheat samples. The NIRT instrument analyzes a whole-wheat
sample without the need for grinding. The Dumas method, a combustion
procedure for determining crude protein, is used by GIPSA as a chemical
reference for calibrating the NIRT instruments (Bicsak, 1995). In this method,
nitrogen is freed by pyrolysis at high temperature in pure oxygen and is
quantified by a thermal conductivity detector. Equivalent protein is then
calculated from the nitrogen value by a microprocessor (Diesting, 1999).
If a sample of wheat meets the standard for protein quality and can be fit
into the scheme of mill mixes, then acceptability of the milling properties
must be determined. Scientists are continuously trying to accommodate plant
breeders by developing a standard test with which to select promising samples
from several thousand lines that may vary widely in protein and quality char-
acteristics. Such tests sometimes do not have the standards of acceptability of
a test used in commerce. Appropriate protein testing and evaluation of
promising wheats during the breeding program and of wheats entering the
trade system are of prime importance to those developing new varieties.
Falling Number Value

The falling number (FN) value represents the time in seconds required
to stir a hot aqueous flour gel undergoing liquefaction in a viscometer and
then to allow the viscometer stirrer to fall a measured distance through the
gel (Method 56-81B, AACC, 2000). The stirring takes 60 sec, so the abso-
lute minimum FN value is 60 sec (Fig. 1-14). Wheat that starts to germinate
(i.e., has sprout damage) undergoes morphological and chemical changes in
which enzymatic activity converts the carbohydrates into complex sugar
compounds. This activity of α-amylase is measured by the FN value.
A water suspension of the ground wheat meal sample is heated,
gelatinizing the starch. α-Amylase hydrolyzes the starch, reducing the
viscosity of the suspension and increasing the falling rate of the stirrer. In
general, an FN value of 250 sec indicates flour with normal α-amylase
activity and good baking quality. A value of 65 sec indicates high α-
amylase activity and the likely production of sticky breads. High FN values,
in the range of 400 sec, indicate too little α-amylase activity for bread bak-
ing. However, low values obtained for waxy and partially waxy wheat are
reported as an inherent trait of waxy wheat that do not necessarily indicate
sprout damage (Graybosh et al, 2000; Grant et al, 2001).
Skerritt et al (2001) described the use of a newly developed rapid testing
method for sprout damage in the field. Using a kit of materials, quick field-
testing can be performed outside the laboratory to determine harvesting
Fig. 1-14. Falling number. (Courtesy of the Perten Co.)
strategy or to direct incoming wheat to storage facilities. Although highly

correlated with the FN method results, the kit detects only the presence of
α-amylase, not its activity.
Sizing Production
Sizing production, which is the weight of sizings produced on the first
three breaks in an experimentally milled sample, gives a very good esti-
mate of the distribution of intermediate streams in the mill, change in the
mill balance, and yield of flour that can be expected. A comparison of four
wheats milled through the first three breaks, depicting the differences in
sizing production, is shown in Table 1-10. Wheat was milled on rolls with
the same configuration and grinding gap.
Flour Yield
Flour yield is the most important technical and economic factor of mill-
ing and should play a major part in wheat buying decisions. In some cases,
a lower price is paid to offset potential lower extraction levels. At the going
price, if a sample of wheat fails to produce a satisfactory yield, it should be
34 CHAPTER 1
TABLE 1-10
Typical Intermediate Stock Production (%) of Different Classes of Wheata
Hard Red Soft Red
Winter Winter Club Durum
Sizing (%) 49.8 44.7 38.6 77.4
Break flour yield (%) 5.7 10.5 10.2 2.0
a
Source: E. S. Posner, unpublished data, 1990.
rejected regardless of its other virtues. Even in early civilizations, those

grain kernels from which the outer coat was more easily removed, provid-
ing higher flour extraction, were selected for further planting. The percent-
age volume of starchy endosperm (which is affected by size and shape of
grain, thickness of bran, and size of germ) has been thought to influence the
flour extraction. However, in studies on the relationship between bran thick-
ness and flour yield of four varieties of HRW wheat, no correlation could be
determined (Shellenberger and Morgenson, 1950). On the other hand, TW
and TKW were correlated with flour extraction. The batch-type experimen-
tal milling unit, which should be used in each mill, is the most important
means of providing information on flour yield.
Changes in Milling Properties of Newly Harvested

Hard Wheat During Storage
The term “in the sweat” is used to describe the occurrence of free mois-
ture or “sweat” on the grain after cutting and binding, when the wheat is
stacked before threshing. In a broader sense, grain elevator operators and
millers use “sweating” to define the moisture changes that occur during the
undefined period between the time wheat is threshed or combined and the
time it reaches the mill.
One question that arises for operative millers each year is when to start
milling the newly harvested wheat. Many technical, logistic, and economic
factors influence the miller’s decision at the time new wheat arrives at the
mill. Millers incorporate the newly harvested wheat into the mill grist in
several ways. Some store the wheat for two to three months, the time
needed to complete the “sweating,” and then use it at a gradual percentage
increase. Another approach is a fixed date, agreed upon with the baker, on
which the mill switches over to 100% new wheat. In this case, it is recom-
mended that the period of old wheat usage be extended to about three
months after harvest. Some bakers favor this approach, because they have to
go through only one major adjustment in flour quality. Other millers start to
incorporate newly harvested wheat immediately upon its arrival at the mill.
It is accepted in the industry that 5–15% new wheat may be added to the old
wheat mix. Gradually increasing the proportion of the new wheat in the
blend reduces major changes in flour milling. The practical miller tends to
ameliorate changes in wheat quality by blending new wheat with wheat
from the previous crop.
During the first few weeks or months after harvest, the milling and bak-
ing qualities of new-crop wheat improve with time. Thereafter, the changes
are very small, and the wheat maintains its quality for a long period. Low
moisture and temperature during wheat “sweating” cause a slower rate of
change in wheat characteristics.
Before harvest, immature wheat grains are vitreous; as maturation pro-
ceeds, some grains remain vitreous while others become mealy. During
roller milling, the endosperm cells of vitreous hard wheat kernels tend to
shatter rather than powder, and breakage of both starch granules and the
protein matrix occurs. The miller is interested in total and patent flour
extraction, flour particle size, and sizing characteristics during milling.
There is a close correlation (r = 0.96) between sizing characteristics and
grain structure.
The milling quality of newly harvested wheat is of interest to the miller
because changes in flour quality and milling characteristics often occur dur-
ing wheat storage. Small-scale milling experiments with HRW wheat were
used to define the changes that occur in milling and baking performance
during the sweating period (Posner and Deyoe, 1986). Experimentally mill-
ing freshly harvested HRW wheat (1983 crop) and HRW and HRS wheat
(1982 crop), individually or in blends, allowed examination of these
changes. Wide fluctuations in milling characteristics were observed, result-
ing from storage of freshly harvested wheat. Figure 1-15 shows the cumula-
tive ash curves of the three wheats. The highest ash curve was obtained
from the HRS wheat and the lowest from the 1982 HRW wheat.
Characteristics of wheat and straight-grade flour milled after the harvest of
the 1983 wheat are shown in Table 1-11.
Flour granulation was finer after harvest and increased in size as sweat-
ing proceeded (Table 1-12). This might explain why the use of open sifter
cloths and reduction of mill loads helps to overcome the difficulties in siev-
ing and in obtaining proper particle size distribution that are encountered in
the bolting of flours from newly harvested wheat in commercial mills.
Apparently, during sweating there is an agglomeration of starch granules
and interstitial protein in the wheat kernel endosperm. Immediately after
harvest, adhesiveness between the flour components is weak, but it
increases with time, which results in larger “chunks” of endosperm being
milled as sweating proceeds. This might also be the cause of the increase of
2–3% in sizing production from wheat stored after harvest. The decrease in
flour particle size after 19 weeks can be attributed to an increase in the
36 CHAPTER 1
extent of reduction during milling, as the chunks of endosperm continue to

increase in size. The results of this trend could be increased starch damage
but improved loaf characteristics as sweating proceeds.
Figure 1-16 shows total flour extraction, sizing production, patent flour
extraction, and farinograph water absorption for wheat and for 50%
wheat blends milled during 1982 and 1983 (Posner and Deyoe, 1986). First-
week values are also shown for 100% HRW 1982 and 100% HRS 1982. For
the freshly harvested wheat and both blends, fluctuations occurred in
Fig. 1-15. Cumulative ash curves for three wheats. HRS = hard red spring, HRW
= hard red winter. (Source: Posner and Deyoe, 1986)
TABLE 1-11
Wheat and Flour Characteristics of Newly Harvested and Stored Wheata
Hard Red Winter Hard Red

Spring
Characteristic 1983 1982 1982
Wheat
Moisture, % 10.2 9.9 11.1
Protein, % (14% mb) 10.3 12.1 13.6
Ash, % (14% mb) 1.63 1.53 1.64
Patent flour
Ash, % (14% mb) 0.31 0.31 0.38
Farinograph water absorption, % 52 56 58
MTI,b BU 20 20 20
Valorimeter 92 88 94
Loaf volume, cm3 790 740 918
a
Source: Posner and Deyoe (1986).
b
Mixing tolerance index, in Brabender units.
milling parameters at the beginning of the sweating period, followed by

well-defined trends as time of storage increased.
Regression analysis was used to determine variations of the different
milling technology parameters with time of storage (Posner and Deyoe,
TABLE 1-12
Patent Flour Analysis as Affected by Time after Harvesta
Time Ash Protein
After Fisher (14% (14% Wet
Harvest Moisture Sub- MSAb Agtron mb) mb) Gluten
(weeks) (%) Sieve Values Color (%) (%) (%)
1 14.5 15.3 43.5 79.0 0.33 10.9 27.4
4 14.1 16.2 44.5 78.5 0.34 11.0 28.6
7 15.3 15.6 42.0 78.5 0.36 11.2 28.7
10 13.6 14.4 47.0 77.0 0.37 11.0 27.0
13 14.7 21.8 55.5 71.0 0.34 11.0 28.9
16 14.2 20.5 49.5 75.0 0.36 11.2 29.1
19 13.7 18.8 53.0 73.5 0.39 11.2 28.0
22 13.2 14.3 42.5 72.5 0.41 11.1 24.8
a
b
Mine Safety Appliance (Method 50-10; AACC 1983)
Fig. 1-16. Changes in milling and flour characteristics during wheat sweating. A,
total flour extraction; B, sizing production; C, patent flour production; D, water
absorption. •—•, 100% hard red winter (HRW) wheat, 1983 crop; <—< , 50%
HRW 1982 and 50% HRW 1983; o—o, 50% hard red spring (HRS) and 50%
HRW 1983. (Source: Posner and Deyoe, 1986)
38 CHAPTER 1
1986). Values for total flour, patent flour, sizings, and all five breaks of
flour production were used in the analysis. The best fit for the data was a
cubic model. The calculated r2 values are shown in Table 1-13. However,
analysis of variance indicated some storage-time-dependent variations that
could not be explained by the regression model. Some variables in experi-
mental milling technology remain to be determined; they formed about 25%
of the variability.
Correlation coefficients were determined for the experimental data
(Posner and Deyoe, 1986). Correlation coefficients of milling results
showed significance at the 1 and 5% levels. A significant correlation
between break flour and wet gluten values indicates that, with increased
time after harvest, an increased amount of gluten-containing protein is
extracted in the breaking system. It also suggests that, with time, flour pro-
teins making up the gluten undergo a maturation process.
A significant, positive correlation was found between sizing production
and patent flour ash (Posner and Deyoe, 1986). Total flour extraction exhib-
ited significant positive relationships with patent flour ash and patent flour
protein.
Changes in levels of sizing production from the newly harvested wheat
during storage suggest that millers should exercise caution in milling
freshly harvested wheat. To balance the mill, break rolls should be adjusted
for maximum sizing production when milling such wheat. Newly corru-
gated rolls could produce more sizings. However, this may increase the
amount of bran-contaminated sizings. Ample amounts of airflow and finer
reclothing of the purifiers would help remove bran from the sizings. Sizing
rolls should be adjusted during this period for a light grind with minimal
reduction for careful separation of endosperm from the attached bran.
Milling value is an estimate of the monetary value of the products
derived from milling. The percentages of patent and clear flours were deter-
TABLE 1-13
r2 Values of Milling Characteristics as a Function of Time After Harvesta
Mean Yield Standard
Milling Product r2 Values (%) Deviation F Valuesb
Total flour production 0.510 72.0 0.65 7.06
Sizing production 0.614 48.9 0.76 20.19
Total break flour
production 0.624 11.3 0.70 7.30
Three break flour
production 0.766 8.7 2.21 15.98
Four break flour
production 0.756 10.5 0.44 14.27
a
b
F values are all significant at the 1% level.
mined by using the ash curves and the assigned maximum ash content for
the patent flour (Posner and Deyoe, 1986). Factors affecting milling value
are related to the milling performance of the wheat. On the same milling
unit, for which variables such as mill setting and environmental conditions
are held constant, milling different wheats results in corresponding changes
in percent of products produced, distribution of ash in flour streams, and
economic value of those wheats. The cut-off point on the ash curves for
patent flour produced was 0.35% ash; this was assigned a value of
U.S.$220.46 per tonne (t) ($10/cwt). Flours on the ash curves above 0.35%
ash were considered clear flours and were assigned a value of $176.37/t
($8/cwt). The feed was assigned a value of $110.23/t ($5/cwt).
The farmer and the miller must also consider the cost of storage after
harvest. In some cases, economic factors require rapid change to a new
wheat mix in today’s market. An attempt was made in this study (Posner
and Deyoe, 1986) to develop an economic model for storage that would
combine parameters relating to milling quality during sweating. The
milling value (hundredweight basis) was converted to a 60-lb bushel
milling value. A storage cost of US$1.84/t ($0.05/bu) per week was sub-
tracted from the calculated milling value to determine the net milling
value, which was expressed in dollars per bushel. Using the Statistical
Analysis Service regression procedure (SAS, 1982), intercepts and param-
eters were determined for a cubic model of net milling value versus time
after harvest.
The equation relating length of storage in three-week intervals (X) to net
milling value (Y) was:
Y = 5.01357 + 0.00346X 3 – 0.04438X 2 + 0.14478X + U ,
where U is a constant and r2 = 0.83. The minimum and maximum times that
wheat should be stored, with respect to storage cost, were determined by
finding the derivative of the model equation, equating it to zero, and solving
for X1 and X2. A minimum of six weeks and a maximum of 22 weeks of
storage were allowed for sweating for the two wheats studied.
The economic factor of wheat cost also has a decisive role in the
determination of storage time of the newly harvested wheat and its usage
time. The optimum storage time was determined from the second
derivative of the model equation. After about 14 weeks, the increase in
storage cost overrides benefits gained by further improvements in milling
values.
Shelke et al (1992a,b) reported changes in the performance of freshly
harvested soft wheat flour. Although no change in milling performance of
the soft wheat was documented, the soft wheat flours were evaluated for
two crop years for usage in cake baking. Flour particle size analysis indi-
cated that the kernels did not become harder with time after harvest.
40 CHAPTER 1
Regardless of chlorination, freshly milled flours produced batters with

high specific gravity. Batter specific gravity decreased greatly during the
first two days after milling and continued to fall thereafter at a lower rate.
Immediately after milling, all flours (regardless of chlorine treatment)
produced collapsed cakes. The time required to reach the maximum
value for distilled water binding capacity (DWBC) of flours decreased as
wheat age increased. Accordingly, the cake-baking quality of flours,
which was strongly correlated with DWBC, improved with both wheat
and flour age.
Waxy Wheat
Wheat varieties that contain new combinations of silent (null) genes
produce kernel starch characteristics that are of interest to processors and
flour users. Normal wheat starch is composed of two polysaccharides, amy-
lopectin and amylose. Wheat starch can vary in amylose content if the
wheat is a waxy or partial waxy mutant. Nakamura et al (1995) and Zeng et
al (1997) revealed that the A, B, and D genomes in wild-type common
wheats each produce an enzyme in wheat associated with the biosynthesis
of amylose. Generally, normal wheat with no silent waxy gene for amylose
synthesis has 22–23% apparent amylose in its starch; with one silent waxy
gene, the wheat contains 19–20% apparent amylose; and with two silent
waxy genes, the wheat has 18% apparent amylose. When all three genes are
silent, the starch is essentially composed of <1% apparent amylose (>99%
amylopectin), and the grain is referred to as being waxy. Bettge et al (2000)
showed that waxy granules are less resistant to mechanical damage than
normal starch granules. The mechanical characteristics of partially or fully
waxy wheat should be considered by operative millers. The susceptibility of
starch granules to high pressure will require new technological approaches
to the handling and grinding of waxy wheat.
Texture and quality of white salted (udon) noodles is better with partial
waxy wheat flour as compared with normal types (Wang and Seib, 1996;
Batey et al, 1997; Briney et al, 1997). In bread, the rate of starch retrograda-
tion and staling may be manipulated by adjusting the amylose content rela-
tive to amylopectin (Schoch, 1965). Bread with higher amylopectin content
may be more prone to staling and thus should be avoided. Hayakawa et al
(1997) showed that waxy (amylose-free starch) hexaploid wheat generally
had lower gelatinization onset temperature, peak viscosity, and setback than
normal hexaploid wheat. Grant et al (2001) showed some significant differ-
ences in the starch properties of the waxy durum lines compared to the non-
waxy durum lines. The full-waxy starch had four times more swelling
power than the nonwaxy durum starches at 95°C and was more soluble at
the three or four temperatures used.
Wheat Quality in the Future

As mentioned previously, present wheat grades do not necessarily pro-
vide useful processing information. Future end-use performance of wheat
will be based on automated measurements and prediction.
Further research is needed to evaluate and define additional parameters
(such as impurity level, infestation, color, protein, and ash) that are signifi-
cant to the wheat end user, namely the miller. Additional new grading fac-
tors should be suggested, and their impact on the technology and economics
of the flour milling process should be identified.
Millability of wheat might be expressed in future grading as an indexed
number that would be a composite of all milling parameters and would
allow the miller to define the raw material by quality characteristics.
Expert systems are likely to be developed based on expanded knowl-
edge of milling principles, whereby the most efficient route can be deter-
mined to produce flour of defined specifications from the range of available
raw materials whose specifications and cost are known.
The wheat currently milled is significantly different from early varieties
grown many years ago. Initially, wheat domestication depended on the
intervention of humans, who carefully collected wild wheat seeds for food
while, at the same time, inadvertently selecting and replanting seeds from the
plants best suited for easy harvesting. Within a few generations, cultivated
wheat plants became dependent on the harvesting process for survival, as wild
self-planting mechanisms disappeared from the traits of cultivated wheats.
The domesticated wheat has lost the physical and genetic characteristics that
would allow it to aggressively reseed and sprout by itself—losses that clearly
distinguish domesticated wheats from their wild relatives (McCorriston,
2000). The late twentieth-century era of wheat domestication was based on
professional breeding of varieties, where many genes were moved at a time.
Future breeding technology based on genetic modification procedures will
improve certain wheat qualities by gene-splicing single genes into the wheat
chromosomes. The current gene modification efforts are related to end-use
characteristics of the wheat flour. New processing methods will probably be
required to guarantee the existence of these characteristics in the final flour.
On the other hand, future genetic modifications will be more rewarding to
humans if breeders concentrate on improving the kernel parameters that affect
the economic and technological aspects of the flour milling industry, which is
the first end-user of wheat.
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42 CHAPTER 1

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WEB SITES FOR ADDITIONAL RELATED INFORMATION
Australian Wheat Board: www.awb.com.au

Canadian Wheat Board:
www.cwb.ca/en/buying/high_quality/export_specifications.jsp
GIPSA, USDA: www.usda.gov/gipsa
International Grain Council: www.igc.org.uk
Russian Grain Grading: www.gost.ru/sls/gost.nsf
(Note English language button at lower left.)
CHAPTER 2
The Flour Mill Laboratory
The mill laboratory is the department in which staff evaluates the qual-
ity of incoming wheat and controls the quality of end products. The labora-
tory also performs various tests of intermediate materials in the mill as
required to optimize mill performance. The miller makes many decisions
related to wheat blending, wheat conditioning, mill adjustment, and flour
blending based on data generated in the mill laboratory. Depending on the
mill size, type of equipment in the laboratory, kinds of flours produced, and
frequency of wheat mix changes, the mill laboratory operates between 8
and 24 hr a day, and it is staffed accordingly. Just as management enforces
mill procedures, it should enforce safety rules and procedures in the labora-
tory. Safety rules and arrangements, such as the locations of fire blankets,
fire extinguishers, electrical switches, and warning signals, should be
reviewed with employees regularly.
Facilities
The mill laboratory should be located adjacent to the mill, preferably in
a separate building, to eliminate any possibility of vibration that can affect
instrument performance. The laboratory should include equipment for
evaluation of wheat and flours, small-scale milling equipment, and a baking
section for final testing of the mill’s flours. The configuration of the labora-
tory facility should be designed by dividing the space into sections to pre-
vent contamination or interference. Figure 2-1 shows an example of a mill
laboratory floor plan. New equipment is continuously available in the mar-
ket, and, based on specific needs, the laboratory plan should be updated to
reflect current conditions. The layout of the laboratory might include open
spaces for equipment such as for near-infrared reflectance (NIRR)
analysis and a single-kernel characterization system (SKCS). Isolated
sections should be allocated for testing and evaluation. The wheat section
47
48 CHAPTER 2
Fig. 2-1. Example of a mill laboratory floor plan. 1 = sinks, 2 = wheat tempering
mixer, 3 = weight-per-bushel (or per-hectoliter) apparatus, 4 = sieve shaker, 5 =
wheat and flour moisture tester, 6 = Kjeldahl protein analysis set and hood, 7 =
bottle rack, 8 = ash oven, 9 = dough mixers, 10 = scales, 11 = baking oven, 12 =
fermentation cabinet, 13 molding machine, 14 = farinograph, 16 = amylograph, 17 =
falling number apparatus, 18 = test sifter, 19 = experimental grinding rolls, 20 = table
tops and cabinets, miscellaneous = microscopes, vacuum, air pressure, distilled
water.
should include storage space for samples suitable to the mill’s specific needs.
Other sections should be allocated to wheat conditioning and milling,
proximate analysis and dough testing, flour sample storage, and baking. Many
flour mills are involved in research and development of new products.
Accordingly, when appropriate, a section should be allocated to the
development and quality control of special products produced in the mill.
The layout of the mill laboratory is based on subjective decisions by
mill personnel and should be based on the required activity. Loving and
High (1963) conducted a study to determine a time-saving layout of equip-
ment and improve the efficiency of completing analyses in a commercial
mill. By improving procedures and the laboratory layout, they were able to
reduce the number of steps taken by the operator during a typical 4-hr mill
sampling from 527 to 107.
Environmental Conditions
The environment in the mill laboratory should be controlled. The issue
of environment is particularly important in milling laboratories where rela-
tively small wheat samples are evaluated. Previous work has shown the
effect of environmental conditions, such as relative humidity and temper-
FLOUR MILL LABORATORY 49
ature, on equipment performance and results in the laboratory (Bayfield et

al, 1943; Hook et al, 1984). Hook et al (1984) stated that changes in relative
humidity had a greater influence on milling performance and flour proper-
ties in the laboratory than changes in ambient temperature.
Environment plays a very important role in the replication of tests and
procedures, especially in small-scale milling. Favorable environmental
conditions in a milling laboratory room are about 75°F (23.9°C) and 65–
70% rh. These conditions should be monitored daily so that the temperature
of the mill does not vary. Relative humidity, as well as temperature, have a
decisive effect on extraction level, color, maltose value, and flour ash. Flour
moisture content tends to increase as the relative humidity increases. A
difference of 10% in relative humidity above 35% makes a difference of
approximately 0.5% in the moisture content of the flour. No definite
relationship between air temperature and total yield of mill products has
been established. Hook et al (1984) used a linear model to measure the
combined effect of temperature and relative humidity by addition of the
individual effects on extraction rate, flour moisture content, color grade
figures, and ash values.
Studies have shown no significant effect of changes in relative humidity
in nonpneumatic laboratory mills (Shollenberger, 1921). However, an
increase in relative humidity in the laboratory had the following effects on
flours milled with pneumatic mills: flour moisture increased, flour ash con-
tent decreased, protein content decreased, flour extraction decreased, mill-
ing loss decreased, and grinding and sifting performance was reduced (Al-
Obaidy, 1982). Every practical miller is aware of the commercial mill’s
sensitivity to changes in the environmental conditions away from those
considered optimum for the operation. Accordingly, based on their findings
Hook et al (1984) suggested that it is not practical to recommend a single
set of atmospheric conditions for flour milling that will be universally
acceptable, as some of the miller’s objectives conflict. For instance, an
increase in flour yield is accompanied by a decrease in flour moisture con-
tent.
Grinding roll temperatures also affect the efficient separation of the
wheat kernel constituents. Optimal temperatures can vary from one kind
of wheat to another. For example, Manitoba spring wheat gave optimal
results when roll temperatures were 100°F (38°C) (Kent et al, 1956).
Colder rolls had a detrimental effect, as the intermediate materials
became cooler than their optimal temperature. Temperature also affects
granulation in both experimental and commercial systems, and the miller
should take the necessary steps to control the temperature during milling
and in the mill products. Higher grinding temperatures, up to 54°C
(129.2°F), were found not to affect the baking characteristics of the flours
(Kent et al, 1956). In addition, the barometric pressure, which is affected
50 CHAPTER 2
by mill elevation, should be taken into account, when necessary, to

correct results from analytical instruments.
Communications
Terminals connected to the mill’s computer system should be located in
each of the laboratory sections, and each section operator should have
appropriate access to them. Information regarding proximate analysis, as
well as commercial data about incoming wheat, should be accessible to all
operators in the mill for two reasons: first, as an information resource for
fast decision-making and, second, so that shared information may initiate
comments, questions, and suggestions for taking advantage of opportunities
that arise.
Procedures
Usually, the corporate laboratory sets procedures and methods to be fol-
lowed in the various sections of the mill. Official methods are usually
reviewed and selected based on budget and customer demands. Methods
from the American Association of Cereal Chemists (AACC), the
Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC) International, or the
International Association for Cereal Science and Technology (ICC) should
be selected and followed in each mill laboratory. A list of equivalent ICC
methods appears at the end of this chapter. Around the world, the ICC
methods are used by the milling industry for quality assurance under the
International Standards Organization (ISO) 9000 certification program. As
part of implementing the ISO certification program, mills use the hazard
analysis and critical control point (HACCP) program, which identifies
potential food quality problems before they create product hazards.
Determination of Wheat Quality

Parameters
Tests of wheat described in Chapter 1 relate to those used in the trade
and those that give the miller information on the grain’s soundness as
related to expected processing. The mill laboratory staff performs many
additional tests on the wheat and the resultant flours. The wheat kernel,
which is a living organism, shows many qualities and characteristics, and
only by collecting data about the different parameters that change from one
lot to another can the mill personnel fine-tune the mill products to be within
customer’s specifications. This chapter describes equipment, tests, and
methods that are part of the flour mill laboratory that were not described in
the previous chapter. Mill laboratory personnel and millers should
continuously keep themselves up-to-date, add equipment, and apply new
methods to improve the quality and uniformity of mill products. Experience
shows that investment in the mill laboratory improves mill return in the long
run.
Experimental and Laboratory Milling

One of the more significant tests performed in the laboratory is experi-
mental milling. The objective of experimental milling is to simulate the
milling process in a practical way with a small wheat sample to provide
technical information about the raw material and the functionality of the
end product. To effectively use experimental milling information and inter-
pret the test results, the miller must first understand the process of the com-
mercial mill that the experimental mill simulates. Numerous comparisons
have been reported between different laboratory and experimental milling
units for soft, hard, and durum wheats (McCluggae et al, 1939; Finney et al,
1949; Dexter et al, 1982; Boyacioglu et al, 1991). However, because of the
diversity in equipment characteristics and technology, the miller is the per-
son who should determine which method is most suitable for getting the
information that will achieve the best results.
Experimental milling must not be confused with small-scale laboratory
milling, The experimental mill allows the determination of the wheat’s mill-
ing quality. Such systems allow the operator to change roll characteristics,
gap, differential, or action to determine the best grinding parameters for
particular wheat. On the other hand, the laboratory mill produces a flour
sample adequate for analytical, rheological, or baking tests or for other end-
use evaluation.
Laboratory milling can be on a scale as small as about 40 g/min. Shoup
et al (1957) developed a micromill to process 5 g of wheat. Seeborg and
Barmore (1957) showed evidence of using the 5-g milling quality test in
wheat breeding programs. Varga et al (2001) studied the flours resulting
from a microscale laboratory mill (FQC-2000, Inter-Labor, Hungary) on
which 3 g of wheat could be milled. Flour fractions obtained with the
micromill were separated with a 200-µm sieve for semolina (>200 µm) and
fine flour (<200 µm) fractions. Bread wheat gave ~50% farina and ~50%
flour, while the proportions of these fractions for durum samples were
about 70% semolina and 30% flour, indicating the higher particle size of
milled durum. Methods on how to operate small-scale milling units can be
found in official cereal milling methods (AACC, 2000) or manufacturers’
manuals. These fully automatic machines, with fixed- or variable-gap set-
52 CHAPTER 2
tings, can give the operator a good flour sample in a very short time and can
be used to evaluate flour from wheat breeding programs.
The quality of wheats has received much attention from wheat breeders,
grain traders, flour millers, and others involved in the wheat production and
utilization chain. Cooperation between wheat breeders and scientists who
evaluate processing quality is encouraged in the hope that wheat breeding
programs can be improved by including information on wheat processing
quality in addition to information on agronomic characteristics. Because
wheat characteristics have an impact on the extraction of flour and the
return from a commercial operation, millers are concerned with the milling
quality of wheat and want to have wheat evaluated for flour yield and qual-
ity potential before purchase.
At the present time, the miller identifies the following characteristics
and criteria for milling quality of wheats: first, the ease of separation of the
three main parts of the wheat kernel from each other; second, the levels of
contamination of each part in the other two; third, the granulation
distribution of the ground material after each grinding stage; and fourth,
the sensitivity of the wheat to the milling system, or flow, which can affect
the quality of the finished products.
The commercial milling process involves many variables related to
grinding, separation, and reduction. An important one is the miller’s effi-
ciency and skill in performing the process. This is because the wheat kernel
is a living entity that reacts to the forces acting on it in an incompletely pre-
dictable way.
The term experimental milling means that the operator of the unit can
experiment to optimize milling conditions. For instance, wheat can be opti-
mally conditioned for milling by adjusting parameters such as water addi-
tion, tempering time, and temperature. Also, different mill settings can be
tested to obtain optimal results from the raw material. The miller’s ability to
determine milling performance on the commercial unit is limited without
the ability to observe, quantify, and evaluate intermediate products in the
experimental milling process.
At present, only the batch-type milling process can give the operator
information for evaluation of wheat millability. This process requires exten-
sive work, and the experimental miller should be a skillful operator.
Meaningful data can then be supplied to the operative miller to optimize the
performance of a specific wheat in the mill.
Reifenstuel (1961) described a suggested experimental milling unit,
consisting of four corrugated rolls, two smooth rolls, and a sifting arrange-
ment, for a company with multiple commercial milling units. Information
from weekly experimental testing of mill mixes performed at a centralized
laboratory, at different conditioning levels and with different adjustments,
improved the consistency of wheat mixes and the process efficiency. This
approach creates an additional advantage for mills by testing the per-

formance of suggested formulations of mill mixes from wheat mixing mod-
els that are affected mainly by economic constraints.
A test run on the commercial mill is sometimes made to evaluate new
wheat shipments or new-crop wheat. This is done by drawing a wheat lot
from the incoming wheat shipment, cleaning and conditioning it, and mill-
ing it for several hours on the commercial unit as a large-scale experiment.
Samples can be drawn and ash curves constructed with automated and
computerized equipment to evaluate the potential wheat performance and
changes necessary to optimize the mill flow.
Wheat Preparation for Milling

in the Laboratory
Before beginning experimental milling, the miller treats the wheat sam-
ple and prepares it under laboratory conditions. AACC Method 26-10A
(AACC, 2000) describes wheat preparation procedures, which may be
modified to fit the needs of the commercial mill requirements. Cleaning the
Fig. 2-2. Kice table top aspirator to separate unmillable material from small wheat
samples. (Courtesy of Kice Industries, Inc.)
54 CHAPTER 2
wheat sample on various cleaning machines is necessary before milling

because impurities can change flour qualities, and foreign materials can
damage the milling equipment.
To clean the wheat, the laboratory uses several pieces of equipment such
as the Carter dockage tester (see Fig. 1-1), which is used by the U.S. Grain
Inspection, Packers, and Stockyards Administration (GIPSA) for grain grad-
ing. A laboratory technician can make the necessary changes to the GIPSA
official settings of sieves, feed rate, and air to separate the foreign material
from the wheat, since the amount varies from sample to sample. An air aspi-
rator for the separation of dust and light materials from the bulk of the
wheat sample is also used in the laboratory (Fig. 2-2). The Labofix (Fig. 2-
3, Schmidt-Seeger, Beilngries, Germany) is a laboratory grain cleaner that
uses a combination of air, indent cylinder, and sieving to separate foreign
material from the wheat sample. Another machine that uses sieving and air
action to separate unmillable material is the Nettoyeur Separateur de
Laboratoire (NSL; Chopin, Tripette & Renaud, Villeneuve-la-Garenne,
France).
Fig. 2-3. Labofix laboratory grain cleaner. (Courtesy of Schmidt-Seeger AG)

In a two-stage study (Negrini et al, 1994), the above three models were
selected from a large number of cleaning machines for grains. Evaluation of
the three models with 10 crops, including wheats, showed that none of the
laboratory cleaning machines by itself is 100% efficient in separating the
unmillable material. Although the Carter dockage tester is the most replic-
able, when the above machines were evaluated on the basis of efficiency of
separation, the Labofix was best, followed by the NSL and then the Carter
dockage tester.
As in a commercial mill, the wheat sample must be conditioned before
experimental milling. The purpose of conditioning is to bring a particular
wheat to the optimum conditions for milling, i.e., to mellow the endosperm,
so it fractures easily, and to toughen the bran, so it does not splinter too
much during milling. AACC Method 26-95 (AACC, 2000) gives condition-
ing tables for experimental milling. These tables can be used in the labora-
tory for quick determination of the amount of water addition needed to
attain a certain moisture level in wheat.
Water addition to the wheat sample should follow a fixed procedure, to
establish identical conditions for increasing the wheat moisture content. For
example, a rotating drum at 30–50 rpm can be used (Fig. 2-4) to tumble the
wheat for 10 min after water is added with a graduated cylinder (Bequette
and Barmore, 1963). This device can be made with multiple drums in which
several samples can be tempered simultaneously. Another device, made by
Chopin, Tripette & Renaud, has a perforated blending screw conveyor that
causes the wheat to absorb the water. The advantage of this method is that
the screw conveyor and tempered wheat are inside a container that can be
kept closed until milling, thus minimizing water evaporation.
To ensure reproducibility in the experimental milling process, pre-
milling variables should be eliminated. Procedures should be set for wheat
Fig. 2-4. Single-drum homemade water-addition device for tempering wheat.

56 CHAPTER 2
sampling, cleaning, and tempering and should be followed very closely to

eliminate variations. One of the major decisions the miller must make when
preparing the wheat for a commercial milling system is the amount of water
to add. There is no doubt that the experienced miller can recognize wheat
that is not optimally conditioned. However, significant reduction in produc-
tion loss can be achieved if the miller has information regarding the optimal
conditioning of certain wheats. Testing with the batch system and evalu-
ating the intermediate stock on a system that correlates highly with the
commercial mill allows a more precise determination of the amount of
water to be added and of tempering time.
The near-infrared hardness value could also be used to determine per-
cent water addition to the wheat and the tempering time (see Fig. 4-14).
Small-Scale Milling Units

In the laboratory, grinding equipment ranges from fully automatic
units to experimental batch-type grinding systems. A fully automatic
laboratory mill has one to several grinding and sifting stages, preset to the
manufacturers’ specifications, and can deliver one or more streams of
flour and by-products. On the other hand, the batch-type experimental
unit has several small pairs of grinding rolls and a selection of sieves that
can be used in a sifter. The miller makes the necessary adjustments in the
grinding rolls, sieve selection, and flow of materials to determine the
millability characteristics. Laboratory methods for evaluating wheat-mill-
ing quality are based on comparison of flour yield and the corresponding
ash level of flours. The main advantage of the batch-type experimental
mill is the possibility of also evaluating the quality and quantity of
intermediate stock distribution, based on which mill adjustments could be
made.
Laboratory Mills
The fully automatic laboratory mill presents a compromise between the
milling skill that a miller must demonstrate to achieve satisfactory results
from a wheat and the need of the cereal chemist to obtain a representative
flour sample for quality evaluation of the finished products within a short
time. C. W. Brabender, who also invented most of the leading types of
dough-testing equipment for the mill and the cereal laboratory, invented one
of the first laboratory mills. Other engineering companies, such as Buhler
Co. and Miag Co., also developed automatic laboratory mills that could
supply the quality control technician or the cereal scientist with an accept-
able flour from a wheat sample in a very short time.
Milling Procedures
Operating procedures are very important in running laboratory and
experimental milling units. The methods of the American Association of
Cereal Chemists (AACC, 2000) describe procedures for the use of some of
the laboratory and experimental units. A laboratory should also develop
specific procedures depending on its own objectives. It should develop a
production report on which to record the conditions under which the experi-
ment was conducted, necessary information about the raw material, and
milling results.
Adjustment of feed rate in any experimental or laboratory mill is impor-
tant for achieving meaningful results. The technician should have a proce-
dure with which to measure the feed rate to the mill. An accurate feeding
device is necessary for good control and reproducibility of the feed rate.
Figure 2-5 shows a wheat feed arrangement with a vibratory feeder that is
used with a small-scale mill. Table 2-1 lists the technical characteristics of
the different laboratory mills.
There are two approaches to milling with a fully automatic laboratory
mill. The first can be named the “sample cleanout” and the second, “mill-
loaded sample.” However, in both procedures, the operator must be aware
Fig. 2-5. Vibrator feeder to feed a laboratory mill.
TABLE 2-1
Laboratory Mill Characteristics
No. of No. of No. of No. of Feed Rate
Mill Breaks Reductions Adjustable Flours Feeds (g/min)
Quad. Jr.a 3 0 No 2 1 50
Quad. Sr.b 3 3 No 2–4 2 140
Buhler 3 3 Yes 6 2 100 SWc–135
HW
Miag 3 5 Yes 10 4 500–1,800
a
Brabender Quadrumat Jr. laboratory mill.
b
Brabender Quadrumat Sr. laboratory mill.
c
SW = soft wheat, HW = hard wheat.
58 CHAPTER 2
of the importance of uniformity in operating a laboratory mill. Because

there are differences between laboratory operators, it is preferable that a
laboratory mill be operated by one individual.
Sample Cleanout
Using this procedure, the operator lets the machine run empty for a
fixed time (5 min) after the stock has run through, knocking the sieve
frames with a rubber mallet during this period, or using compressed air in
some form to clean the machine. The timing and steps used in cleaning the
machine should be repeated as closely as possible at the end of each test.
After the mill is clean, it is ready for the next sample.
Mill-Loaded Sample
This procedure was developed by millers to eliminate the effect of an
underloaded mill on grinding and sieving uniformity. The sample to be
ground is divided into at least two parts, one of which is used only to load
the laboratory mill. This also flushes the remains from the previous sample.
When the last kernel of the wheat loading part runs out of the hopper, the
mill is turned off fully loaded. The products generated during this stage are
emptied from the containers of the mill. The grinding compartment and the
sieving mechanism stay loaded with material.
The sample to be tested is emptied into the hopper and the mill is
started. Again, when the last kernel runs out of the hopper, the mill is shut
off under full load. If this procedure is followed during the whole milling
process, the sample is ground in a mill fully loaded with the wheat tested.
Grinding Roll Adjustment
The so-called “fixed system” technique allows no adjustments to be
made in mill settings during the entire experimental grinding process.
Among the disadvantages of a laboratory mill with a fixed-gap setting is
that changes occur as a result of the rise in temperature of the mill structure.
With a fixed setting, the miller cannot compensate for those changes by roll
adjustment. Another disadvantage of this technique is that physical and geo-
metric differences (such as wheat hardness, kernel shape, and size distribu-
tion) are not considered. These differences have been proven to have great
influence on milling results. The question as to whether the variation in
flour yield and quality from different wheats is caused by the inherent
properties of the wheat or by fixed milling settings that are unsuitable for
the changing wheat characteristics is difficult to answer. In practical
commercial milling, a change in wheat characteristics is accommodated by
adjusting the system appropriately. Seeborg and Barmore (1951) described
a method of keeping the temperature of Buhler laboratory mill rolls close to
an upper level of about 33.5–34ºC, at which it remains constant even after a
few hours of milling. In the above laboratory, where numerous small wheat
samples were milled each day, one 40-W showcase-type light bulb placed
under each set of rolls assisted in keeping them at uniform temperature all
night. Only one “warm-up” sample at the start of the day’s milling usually
was needed to increase the roll temperature to the maximum. Thereafter, all
samples were ground at the same temperature. Bequette and Barmore
(1963), who placed 400-ohm resistors under each set of Buhler rolls,
reported that resistors were more satisfactory than light bulb heaters. Jeffers
and Rubenthaler (1977) applied thermostatically controlled permanent heat-
ers to correct variations caused by expansion in the material of the roll
housing in a Brabender Quadrumat laboratory mill (Brabender Co., South
Hackensack, NJ).
In a “setting changed” system, milling is adjusted according to the mill-
ing performance of the wheat. The grinding severity of the rolls is set for
optimum intermediate stock distribution and separation of bran and germ
from endosperm. This experimental practice, however, requires operators to
have greater skills and experience. Logically, a “setting changed” system is
closer to the real practice of commercial milling, and therefore it is more
reliable for predicting wheat milling behavior.
Brabender Quadrumat Jr. Laboratory Mill

This mill has four grinding rolls with a fixed gap between them, allow-
ing the material to pass through three sequential grinding stages. AACC
Approved Method 26-50 (AACC, 2000) elaborates on suggested procedures
for operating this mill. Roll gap adjustment, necessitated mainly by wear on
the rolls and recorrugation, can be achieved by adjusting the eccentric shafts
of three of the rolls. The rolls, which are 70 mm in diameter, are all corru-
gated. No sieving is done after each grinding stage. After the grinding
stages are completed, the stock drops into a rotating reel, through which the
flour is sifted (Fig. 2-6). The heavier load of material at the head end of the
reel ensures that the material higher in specific gravity (namely, the cleaner
and finer flour) goes through the sieve first. This fraction averages about
30% of the incoming wheat. Toward the tail end of the reel, the second flour
is extracted through the sieve. The second, coarser, flour averages about
15%. The other product tailing over the reel screen is a mixture of bran,
endosperm, and germ particles. This fraction averages about 55% based on
the wheat fed to the mill. An adjustable feeder gate above a rotating roll
regulates the feed rate to the mill. The average mill capacity is about 50
g/min.
Technically, some interesting points related to this mill come from the
smaller diameter of its break roll. Because of the smaller grinding zone,
bran disintegration is minimal. As a result, it is possible to have several
60 CHAPTER 2
Fig. 2-6. Typical flow diagram for the Brabender Quadrumat Jr. laboratory mill.
The rolls are numbered.
grinding gaps in series without intermediate sifting or classification and still

not grind up too much of the wheat bran.
Brabender Quadrumat Sr. Laboratory Mill

The Brabender Quadrumat Senior is a fully automatic laboratory mill
based on the four-roll-principle (Fig. 2-7). Two Quadrumat grinding units
(with four rolls each) are used, one as the break unit and the second as the
sizing and middling-reduction unit. The products are separated in a one-
section plansifter divided horizontally into two, which provides three
sieves for the reduction above the three sieves for break stock. A screw con-
veyor elevates the sizing stock from under the sifter to the reduction-grind-
ing unit. The schematic flow sheet of the mill (Fig. 2-8) indicates the sieve
aperture and roll specifications. The laboratory technician must make the
necessary adjustments in the flow to accommodate the needs of the mill and
the information required from the test. Previous research (Posner, 1988)
showed that the following multiple regression equation expresses the
dependency of flour yield on hard red winter wheat characteristics when a
Quadrumat Sr. is used (r2 = 0.68, P < 0.01):
Y = 0.0097X1 + 0.0373X2 + 0.0893X3 + 0.1445X4 + 0.8852X5

+ 0.0486X6 + 1.3622 ,
where Y represents the expected flour yield; X1, X2, and X3 are percentages
of wheat over wires 7, 9, and 12, respectively; X4 is the weight in grams of
1,000 kernels; X5 is the wheat test weight, and X6 is the pearling value.
Fig. 2-7. Typical Brabender Quadrumat Sr. laboratory mill. (Courtesy of C.W.
Brabender Instruments Inc.)
Fig. 2-8. Typical flow diagram for the Brabender Quadrumat Sr. laboratory mill.
COR = corrugated, SS = stainless steel.
62 CHAPTER 2
The merit of this mill is that it is very easy to operate and gives good
reproducible results. It can be used for wheat evaluation with respect to
differences in flour quality and potential extraction.
Buhler Laboratory Mill

The Buhler laboratory mill (type MLU-202) includes six grinding stages
and their corresponding sifting sections. The three breaks are arranged on
one pair of rolls, sections of which are machined to different diameters to
accommodate a different gap for each grinding stage. Another pair of rolls
is used for the three reduction stages. The break rolls are corrugated and,
when the mill is designed for flour production, the reduction rolls have
smooth surfaces. The Buhler mill is also designed to produce semolina or
farina from the wheat kernel. In the latter case, the reduction rolls are also
corrugated, to produce semolina from durum wheat. Figure 2-9 shows the
material flow of the Buhler laboratory mill. All products are pneumatically
conveyed. The total sieving area of the mill is 0.841 m2 (9.053 ft2). The
average feed rate to the mill is about 150 g/min. Roll gaps are adjusted
according to AACC Approved Methods 26-21A, 26-30A, 26-31, and 26-41
(AACC, 2000), whereby the gap is first set on each side of the rolls and
subsequently the dials are turned to accommodate the required gaps for the
grinding stages. Six flour or semolina streams can be produced on the
Buhler laboratory mill. In addition, coarse bran comes off the top of the
sieves of the last break and shorts off the top of the sieves of the last reduc-
tion stage. The extraction level and flour quality achieved with a Buhler
laboratory mill depend on the wheat, its conditioning for milling, the atmos-
pheric environment in the mill room, and the mill flow. Jeffers and
Fig. 2-9. Typical flour flow diagram for the Buhler MLU 202, laboratory mill. BK =
break, CORR = corrugated, M = middlings, SM = smooth, W = wire, SS =
stainless steel.
Rubenthaler (1977) stated that errors in reproducible milling results can be

attributed to two factors beside the operators’ proficiency while using the
Buhler laboratory mill. The technical shortcomings are related to the diffi-
culty in adjusting the feeding mechanism and to the sieve cleaners being
worn or too tight. These factors can be minimized or greatly improved by
an observant operator (Seeborg and Barmore, 1951; Bequette and Barmore
1963). Black et al (1983) achieved 75% flour extraction from hard red
spring wheat milled on a Buhler laboratory mill with a modified flow and
an incorporated bran finisher.
Miag Laboratory Mill

The Miag Laboratory Mill, known by the name “Multomat” (Miag,
Braunschweig, Germany) is another small-scale automatic milling unit.
With various modifications and in numerous combinations, this type of mill
is used in various research laboratories in whole or in part.
The roller mills and sifters are built into one frame, and only the pneu-
matic conveying fan and dust collector are located separately. On top of the
steel frame, the roller mills are assembled as blocks to one unit. The stan-
dard Multomat design has eight roller mill sections, each with one pair of
diagonally arranged rolls of 250 mm (10 in.) diameter and 100 mm (4 in.)
length. The block construction method also permits the use of larger roller
mill sections with a 200- or 300-mm (8- or 12-in.) length, to make any
desirable combination for special applications. Such special applications are
used if large capacities must be milled, or if a unit of these roller mills is to
be used in a production installation.
The sifter is arranged underneath the roller mills, with five sections on
each side for a total of 10 sections. Flour from the various grinding opera-
tions is collected in drawers, and the scalps and overs are moved to the
next grinding process with a pneumatic conveying system. The pneumatic
lifts terminate in cyclone separators with cones made of Plexiglas. The
airlocks underneath these cyclones are designed to act not only as seals
but also as feed rolls. In the sifter, one of the sections is assigned as a
grader to the breaks and another section as a redust to the reductions (Fig.
2-10).
The original mill unit capacity ranged from 800 g/min for soft wheat to
about 1,500 g/min for hard wheat. To improve the mill performance,
improved wheat feeding arrangements and prebreak grinding can be added,
as well as bran dusters to treat by-products. The roll gap adjustments are
very sensitive and accurate. As an example, to reach optimum extraction of
endosperm from hard red winter wheat, the break releases can be set for the
three breaks in the range of 50%.
64
CHAPTER 2
Fig. 2-10. Typical flow diagram for the Miag “Multomat” laboratory mill. BK = break, M = middlings, W = wire, GG = grit gauze, XX = flour silk.
To improve the efficiency of generating more meaningful results related

to milling quality, the following technical changes can be made in the origi-
nal machine: separation between the rolls and sifter sections and increases
in the number of break rolls, reduction rolls, and sifter sections and in pneu-
matic conveying capacity.
Chopin CD Laboratory Mill

In this semiautomatic mill, there are three rolls for breaks (two grinding
stages) and one pair of rolls on the reduction side (Fig. 2-11). The CD1
model is used for flour production while the CD2 is for semolina produc-
tion from durum wheat. Sieving is done with two half-cylinder sieves, with
a rotor bouncing the material against the sieving surface. Depending on the
wheat characteristics, the average milling rate is about 500 g in 9 min, flour
extraction between 60 and 75%, and flour granulation less than 170 µm.
With special arrangements, larger quantities of wheat can be milled. The
advantage of this mill relates to its being semiautomatic. The sizing stock
produced on the breaks can be evaluated before being ground on the reduc-
tion side or purified. This additional intermediate stage can generate addi-
tional information about the milling quality of wheat. Boyacioglu et al
(1991) reported that durum semolina produced with the CD2 was purified
to a speck count significantly lower than the product from the Buhler MLU
202 laboratory mill, modified for durum milling. Both systems used the
same type of purifier for semolina purification.
Fig. 2-11. CHOPIN CD1 laboratory mill. (Courtesy of Tripette & Renaud, France)
66 CHAPTER 2
Experimental Mills
The methodology and the development of equipment for experimental
milling have been explored for decades. The objective of experimental
milling is to evaluate a small quantity of wheat for its performance in a
down-scaled milling unit by observing the wheat reduction process and
qualities of the resulting flour. The experimental milling process should
give the miller clues about how the wheat will perform on the commercial
mill. Only by trying to reach the utmost extraction levels from a wheat
sample experimentally can one determine the wheat’s milling quality
potential.
In past reviews of experimental milling techniques, preference for the
batch type of milling (Fig. 2-12) was expressed. Batch-type experimental
milling was confirmed also as the most suitable for the evaluation of soft,
hard and durum wheats (AACC, 2000; methods 26-22, 26-32, and 26-42).
The flexibility of batch-type milling with regard to the alteration of milling
flow and the adjustment of the technical specifications of both milling and
sifting equipment allows the simulation of commercial milling on a very
small scale with a limited amount of wheat.
Disintegration of the kernel during milling, quantity and quality charac-
teristics of intermediate stocks, flour yield, and the corresponding flour ash
content are some of the most important parameters used to express wheat
milling quality. Other factors, such as tempering response and grinding
Fig. 2-12. Batch-type experimental mill. (Courtesy of Kansas State University)

energy consumption (which reflects ease of milling), have been suggested.

Tools to measure these factors should be developed for experimental milling
in the future.
Each kind of wheat has unique characteristics that dictate optimal mill
adjustment. Moreover, a wheat variety varies in characteristics from year to
year depending on location and growing conditions. The miller performs a
continuous process of evaluation to optimize blending to achieve uniform
raw material and therefore needs wheat milling quality information to make
the appropriate adjustments in the commercial mill, so that uniform prod-
ucts can be supplied to customers. Without adequate information, the inter-
mediate stock distribution of ground wheat materials in the mill cannot be
predicted. This could put the whole commercial milling system out of bal-
ance for long periods, which can adversely affect the efficiency of the
operation.
There is no question that experimental milling with the batch-type sys-
tem requires an experienced person and is time-consuming. However, for
the miller, who will use many thousands of bushels to get uniform blends
on the mill, this effort is compensated for by the gain of fractions of
percentages in flour extraction.
The batch-type experimental milling unit can supply the miller with the
information needed to make the technical decisions concerning a wheat
sample. The necessary adjustments in blending can be made beforehand, to
ensure optimal loading of the mill and of all the machines in the system.
The batch milling process usually involves from one to as many as six
pairs of rolls (Fig. 2-13). Dimensions of grinding rolls can be 150–250 mm
(6–10 in.) in diameter and 150 mm (6 in.) in length. All the adjustments
available in a commercial roll stand—fine and coarse adjustment, as well as
feed rate adjustment—can be installed on the experimental pair of grinding
rolls. The feed rate can also be controlled with a special, externally
adjustable, vibrating hopper. The vibratory feeder improves reproducibility
and uniformity of stock feeding. Under each pair of rolls is a drawer in
which the ground stock accumulates. A laboratory sifter, with motion (rpm
180, throw 100 mm) identical to the commercial sifter’s motion, is used to
sieve each batch of ground material. The dimensions of sieves in the sifter are
300 × 300 mm (12 × 12 in.), and sieves are interchangeable from a large
selection that can simulate commercial sieving.
Adjustment of the rolls is achieved by setting the gap between them
with a feeler gauge. An example of such settings for U.S. hard wheat mill-
ing is 0.635 mm (0.025 in.), 0.305 mm (0.012 in.), 0.152 mm (0.006 in.),
and 0.076 mm (0.003 in.) for the first, second, and third break and the
sizing rolls, respectively. If fourth and fifth breaks are also used, their
adjustment usually is designated to clean the endosperm from the bran.
Another way to set the grinding rolls is to adjust for a required break
68 CHAPTER 2
release. Suggested break releases for U.S. hard wheats of 35, 45, and 45 for
the first, second, and third break, respectively, through a 20-wire sieve could
be used. Also, the fourth break should be used for cleanup of the bran.
A batch experimental milling system occasionally includes a small-scale
purifier that can give the miller the purification characteristics of the sizings and
other purifiable stocks. Extensive work has been done in different research cen-
ters using the small-scale purifier, especially in developing methods for increase
of farina and semolina production from wheats.
It may be beneficial to locate the experimental mill on one of the floors
of the commercial mill. Information from testing the wheat under the actual
environmental conditions of the commercial unit will generate better
information for mill adjustment and more accurate and meaningful informa-
tion about the wheat sample’s milling characteristics.
To accentuate differences in milling quality, a method was suggested (Li
and Posner, 1989a) in which different flows are used to mill a wheat sample
to various extraction levels. This method can also be used for producing
flours more comparable to those milled commercially. The technique allows
74, 76, 78, 80, and 82% flour extraction. Milling results show that this tech-
nique can give high reproducibility and acceptable variation between sam-
ples. Both ash content and color grade of the straight-grade flours from hard
red winter wheat showed a linear relationship with the extraction level.
To obtain different flour extraction levels in the past, the laboratory
method involved regrinding the bran fraction into flour. Obviously, this is
Fig. 2-13. Typical flow sheet for Ross experimental milling batch-type system. BK
= break, T = tailings, LG = low-grade, SIZ = sizings, M = middlings, LW = light
wire, GG = grit gauze, XX = flour silk.
not the practice in commercial milling. Technically, the resultant flours are
not representative of those milled on a commercial scale, where the miller
adjusts the system in a gradual sequence to get a higher extraction.
The distinction between wheat flour milling and other industrial com-
minution is the selective grinding, with the objective of avoiding the
production of ground bran and including it in flour. Technically, the
increase of flour extraction comes from different degrees of detachment of
endosperm from the inner bran surface, which is realized by gradual scrap-
ing. To avoid under- and overgrinding, the severity of grinding must be cor-
rectly adjusted for each system. This is more critical at higher flour extrac-
tion levels.
Experimental Milling Example

To demonstrate the usage of the experimental mill, the following is a
description of the technical data and auxiliary equipment used to mill wheat
to various extraction levels, as done in a study by Li and Posner (1989a).
The experimental miller could use this information for the experimental
mill, to make appropriate decisions for specific conditions.
The technical aspects of the grinding roll stands for various extraction
levels are shown in Table 2-2. A vibratory feeder was installed, replacing
the conventional feed gate to allow uniform feed. Sifting time for each sys-
tem is indicated in three suggested flow sheets. To facilitate the sieving-out
of flour, three cotton sifter-belt brushes were used in the cleaning frame
beneath the 10XX flour sieve. These cleaners greatly improved the effi-
ciency of the flour sieve, especially in the tail of the break and reduction
systems, where the stock was difficult to sift because of stickiness. Short-
ened experimental time helps to minimize moisture and dust loss and there-
fore improves the reproducibility of milling results.
TABLE 2-2
Technical Features of Mill Rollsa,b
Corrugations Differential Action
1 BK 11 Fast/11 Slow 2.5:1 D-D
5 BKc 22 Fast/22 Slow 2.5:1 D-D
5 BKf 26 Fast/24 Slow 2.5:1 D-D
1 Tc 26 Fast/24 Slow 2.5:1 D-D
Reduction 1.5:1
a
Source: Li and Posner (1989a).
b
BK = break, c = coarse, f = fine, T = tailings, D-D = dull to dull.
c
Corrugated rolls are used in the process for 80 and 82% extraction only; smooth rolls are
used for other extraction levels.
70 CHAPTER 2
A bran duster was incorporated into the flow for milling of 80 and 82%
extraction flour (Fig. 2-14). The machine, in which a perforated screen with
0.75-mm-diameter holes was inserted, ran at 1,785 rpm (853 m/min or
2,800 ft/min) top speed. The feeding rate was controlled by hand to restrict
it to within 600 g/min.
Commercial mill grist of hard red winter wheat was used to evaluate the
feasibility of the milling flow sheets and the milling methods designed to
obtain different flour extraction levels. The wheat sample was free from
damaged and diseased kernels. Wheat characteristics are presented in Table 2-
3.
Before conditioned for milling, the wheat was cleaned with a dockage
tester to remove non-wheat grains and light and small impurities. The
cleaned wheat samples then were tempered for 24 hr to 16% moisture
before milling. To permit precise water addition, wheat samples were kept in
plastic bags during mixing, to minimize moisture loss. The samples were
mixed by setting the plastic bags in a rotating drum (Fig. 2-4) for 15 min.
Fig. 2-14. Laboratory-size bran duster. (Source: Li and Posner, 1989a)
TABLE 2-3
Characteristics of Wheat Used in Studya
Test weight, lb/bu 60.25
1,000-Kernel weight, g 24.1
Pearling value, % 60.78
Ash content, % 1.50
Protein content, % 13.17
Wheat size, %
Over 7W 29.4
Over 9W 68.0
Over 12W 2.5
a
For each milling, 6,000 g of tempered wheat was used. The milling
results were expressed as the average of duplicate runs. Flour extraction was
the percent of wheat entering the first break (1BK), corrected to 14% mois-
ture basis.
Three flow sheets suggested for 74 and 76%, 78%, and 80 and 82%
flour extractions are shown in Figures 2-15, 2-16, and 2-17, respectively.
Table 2-4 presents the break releases used in the first three break systems
for each extraction level.
Fig. 2-15. Milling flow sheet for 74 and 76% extraction. BK = break, T = tailings,
LG = low-grade, SIZ = sizings, M = middlings, FL = flour, W = wire, GG = grit
gauze, XX = flour silk. (Source: Li and Posner, 1989a)
Fig. 2-16. Milling flow sheet for 78% extraction. BK = break, C = coarse, F = fine,
T = tailings, LG = low-grade, SIZ = sizings, M = middlings, FL = flour, W = wire,
GG = grit gauze, XX = flour silk. (Source: Li and Posner, 1989a)
72 CHAPTER 2
The gaps between the rolls to obtain the release values were determined
by preliminary trials. One hundred grams of stock (or wheat in 1BK) were
ground and sifted for 20 sec. The release value thus obtained was taken as
the real break release. If it was off, the clearance was adjusted accordingly
until the desired release value was obtained.
In 1BK, the break releases were increased about 2% for each 2% increase
in flour extraction. Relatively small changes in the break releases of the
second and third breaks were employed, although the releases in the second
break were decreased as the extraction level was increased. This practice was
believed to be technically reasonable, because very fine clearances were used
for the fourth and fifth breaks and, to some extent, the adjustment was
subjective. If higher break releases were not used in the first break during
higher flour extractions, the endosperm quantity in the stock flowing to the
tail breaks would be increased. To extract this part of the endosperm, the
application of strong grinding action in the fourth and fifth breaks would be
necessary, which could result in great deterioration of flour quality.
Fig. 2-17. Milling flow sheet for 80 and 82% extraction. BK = break, C = coarse, F =
fine, T = tailings, LG = low-grade, SIZ = sizings, M = middlings, FL = flour, W =
wire, GG = grit gauze, XX = flour silk. (Source: Li and Posner, 1989a)
TABLE 2-4
Break Releases,a %
Extraction First Second Third
Level Break Break Break
74 46.2 58.6 48.7
76 48.9 59.6 50.5
78 51.4 57.4 51.0
80 52.2 56.8 52.1
82 54.9 56.4 40.3
a
The clearance of the fourth and fifth break rolls was controlled to scrape
off the endosperm and keep the bran intact. The adjustment of the roll clear-
ance was based on trial and error.
A single Ross roll stand was used for the grinding of all reductions. The
severity was adjusted to obtain as much flour as possible without flaking
endosperm particles. Once the setting was chosen, it was fixed during the
whole process. Protein and ash contents of flour or wheat were determined
according to AACC Methods 46-13 and 08-01, respectively (AACC, 2000).
Moisture content of flour was determined according to AACC Method 44-
15A (AACC, 2000). Flour color grade was measured using a Kent-Jones flour
grader with 30 g of flour, 50 ml of distilled water, and a 120-sec mixing time.
The design of the milling flow sheets described above was based on one
used earlier for a series of wheat millability experiments in the laboratory.
Modifications of the basic flow sheet (Fig. 2-13) for different extraction
levels were the result of a series of trials evaluating the proper technical
specifications of the equipment and the resultant milling data.
Overs on 20W of the sizing system are composed of flaked germ and
bran flakes with a significant amount of endosperm. The grinding of this
stock with finely corrugated rolls could be effective for separation. How-
ever, this practice would unavoidably pulverize the flaked embryo and
introduce it into the flour. To eliminate cutting action, smooth rolls were
used for sizing reduction, and a bran duster was used for the treatment of
this stock. The bran duster is effective in endosperm separation, without
breaking embryo flakes.
The cumulative ash curves of flours from the different extraction levels
are presented in Fig. 2-18. These curves are the average results from the
Fig. 2-18. Cumulative ash curves of flours. (Source: Li and Posner, 1989a)
74 CHAPTER 2
curves of duplicate millings. A similar trend can be seen: the ash curves
appear flat and parallel to each other below 60% extraction and increase
sharply after 60% extraction. This same ash curve pattern is usually seen in
commercial milling, which indicates the similarity of the experimental
process to the commercial one.
It is also interesting to note that the ash curves were lower for higher
extraction levels than for lower extraction levels (below 60%). This indicates
that the employment of higher break releases for higher extraction millings
does not impair the quality of sizing stocks produced in the first three breaks
or the extraction of low-ash flour. Therefore, in the process described, a higher
flour extraction can be obtained without sacrificing the yield of low-ash patent
flour, which is technically desirable.
The increase of ash content in flour as the level of extraction was raised
was expected. The increase in ash comes from the incorporation of endo-
sperm close to the bran and the aleurone layer, which inherently contains a
higher level of minerals. The proportion of bran included in flour is also
increased, as the extraction level becomes higher. The described experi-
mental milling technique controls the incorporation of the high-ash content
endosperm by adjusting the degree of detachment from the bran and mini-
mizes production and inclusion of the bran fraction in the flour.
Figure 2-19 shows the relationship between the ash content of straight-
grade flours and the flour extraction levels. This linear relation (r = 0.987)
indicates that the flour quality of different wheats can be compared by
evaluating the slope of each regression line.
The linear relationship (r = 0.995) between flour color, grade, and
extraction shown in Figure 2-20 indicates that the performances of wheats,
Fig. 2-19. Relationship between ash content and total flour extraction level for a
hard red winter wheat. (Source: Li and Posner, 1989a)
in terms of flour color degradation, can be compared. A slower rise in flour

color grade as the flour extraction is increased indicates better milling qual-
ity of the wheat.
The significance of the experimental milling technique described above
is that it provides the technical solution for obtaining various flour extraction
levels on the laboratory scale, which are more representative of flours milled
commercially, and also provides a method for evaluation of wheat milling poten-
tial. The experimental milling process with controlled adjustments can produce
flours at different extraction levels and can accentuate differences in milling
properties between wheats.
Special Adaptations to Experimental Milling

Alterations and specific adaptations are characteristic of the routine of
laboratory technicians and also apply to laboratory mills. The Brabender
Quadrumat Jr. has been used in conjunction with a laboratory sifter to mill
small wheat breeders’ samples (Shuey, 1965). Another example is the
micromilling system, which yields flours comparable to those obtained on
larger and longer-extraction laboratory mills (Finney and Bolte, 1985). It
employs prebreak rolls of the Tag-Heppenstall moisture meter, a Brabender
three-break milling head, two Ro-Tap sifters, and a Brabender three-reduc-
tion milling head.
This approach of combining different machines in a laboratory system
was used in the case of durum wheat grinding (Black and Bushuk, 1967).
Granular products can be diverted also to a laboratory purifier from any
Fig. 2-20. Relationship between color grade and total flour extraction level for a
hard red winter wheat. (Source: Li and Posner, 1989a)
76 CHAPTER 2
laboratory mill. This can simulate the effect of the extensive use of purifiers
in a semolina production system.
In some cases, the grinding mechanism of the Miag Multomat labora-
tory mill has been assembled in combination with suitable sieving systems.
Individual sifter sections under each of the grinding stages with a side-to-
side action have replaced the original rotating sifter section. Such adapta-
tions are made in research centers to build systems that can handle larger-
scale milling under technically controlled conditions.
With the Buhler laboratory mill, flour yields obtained generally fall short
of those achieved in commercial practice. This discrepancy is most marked in
the case of soft wheats, but even hard wheats yield a few percent less. Addi-
tion of entoleters into the system between the first and second as well as
between the second and the third reductions have improved the flour yield
(Butcher and Stenvert, 1972). Addition of small-scale bran dusters in the tail
end of the system also improves flour extraction by cleaning up the bran and
shorts streams from the endosperm. Two Buhler laboratory mills were put in
tandem (Martin and Dexter, 1991). This extended the number of breaks to
five, added a sizing stage, and increased the number of reductions to six.
A batch system for milling is also employed by the experimental roll
stand, such as the Satake T-ROLL (Fig. 2-21) or the Miag “Vario.” This
machine features easily removable commercial-diameter rolls and a wide
Fig. 2-21. T-ROLL experimental roll stand. (Courtesy of Satake (USA) Inc.)
range of roll speeds and feed rates. The miller can perform the milling tests
under commercial conditions using this equipment. The scientist can use
such a set to study the technology of milling and make technical observa-
tions of the grinding process by using the T-ROLL roll stand. It is possible
to observe and record the effect of different factors such as roll gap,
differential, corrugation type pitch, and spiral.
Guide to Selecting a Mill

for the Laboratory
To generate appropriate information from laboratory testing requires
careful consideration in selecting a mill. The following are some of the spe-
cific purposes of laboratory milling and the unique characteristics of mills
that could be used to accomplish them.
1. Milling small breeder samples and samples from the trade. The
Quadrumat Jr. can be used to mill samples from 10 to 1,000 g. The
resulting products could be used to determine protein, various kinds
of analytical data, and rheological flour characteristics; they can even
be used for baking small loaves.
2. Receiving wheat before binning. The SKCS machine can supply the
needed information regarding wheat kernel characteristics and segre-
gation to different bins (see Chapter 1).
3. Flour testing. Flour is produced from commercial wheat samples to
test for rheological, analytical, and baking properties. This informa-
tion usually is required for decisions about blending of wheats and
flours. A laboratory mill such as the Buhler MLU 202 or the
Multomat would be ideal for such an objective.
4. Making decisions related to wheat conditioning. For such an objec-
tive, a test mill with a fixed standard roll setting should be selected.
The Brabender Quadrumat Sr. or the CD1 would be a good
selection. Small samples can be conditioned to various levels and
can be tested to determine optimal conditioning parameters. The
intermediate sizing materials from the CD1 could be evaluated and
compared.
5. Determining milling properties of wheat or wheat blends. The batch-
type experimental mill (Fig. 2-12) can furnish information on wheat
milling quality. Correlations should be determined between the mill-
ing characteristics of wheat on the batch-type mill and wheat on the
commercial mill.
6. Conducting research and development to optimize grinding roll sur-
face. The T-ROLL or the Vario can be used for this purpose.
78 CHAPTER 2
Milling Evaluation
Experimental millers use various methods to evaluate milling results. It
is of interest to mention some of them that might be applied in the mill
laboratory or the commercial milling operation. The most popular method
is the ash curve. The ash curve is a quantity-weighted system to calculate
the cumulative ash of flour made from the blending the mill flour streams.
When the weight, percent of ash, and percent moisture are known for each
flour stream produced on a mill, valuable calculations are possible. Before
the curve values are determined, ash percentages are corrected to a common
moisture basis. In the United States, where flour is traded on the basis of
moisture level, ash values are corrected to 14% moisture basis (mb).
Correction of proximate analysis to 14% mb, can be referred to Anker,
Geddes and Bailey (1942), who showed that at 21°C, and RH of about 60%
flour reaches an equilibrium of 14% moisture. The individual flour streams
are arranged according to ash content, with the lowest ash first. Starting
with the two lowest ash streams, a series of calculations is made to deter-
mine ash content for blending the two streams. Then ash of a new blend,
consisting of the first two flours plus a third flour higher in ash content, is
calculated. Figure 2-22 shows what information must be collected and what
calculations must be made to determine cumulative ash from any milling
process. The ash curve reflects the relative efficiency of the separation of
endosperm from the outer pericarp layers of the kernel.
An additional application of flour ash values to determine milling per-
formance of wheat involves using the ratio of flour ash to wheat ash
(FA/WA). This ratio is between the total flour ash values and the original
Fig. 2-22. Form for collecting data with which to calculate cumulative ash.
whole-wheat kernel ash values. When related to extraction, the lower the
ratio at a certain level of flour extraction, the better the milling perform-
ance and subsequently the milling quality characteristics of the wheat.
Figure 2-23 shows the trend in the ratio between flour and wheat ash as
the extraction level increases. The lower the linear regression line of
FA/WA vs. flour extraction, the more efficient the separation between
bran and endosperm, indicating wheat with better milling characteristics.
With this approach, the inherently higher ash in the endosperm of certain
wheats does not interfere with the evaluation of technical milling
performance.
Data relating to the amount of sizings, middlings, and flours produced
on the break system, and variations in their ash content, better describe the
milling quality of wheats than does the ash content of stocks from the
reduction system. This is because quantities and characteristics of the inter-
mediate materials generated in the breaking system point out the potential
milling quality of the wheat and the capacity to separate its germ,
endosperm, and bran.
Wheat performance can also be evaluated by the Kent-Jones color
value:
Milling value = extraction – Kent Jones color value
In this case, the higher the number, the better the milling value.
Another method indicates the milling rating based on the total flour ash:
Milling rating = flour extraction – (ash × 100)
Fig. 2-23. Relationship between ratio of flour ash to wheat ash and flour
extraction level. HWW = hard white winter, HRW = hard red winter, FA = flour
ash, WA = wheat ash. (Source: Li and Posner 1989b)
80 CHAPTER 2
A higher milling rating number (from experimental milling) is preferable. The

ash value figure expresses a value using the following equation:
flour ash
Ash value figure = ×100
flour yield
There are additional methods to express relations between ash, extraction,
and flour color with index numbers for evaluating wheat’s milling performance.
Laboratories should find their own index number based on those parameters that
are significant for customer satisfaction. One method that originated in Italy,
based on graphical interpretation of ash curves, has much merit. The curve index
(Fig. 2-24) expresses the shape of the cumulative ash curve and the wheat’s mill-
ing potential. It can be used in mill comparisons when the same wheat is milled
on various systems or different wheats on the same system:
Curve index = L – 2D
where L = length and D = distance, measured in centimeters. Another way
of applying experimental milling results is to carefully collect data during
Fig. 2-24. Determination of the ash curve index number. L = length of the chord
between points A and B, D = length in centimeters of perpendicular line dropped
from the 50% total product point on chord AB to the ash curve, Y = intersection
point on chord AB at 50% total product, A = ash curve intersection at 30% total
product, B = ash curve intersection at 70% total product. (Reprinted, with permis-
sion, from Shellenberger and Ward, 1967)
the experiment and subsequently use them for wheat evaluation. Figure 2-25
is an example of a production report that can be completed when testing a
wheat sample with a batch-type milling system. From this production
report, percentage of sizings, break flour, reduction flour, patent flour, first
Fig. 2-25. Data sheet for experimental milling. (% Hung = “% Hungarian”—extrac-

tion percentages based on the total products from the experiment.)
82 CHAPTER 2
clear, second clear, germ, bran, shorts, and red dog can be determined.
Assigning dollar values to each 100 lb of product produced from the
experiment enables calculation of the total product value. The monetary
gain can be calculated by subtracting from total product value the cost of
100 lb of wheat. Significant differences can be shown between wheats
(Fig. 2-26).
Evaluation of wheat by batch-type experimental milling to various
extraction levels makes it possible to evaluate a representative sample of
wheat. By milling to the different extraction levels, the experimental miller
can determine the optimum milling quality and potential of a wheat sample.
Use of a report showing results of milling to different extraction levels
enables collection of information on intermediate stocks at different mill
settings.
With the availability of the desktop or personal computer, many
possibilities are open to the laboratory technician and miller in data collec-
tion and use. Ash curves can be drawn and instantaneously compared with
the previous performance of wheat samples. Distribution tables can be
altered in a short time, and wheat performance on the mill can be evaluated.
Granulation curves can be constructed quickly by inserting wheat experimental
data. With this information, the miller can predict variations in distribution of
intermediate products. Wheat quality data can be used with the appropriate soft-
ware programs to evaluate the milling quality potential and also the effect it has
on the economic return from the milling operation. In the future, experimental
mills will likely assume greater importance in the control of large commercial
milling units.
Fig. 2-26. Differences in the monetary values of two 1964 Colorado wheats.
Assessing Quality in the Mill Laboratory

Numerous wheat and flour quality tests that generate information
beyond those mentioned in Chapter 1 are performed in the mill laboratory.
The following are some of the additional procedures that might be used in
mill labs. The additional information allows the miller to improve the proc-
ess and provide better quality control to end products.
Color of Wheat, Flour, and Other Mill Products

Flour color is regarded as a major quality parameter, having importance
in control of the production process and as a specific merit in the trade. The
sensitivity of color grade to the presence of wheat tissues other than starchy
endosperm has prompted wheat breeders to select varieties with light-
colored kernels, when other characteristics are equal. As far as the eco-
nomic benefit is concerned, wheats with light-colored bran are desirable,
because the inclusion of the bran fraction would have less effect on the
color of the flour. In most countries, color is used instead of ash to evaluate
and specify flour. It can be determined on individual streams as well as on
the final products from the mill.
The operative miller compares the finished flours every hour against an
accepted standard using a test named the “Pekar Test” (AACC Approved
Method 14-10). The Pekar test is designed to assist visual comparison of
flour color. On a board made of rigid wood, plastic, or metal and 5–6 cm
wide by 15–22 cm long, the flour sample is pressed with a wide-bladed
spatula into a smooth pat about 0.5–1 cm thick. The Pekar board is slid
steadily at an angle into a bowl of water and held underwater for a few sec-
onds, which allows a wet skin to form on the pat before the board is
removed at the same angle. Wetting emphasizes color differences, espe-
cially if the wetted flour pat is allowed to dry before examination.
Instrumentation methods for flour color determination are being
developed continuously for faster and more objective evaluation. New
automated equipment determines the color of finished flours leaving the
milling operation. This is to alert the miller to any changes in the fin-
ished products. Flour color measured by an instrument depends upon the
light source and the material through which it is transmitted or from which
it is reflected. The light that reaches the instrument detector is defined by its
wavelength and intensity.
Brightness of flour is affected by bran content and other foreign
materials, and yellowness is related to the amount of natural pigments.
Brightness is determined by reflectance of a flour-water slurry with
instruments such as the Satake Color Grader PCGA Series 4 (previously
84 CHAPTER 2
the Kent Jones & Martin color grader) or the Agtron (green) instrument.
Brightness and yellowness also can be determined using tristimulus
instruments such as the Minolta colorimeter (model CR310, Minolta
Corp., Ramsey, NJ).
Satake Color Grader PCGA
The Satake Color Grader PCGA Series 4 enables flour brightness to be
accurately determined at a wavelength of 540 nm and expressed as a single
number (Fig. 2-27). In this instrument, a diffused light reflected from the
flour sample being tested is reduced, by a sensitive and accurately
computed shutter, until its intensity equals that of a standard light emitted
through a diffusing screen. The flour sample is used in the form of a water
paste in order to eliminate the effects of varying granularity. The effects of
colors other than “grayness” are minimized by using a special filter system.
The measuring circuit, consisting of a pair of matched photoelectric
cells coupled to a sensitive galvanometer, projects an illuminated spot
image onto a translucent scale. To measure the grade of flour, the operator
brings the image to the zero position on the scale by rotating a calibrated
dial, which actuates the shutter mechanism. The color grade of the flour
sample can then be read off as a numerical value directly from the calibrated
dial. A reference surface is also incorporated in such a way as to come
automatically into register between consecutive flour paste readings, thus
affording a continuous check on instrument performance. Periodic calibration
of the instrument should be performed by the miller, using the appropriate
known samples available from the machine supplier.
Agtron Color Meter
The instrument (Fig. 2-28) operates by illuminating the product by light
from mercury and neon gas-discharge tubes, and the product’s monochro-
matic reflectance is measured at one or more of three selected spectral lines:
blue (436 nm), green (546 nm), and red (640 nm). A number of standard
Fig. 2-27. Satake Color Grader PCGA Series 4 (Previously known as Kent Jones
& Martin flour color grader). (Courtesy of Satake Corporation UK Division)
calibration discs are supplied with the instrument. The discs have varying
shades of gray, the whiteness increasing with the number on the disc. The
Agtron meter scale is calibrated with any two discs to give 0–100% reflec-
tance for a given spectral line (mode), and the sample’s relative reflectance
in that mode is read on the scale. The green mode measures the color result-
ing from the presence of bran and low-grade colored materials. Wet or dry
samples can be evaluated and the results used on a comparative basis.
AACC Method 14-30 describes the wet method. In a sample cup, 25 ml of
distilled water is added to 20 g of flour. The flour-water mixture is mixed
till it becomes a smooth slurry. Calibration is accomplished with discs at
lower and upper limits (e.g., disc “63” at 4.5 and disc “85” at 94.0). The
sample cup is placed in the sample well, and the reading can be taken to the
nearest one-half unit. Gillis (1963) described the development work done in
adapting the Agtron to the flour-milling industry and also described a dry
method. Initially, the machine is calibrated with the two standard discs
representing the lower (zero) and upper (100) values. About 25–30 g of flour
is placed in the sample cup. The flour is packed uniformly by lifting the cup
approximately 1.25 cm (0.5 in.) and dropping it 40–50 times on a folded sheet
of facial tissue with a solid but slightly resilient surface. The flour color can be
determined in Agtron units (to the nearest 0.5) on the meter.
Murthy and Dietz (1974) determined that when blends of flours were
read in the Agtron, linear relationships could be found between the percent
of one ingredient and the Agtron color reading.
Fig. 2-28. Agtron color meter. 1 = sample, 2 = sample cap, 3 = transmission

spacer ring, 4 = backing disc, 5 = calibration disc, 6 = power switch, 7 = meter
switch, 8 = meter button, 9 = zero control, 10 = standardized control, 11 = meter,
12 = gain control. (Courtesy of Agtron Inc.)
86 CHAPTER 2
Tristimulus Systems
To adequately describe flour color, brightness, and yellowness of flours,
three tristimulus instruments can be used. These instruments offer various
color scales, all of which are mathematical transforms of the tristimulus
values X, Y, and Z. These are measurements of the proportional contribu-
tions from the red, green, and blue components, respectively, of the visible
spectrum that would match the sample color. To overcome the irregular sen-
sitivity of the human eye to some colors, a cube-root transformation
expresses the system in L*, a*, and b* values. L* is a function of the green
spectral contribution and a measure of the brightness from black (0) to
white (100); a* is a function of the red-green difference. Positive a* indi-
cates redness; negative a* indicates greenness. b* is a function of green-blue
difference. Positive b* indicates yellowness; negative b* indicates blueness.
The units within the L*, a*, b* system give perceptions of color difference
equal to those of a human observer. Instruments using the L*, a*, b* system
with built-in standard illuminants offer the possibility of simultaneous
measurement of all of the color attributes of a flour. Instruments using the
tristimulus systems are used for research and for on-line production of
baked goods, among other things (Wolk, 1999). Small laboratory or com-
pact mobile units using the tristimulus system are available also.
Flour Particle Size

The particle size distribution of a flour is an important quality parameter
to be considered in the design, adjustment, and operation of the mill. It
relates to the flour’s purity, water absorption capacity, rate of hydration, and
related mechanical damages during the milling process. Particle size is
important in high-ratio cake flour as a quality check. Particle size distribu-
tion of flour can be determined using mechanical sieving. Particles below
75 µm need something more than gravity (e.g., air) to force them through a
sieve. With the sedimentation method, it is possible to separate fine flour
particles based on their differences in shape, specific gravity, and size.
Newer and much more accurate instruments have been developed using
automated low-angle light scattering from a helium-neon laser. These auto-
mated laser diffractory instruments cover a particle size range of 0.1–700
µm. A few grams of flour are dispersed in a media of isopropyl alcohol,
which is propelled through the instrument (Fig. 2-29). The size of particles
is expressed as volume mean diameter.
The sieving to an end point method is a practical approach to determin-
ing flour particle size distribution using mechanical sieving. On a set of
available flour sieves (180–75 µm), 100-g samples are sifted to an end
point. Initially, the weight of the sieve and 100 g of flour is recorded.
Fig. 2-29. Instrument for particle size measurement. (Courtesy of Horiba Co.)
Subsequently, the sieve and the flour on top are inserted into the
laboratory sifter and sieved for 1 min. They are then weighed and sieved
again. After each min of sieving, the weight of the sieve and the flour
remaining on top is recorded. The process continues until the weight
difference between consecutive weighings is only 1 g or less. The total
amount of flour that passed through the sieve during the several sievings
is expressed as a percentage of the initial 100 g of flour and is designated
as the end point. The process is repeated with each of the sieves and,
based on the data collected, the flour particle granulation distribution can
be determined.
Near-Infrared Control of Mill Products

Efficient and quick control of products in the mill can be achieved
with NIRR spectroscopy equipment. In using this technology, the miller
is able to perform routine tests on the mill floor by placing the instrument
in an enclosed room. A good practice with NIRR testing equipment is to
have it calibrated at least daily by the laboratory personnel.
Instruments applying the technology use light in the near-infrared
region of 0.75–2.5 µm of the electromagnetic spectrum and are designed to
determine the quantity of different wheat kernel constituents. Measurements
are based on the absorption or reflectance of specific wavelengths affected
by the concentration of certain molecules in the sample. Current instru-
88 CHAPTER 2
ments can determine levels of moisture, protein, relative ash content, hard-
ness, and starch damage in flour. Some of the equipment analyzes flours or
ground materials, while others do not destroy the sample and are able to
determine the constituents in whole grain.
Reflection and transmission techniques exist that use near-infrared to
measure material constituents. However, between the two, diffuse reflection
is the most appropriate in the flour milling industry, especially when used
for on-line monitoring. A schematic view of the NIRR optical sensing head
is shown in Figure 2-30. The light transmitted through the filter bounces off
the sample, is collected by the spherical mirror, and strikes one of the two
detectors. For reference at the same wavelength, the mirror tilts so that the
light misses the sample but strikes the detector. The ratio of the two intensi-
ties is the reflectance.
Bran Specks
The industries that use cereals, and especially wheat flour, realize that
ash is not a factor in the performance of flour, but bran is. Wheat bran inter-
feres with the structure of gluten and accordingly causes a decrease in gas
retention and baked-bread volume. In addition, bran specks interfere with
the quality of pasta products. Accordingly, systems have been developed to
determine the specks in mill products. A digital image analysis (DIA)
method uses reflected visible light for on-line and at-line analysis of bran in
flour. The algorithms used are designed to be insensitive to variations in the
color and brightness of bran specks and of endosperm and to respond
solely to the quantity of darkly contracted tissues (Kurt et al, 2000). Evers
and Erdentug (2003) described the usage of the Branscan (Wickhanford,
UK) to determine specks in durum semolina. A correlation of r² = 0.98
Fig. 2-30. Schematic view of near-infrared reflectance optical sensing head.

(Reprinted, with permission, from Posner and Wetzel, 1986)
was determined between the Branscan speck count and percent of branny
particles in a semolina sample. Harrigan and Bussmann (1998) described
the Maztech SPX Speck Expert (Maztech MicroVision Ltd. Ottawa, ON,
Canada).
Starch Damage
The diameter of wheat flour starch granules can range from 0.5 to 55
µm. Damage to starch granules during flour milling is of importance to
flour performance for baking or other end uses. An excessive amount of
damage is undesirable, although some damage is necessary for enzymatic
action on starch. However, Tipples et al (1966) stated that, to avoid dough-
handling difficulties and maintain bread quality, wheat of higher α-amylase
levels must be milled to a lower level of starch damage. Various methods
exist to determine the level of starch damage in flour generated during
milling. Chemical methods described in Approved Method 76-31 (AACC,
2000), Farrand (1964), and Stewart (1966) are used in many laboratories, in
many cases with some local modifications. Megazyme (Megazyme Interna-
tional, Ireland) supplies test kits for determination of starch damage accord-
ing to AACC Method 76-31 and ICC Method 164. In addition, a substrate is
available for the measurement of α-amylase. The Chopin SDmatic (Fig. 2-
31) is used to determine starch damage, which is expressed in values
correlating with those of approved Method 76-30A (AACC, 2000). Results
are expressed in UCD (Chopin units) and also in units according to different
procedures such as AACC or Farrand. Based on the level of starch damage,
Fig. 2-31. Starch damage determination instrument SDmatic. (Courtesy of

Tripette & Renaud, Inc.)
90 CHAPTER 2
the instrument estimates the water absorption at a consistency of 500

Brabender units (BU) (14% mb) and the hydration rate for pan and hearth
bread. Bunn (2001), reviewing the issue of starch damage in the mill,
showed the formulas to convert from Farrand to AACC and vice versa:
AACC = (0.27 Farrand) + 2.7
and
Farrand = (3.7 AACC) – 10
Wet Gluten
Wheat gluten can be isolated manually by washing the starch and water-
soluble components of flour from dough by kneading it under running
water. The Glutomatic is an automatic machine that requires minimal
human intervention to wash out gluten from ground wheat meal or flour
(Fig. 2-32). According to Method 38-12A (AACC, 2000) the wet gluten is
centrifugally forced against a specially constructed sieve under standard
conditions. The percentage of gluten remaining on the sieve and not forced
through the holes is the gluten index. If the gluten is very weak and all the
gluten passes through the sieve, the gluten index is zero (Perten et al, 1992).
Total wet gluten, the sum of gluten on the index sieve plus the gluten that
passed through the sieve, is expressed as a percentage of the 10 g of meal or
flour used for the test. The total wet gluten is dried on an attached instru-
ment, Glutork 2000, where the moisture is evaporated to give the dry-gluten
value. The difference between the total wet gluten and dry gluten is termed
as the “water binding capacity” of the sample. The Glutomatic provides
data on the quality of gluten-forming proteins, for wheat blending, and on
any damage that affected the wheat’s or flour’s gluten. High levels of pro-
tein and strong wet gluten are desirable in durum semolina and are directly
related to the cooking quality of pasta. Cubadda et al (1992) stated that the
Fig. 2-32. The Glutomatic, for determination of gluten. (Courtesy of Perten Co.)
gluten index is an excellent small-scale method for evaluating gluten strength

in durum wheat. Gluten quantity and quality is a factor in the Russian wheat
grading system (see Chapter 1). The Russian methods for determination of
gluten quantity and quality in wheat and flour are GOST 13586.1-68 and
GOST 27839-88 respectively (Russian State Standards, 1971).
Evidence in different studies showed that a high temperature above 36°C
during the early or middle stage of grain filling increased protein levels in
wheat but resulted in a dramatic decrease in the dough strength of some culti-
vars (Finney and Fryer, 1958; Randall and Moss, 1990; Blumenthal et al,
1993; Wrigley et al, 1994). Hinton (1962) reported damage to gluten from
insect pests (such as Eurygaster and Aelia spp.) in wheat. The kernels are usu-
ally attacked at the unripe milky stage, although riper, hard grains can also be
attacked. In unusually hot, dry seasons, the insect punctures the kernel during
feeding and injects a digestive secretion into the kernel. After a lapse of some
minutes, the bulk of the digested material is withdrawn, but a considerable
dose of enzymes remains in the grain. The residual enzymes left in the
attacked grain are chiefly proteolytic, or gluten-destroying, leaving the starch
granules apparently untouched.
Flour pH
Flour pH, a measure of hydrogen ion concentration, is especially of
importance in soft wheat flour. Hard wheat flours, such as unbleached bread
flour, bleached bread flour, and clear flour have pH values of 5.8–6.0, 5.7–
5.9, and 6.0–6.4, respectively. On the other hand, soft wheat flours are
lower; for example, high-ratio cake flour may have a pH of 5.66, while
straight-grade soft wheat flour has pH 5.87. Flour protein and ash have a
buffering effect on the pH and therefore pH should be considered in stream
selection and blending in the mill. The higher the ash in the flour, the higher
the pH will be. Depending on the soft wheat quality, the mill’s flour streams
could show ash levels of 0.281% for second break, 0.350% for first sizings,
and 0.564% for sixth midds (14% mb), with pH levels of 5.65, 5.83, and
6.03, respectively. Chlorine gas is usually used to treat soft wheat flours to
reach a specified pH in the range of 48.9–114.09 ml/100 kg (0.75–1.75
oz/cwt). Adjustments are made to ensure a certain pH level, which
decreases by 0.05–0.07 during the first four to eight days after treatment.
Extraneous Matter in Flours—Fragment Count

Extraneous matter (filth) tests for foreign materials such as rodent hair,
insect fragments, or parts of bird feathers, are determined in 50 g of flour.
AACC Method 28-41B (AACC, 2000) describes the acid hydrolysis method
for insect fragments and rodent hair in flour. The U.S. Food and Drug
92 CHAPTER 2
Administration (FDA) regulations specify a maximum average of 75 insect

fragments (insect filth) or an average of one or more rodent hair (rodent
filth) per 50 g of flour. However, specifications in commercial flour buying
contracts are usually below 15 fragments per 50 g of flour. Some attempts
were made to stain the separated matter using Azure A or Methylene Azure
to distinguish insect exoskeletons, which stain mustard green to blue green,
from other fragments, including particles of bran coat and plant hairs,
whicht stain a deep blue (Gier et al, 1949). Illustrations of extraneous
matter and insect fragments in wheat flour and other cereals are shown in
AACC Method 28-95 (AACC, 2000).
Testing Instruments
Farinograph
The Brabender Farinograph records flour dough behavior under identi-
cal test conditions in which the mixing bowl is kept at constant temperature
(Method 54-21, AACC, 2000). The resistance of the dough against constant
mechanical shear is recorded on a chart in the form of a torque-time curve.
The curve shows water absorption, dough development time in minutes,
stability in minutes, and degree of softening in Brabender units. Water
absorption capacity of the flour is based on a specific dough consistency
achieved at the 500-BU line. The farinograph and the mixograph are used to
measure mixing properties of flours. The farinograph curve data, such as
arrival time and stability, can be used for wheat blending and flour blend-
ing. The valorimeter value is an empirical quality score based on dough
development time and dough tolerance to mixing. This value is derived
from the farinogram by means of a special template supplied by the farino-
graph manufacturer (Brabender, OHG, Duisberg, Germany). A value
obtained with a Brabender Valorimeter can express the flour quality to some
degree. Eckardt (1957) stated that valorimeter values below 30 indicate bad
quality and 30–40, 40–50, 50–60, 60–80, 80–100 are acceptable, moderate,
satisfactory, good, and very good, respectively.
The handbook by D’Appolonia and Kunerth (1984) includes special
uses and techniques, precautions, modifications, dough rheology, types of
farinograph curves, and the factors affecting them.
Extensigraph
Measurement of dough properties on the Brabender Extensigraph
depends on the prior determination of water absorption and the preparation
of the dough in the farinograph. Flour-water-salt dough pieces of constant
weight are prepared for the extensigraph test by rounding and then molding
them into a cylinder under constant conditions. Each piece is then clamped
into a dough holder and, after a definite period of rest at a controlled tem-
perature, the dough piece is attached to a hook, which travels downward at a
constant rate and extends the dough piece. The load on the dough piece is
recorded on a kymograph, and the curve obtained is referred to as a load-
extension curve.
The extensigraph provides the following data: extensibility—length of
the curve in millimeters, resistance to extension—height of the curve in
Brabender units, energy—area of the curve in square centimeters, maxi-
mum—highest point of the curve, and ratio—resistance to extension
divided by extensibility (Rmax/E ratio). According to Method 54-10 (AACC,
2000), three tests are made, after 45, 90, and 135 min.
In general, the extensigraph method does not lend itself to the routine
examination of flour properties because the evaluation of the results is
laborious. However, the extensigraph technique is important in studying the
effect of oxidative flour treatment on the fundamental properties of dough
behavior and the biochemistry of the protein linkages involved (Muller et
al, 1962).
Rasper and Preston (1991) provided a detailed handbook on the func-
tion of the extensigraph and its part in recent developments in physical
dough testing.
Alveograph
The principle of the Chopin Alveograph is based on the three-dimen-
sional deformation of a dough patty, produced under predefined conditions.
Air blown into the patty forms a bubble, and the pressure is recorded until
the bubble bursts (Method 54-30A, AACC, 2000; ISO Method 5530). Data
generated with this instrument can be used for evaluating flours as well as
for blending of wheats or flours to reach required specifications. The
pressure curve (alveogram) is measured in relation to time and is mainly
characterized by five parameters: Pmax, L, W, P/L, and Ie. Pmax, the pressure,
corresponds to the maximal resistance of the dough during deformation. It
depends on consistency, dough strength, and the hydration potential of the
flour. L (in mm) indicates the extensibility of the dough until the breaking
point. W (joules × 10–4) measures deformation of the dough expressed as
the strength of the flour, or baking strength of the dough. P/L is a ratio of
the two parameters. Ie (%) is the ratio P200/Pmax, where P200 is the pressure
measured in the bubble after200 ml of air has been blown into the dough. Ie
is related to the elastic resistance of the dough. The swelling index, G,
expressed in milliliters, represents the square root of the volume of air
required for inflating the dough until rupture and is considered dependent
on the product of properties usually described as springiness and shortness.
Faridi et al (1987) provided an in-depth guide to the theory, practice,
and operation of the alveograph. The information includes how to make the
94 CHAPTER 2
most effective use of the instrument and instructions on how to attain a per-
manent record of changes in dough characteristics during expansion.
Mixograph
The Mixograph (National Mfg. Corp., Lincoln, NE) was first described
by Swanson and Working (1933). The mixing bowl contains three or four
vertical pins. Four other vertical pins, lowered into it, travel in a planetary
motion around the stationary pins. The torque on the mixing bowl is
recorded by means of its rotation against a spring (Method 54-40A, AACC,
2000). The mixogram recording chart is divided by horizontal lines into 10
major divisions, and each of these divisions is then divided into five
subdivisions, making 50 units. The chart is moved slowly past the pen and
is timed so that it takes the pen 1 min to move between any pair of curved
vertical lines. In this way, the number of minutes required for the pen to
reach the peak is recorded, thus indicating maximum mechanical dough
development. The rate at which the dough breaks down is also reflected by
the degree of down slope and the time required to reach maximum rate of
down slope. The amount of water added to the flour in the bowl affects the
mixogram in about the same way it does the farinogram. Characteristics simi-
lar to those defined by the farinogram (such as mixing requirements, mixing
tolerance, and varietal pattern) can be determined from the mixogram.
Hoseney and Finney (1974) studied the issues related to dough mixing before
baking and the behavior of the mixograph curves as affected by the addition
of water, shortening, oxidizing agents, and other ingredients.
Amylograph
The Brabender Amylograph, which measures the diastatic activity in
wheat flour, has been available since 1930. The latest models are referred to as
viscoamylographs. A flour-water suspension is heated at a rate of 1.5 degrees
C per minute to 95°C, held at 95°C for a period ranging from 10 to 60 min,
then cooled at a rate of 1.5 degrees C per minute to 50°C and, optionally, held
at 50°C for an additional time. Electronic controls, temperature adjustment,
automatic programmer attachment, and a pressure chamber for high-pressure
cooking of high-amylose starch are available in the latest models from the C.
W. Brabender Co. Function, theory, operating practices, instrument construc-
tion, source of error, procedures, uses and applications for using the amylo-
graph were described by Shuey and Tipples (1980).
Rapid Visco-Analyser
A rapid (3-min) screening of wheat loads for sprout damage can be per-
formed with the Rapid Visco-Analyser (RVA, Newport Scientific Pty, Ltd.,
Warriewood, Australia) (Ross et al, 1987). Four grams of whole-wheat
flour, ground through a Falling Number (or equivalent) mill, is added to 25
ml of water in aluminum cups. A specially designed strirrer is introduced

while the cup is clamped into a 96°C-heating block. An initial 7-sec high-
speed (900-rpm) stir disperses the sample before the beginning of the 160-
rpm measuring phase. The temperature of the mixture rises very rapidly,
and viscosity increases, reaching a maximum in less than 2 min, before
beginning to decline. The current required to maintain the stirring motor at
constant speed varies with viscosity up to 0.2 A. This current demand is
converted to a digital number by an analog-to-digital converter and then
presented as the stirring number. Upon completion of the test, the sample
container and stirring paddle are discarded, and a fresh sample can be
immediately introduced, using a new cup and stirrer. The RVA could also be
used as an alternative for measuring starch pasting and cooking properties
(Walker et al, 1988; Deffenbaugh and Walker, 1989).
The falling number test (see Chapter 1) is also used for detecting sprout
damage and the corresponding diastatic activity in wheat.
The Baking Test

The baking test in the mill laboratory is highly significant when the flour
is evaluated to accommodate the requirements of a certain customer’s specific
demands. In cases in which a wide range of flour qualities is supplied to a
large number of customers with varying demands, it is necessary to collect
information on the different types of end-use formulas in which the flour is
used and adjust the testing accordingly. Personnel in the mill laboratory must
decide whether a bake test, the specific method used, and the results are gen-
eral enough to accommodate all the needs or whether the bake test should be
combined with other tests. Kelfkens and Lichtendonk (2000) showed high
correlations of glutenin-macro-polymer with bread baking.
Conclusion
The flour mill laboratory is an important part of a good milling opera-
tion. The partnership between the laboratory staff and the operating miller is
necessary to ensure quality products. The ultimate objective is to implement
a positive program of total quality management, such as HACCP or the ISO
guidelines, to ensure customers of food safety. Chapter 14 covers, in more
detail, the issue of quality management in the flour mill.
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Cereal Science Today 8(2):40-46,55.
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automated image analysis. Cereal Foods World 43:11-16.
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Hook, S. C. W., Bone, G. T., and Fearn, T. 1984. The influence of air temperature
and relative humidity on milling performance and flour properties. J. Sci. Food
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Technology, Vienna, Austria. (See list of specific methods below.)
Jeffers, H. C., and Rubenthaler, G. L. 1977. Effect of roll temperature on flour yield
with the Brabender quadumat experimental mills. Cereal Chem. 54:1018-1025.
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98 CHAPTER 2
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AACC APPROVED METHODS
08-01, Ash—Basic method

14-10, Pekar color test (slick test)
14-30, Agtron color test for flour
26-10A, Experimental milling: Introduction, equipment, sample preparation, and
tempering
26-21A, Experimental milling—Bühler method for hard wheat
26-22, Experimental milling—Batch method for hard wheat
26-30A, Experimental milling—Bühler method for soft wheat short-extraction flour
26-31, Experimental milling—Bühler method for soft wheat straight-grade flour
26-32, Experimental milling—Batch method for soft wheat
26-41, Bühler method for durum wheat
100 CHAPTER 2
26-42, Batch method for durum wheat

26-50, Brabender Quadrumat Jr. (Quadruplex method)
26-95, Experimental milling: Temper table
28-41B, Acid hydrolysis method for extracting insect fragments and rodent hairs—
Light filth in white flour
28-95, Insect, rodent hair, and radiographic illustrations
38-12A, Wet gluten, dry gluten, water-binding capacity, and gluten index
44-15A, Moisture—Air oven methods
46-13, Crude protein—Micro-Kjeldahl method
54-10, Extensigraph method, General
54-21, Farinograph method for flour
54-30A, Alveograph method for soft and hard wheat flour
54-40A, Mixograph method
76-30A, Determination of damaged starch
76-31, Determination of damaged starch—Spectrophotometric method
ICC STANDARD METHODS

Method 101/1: Sampling of grains
Method 102/1: Determination of “Besatz” in wheat
Method 104/1: Determination of mineral content in wheat and mill products
Method 105/1: Determination of protein in wheat and mill products for food and
feed
Method 107/1: Determination of falling number according to Hagberg-Perten
Method 110/1: Moisture determination in wheat and mill products
Method 114/1: Method to operate the Brabender Extensograph
Method 115/1: Method to operate the Brabender Farinograph
Method 116/1: Zeleny sedimentation method
Method 121: Method for using the Chopin Alveograph
Method 126/1: Method to operate the Brabender Amylograph
Method 156: Method to determine total dietary fiber
Method 164; Starch damage assay procedure (Megazyme)
Method 202: NIR analysis of grounded wheat and mill products
ISO STANDARD METHODS
Method 5530-2:1997: Wheat flour characterization using a farinograph

Method 5530-2:1997: Wheat flour characterization using an extensograph
Method 5530-4:2002: Wheat flour characterization using an alveograph
AACC Approved Methods: http://www.aaccnet.org/approved methods

Megazyme International: http://www.megazyme.com
Standard Methods ICC: http://www.icc.or.at/publ.php
Standard Methods ISO: http://www.iso.org
CHAPTER 3
Wheat Storage and Blending
It is important for the individuals responsible for growing, buying, stor-

ing, handling, and processing wheat to know the handling systems in the
elevator. Storage facilities, handling system, and atmospheric conditions
such as the grams of moisture per cubic meter of air outside and within the
storage facility can significantly affect the quality and value of the wheat.
Wheat grading systems reflect damage to wheat that occurs during storage
and handling. Unsuitable mechanical equipment can cause changes in
quality such as an increase in kernel breakage and the amount of fine
dust in the wheat. Mold growth creates a penetrating and residual musty
odor that is a concern in wheat grading; accordingly, such wheat is desig-
nated smutty. Heat damage results from conditions that develop during
storage. According to the U.S. grading system, more than 0.2% heat-
damaged kernels degrade wheat to No. 3. Such physical, chemical, and
biological changes in wheat quality can be avoided if conditions during
storage and handling are properly controlled.
The Grain Elevator

Wheat is an important raw material for human food consumption
because it can retain good quality from one harvest to the next. Over many
centuries, storage systems progressed from the keeping of small amounts of
harvested grain in underground pits to storing hundreds of thousands of
bushels in concrete bins. The main objective centuries ago was to maintain
good quality of grain until the next harvest. In modern times, storage of
grain over two or three harvest periods is not uncommon, even in locations
with unfavorable climate.
Flour mills located close to wheat-growing areas have exceptionally
large storage capacity for harvested wheat. Such mills receive large quanti-
101
102 CHAPTER 3
ties of wheat during the annual harvest period and usually are technically
designed to handle these amounts. Identity-known wheats are accepted,
segregated, and kept in optimal storage facilities until usage. The decision
to accept the newly harvested wheat directly from the farmer involves
significant economic and technical considerations. The costs of wheat,
storage, and year-round delivery can and should be quantified before such a
decision is made.
Around the world, harvest starts in October in Australia and Argentina
and ends in October of the following calendar year in northern
hemisphere countries such as the United Kingdom and Canada. The
harvest accrues during the summer or end of summer in the respective
countries, when conditions are optimal for insect and mold growth. Not
all countries have favorable climatic conditions for storage year-round.
Therefore, it is important to apply measures for preserving wheat quality
in unfavorable climates.
Facilities and Equipment

Equipment in the elevator (silo) can be divided into categories accord-
ing to use: weighing, receiving, dust control, sampling, and analysis; clean-
ing; storage; distribution; dosing (blending) at bin outlets; conveying; and
preserving wheat quality. Advances in computer programming have allowed
the development of comprehensive systems that control, sample, document,
and store information for back tracing wheat loads arriving at the mill silo
(Armster and Scheer, 2002). The facilities and equipment in the mill eleva-
tor vary depending on location and type of operation.
Weighing
Most mills have a weighing bridge for incoming and outgoing loads.
This is a significant part of the mill control and accounting system. Mills
used to measure grain in the bins by actual weighing once a year for inven-
tory control to reconcile the annual gain or loss. Computerized systems
today are more accurate and register instantly any change in inventory.
Incoming wheat is electronically added to the inventory of the mill. These
weighing systems are being integrated into mill management systems. The
mechanical scales previously used required significant maintenance, clean-
ing, and attention from the operator, as spilled grain and dust interfered
with accurate weighing. Electronically operated scales, which are the type
installed in most operations today, are rigid and dust proof. In the past, the
different departments of the mill, such as the Elevator or Packaging,
reported their activities separately on a hard copy. In the modern computer-
STORAGE AND BLENDING 103
ized mill, terminals at the different departments instantaneously update the

system.
The weighing bridge scales for incoming wheat should accommodate all
the vehicle sizes used for wheat transportation. Bridge scales, on load cells,
should be sufficiently long and wide to accommodate the whole vehicle.
Inaccuracies arise when a vehicle must be weighed in two parts as a result
of an undersized weighing platform. Rails should be installed on the sides
of the scale to make sure that the vehicle is positioned properly. Electronic
sensors and television cameras are among the means of ensuring that the
scale operator has adequate control of all factors that might interfere with
accurate weighing.
Hopper, belt, or flow-through scales, also electronically operated, are
used to ensure that the inventory control weights of all outgoing wheat from
the elevator are determined. Surge bins are important before and after the
hopper scale to avoid fluctuation in the load to the scale and in subsequent
transport and cleaning equipment.
Receiving
Today, large quantities of wheat arrive at the modern mill by rail, road,
or waterway. Raw material availability and transportation are major deci-
sion parameters in optimizing the location of new mill construction. Based
on the site, facilities are constructed to accommodate the unloading of the
wheat in minimum time. The receiving system should be planned to handle
grain at a rate faster than it arrives. Mechanical conveying and handling
equipment should always be selected with sufficient capacity to allow for
easy future expansion. Several different mechanical methods can be used to
unload grain.
Unloading
Modern mills in wheat-importing countries are built near port unloading
facilities to save on land transportation and multiple loadings and unload-
ings. The unloading and storage capacities are designed to avoid demurrage
costs and logistical problems. To unload waterway vessels, mechanical or
pneumatic unloaders are used.
For unloading rail cars and trucks, hopper pits are constructed under the
railway or road. Hopper pits should have a minimum of 30 degrees of slope
to allow complete emptying of the wheat to a collecting device in the bot-
tom. The upper opening of the hopper, on which the vehicle is positioned,
has a grilled surface that prevents large foreign bodies from passing through
with the wheat. Some facilities contain hydraulically activated platforms to
tip the car or truck and empty the wheat.
104 CHAPTER 3
Dust Control
Dust control in the receiving and all other stages of wheat handling in
the elevator is of interest from safety, health, and economic aspects. Any
dust having an economic value should be collected and sold as a by-
product. In many cases, dust is pelletized for use as feed or burning mate-
rial. To control dust emissions in the elevator and the mill, some operators
spray the dry grain with oil, water, or a mixture of both. Liquids such as
mineral oil (200 ppm) for dust suppression should be applied with depend-
able equipment that accurately controls and monitors the spraying. How-
ever, some who have tested this method have reported color deterioration of
the flour and a decrease in flour extraction (Reid, 1988).
The health risks caused by inhaled dust were described by Guarino and
Navarotte (1998). They classified dust according to particle size and the
effects of the various sizes. The smallest fractions, having a diameter less
than 0.5 µm, follow the law of Brownian motion; they act as an aerosol and
are inhaled and immediately expelled on expiration. Larger fractions, how-
ever, can be deposited inside the respiratory tract, where they can have two
different effects depending upon particle size. Particles with a diameter lar-
ger than 5 µm have an almost negligible irritating effect since, thanks to
ciliary activity, they are expelled from the tract within 24 hr. On the other
hand, particles ranging between 5 and 0.5 µm in diameter provide the great-
est risk. They are partly consumed by white blood cells before eventually
being coughed up. This is a long-term process that may take between 60
and 120 days. Therefore, such particles may cause inflammation of varying
severity as a result of the presence of molds, viruses, and bacteria on the
wheat dust particles. In an earlier report, Swift and Proctor (1982) stated
that most particles larger than 10 µm are removed in the mouth or nose
before entering the body. A sizeable proportion (10–60%) of the particles
passing the trachea with aerodynamic diameters less than 10 µm may be
deposited in the lung, where they may cause harm. Swift and Procter (1982)
showed a bimodal lung-deposition curve that peaked at 20% for ~3-µm
particles and at 60% for ~0.03-µm particles. This information should guide
operators of wheat storage facilities in selecting the appropriate filtering
efficiency for dust masks.
Dust is also a safety hazard, as it is potentially explosive, and some of it
should be removed at each stage of grain handling in the elevator. This is to
ensure that it decreases in quantity at each point of mechanical transfer. If
not controlled, the amount of dust continuously increases as a result of the
mechanical abrasion of the kernels. In the wheat unloading area, an
enclosed aspiration system increases the efficiency of dust control. An
efficient system requires appropriately sized ducts, filters, and fans. The fan
must be capable of moving the required air volume and have sufficient
TABLE 3-1
Air Requirements in a Wheat Elevatora
Operation Design Air Volume
Track pit Direct hood exhaust from hopper 0.51 m3/sec/m2 grate area
Belt discharge 1 m/sec speed 0.23 m3/sec/m belt width
1.27 m/sec speed 0.39 m3/sec/m belt width
Drop to elevator Increase by 1/3 if material drop is
over 3 m
Bucket elevator 0.51 m3/sec/m2 cross-section
Scale hopper Direct exhaust 1 m3/sec/m3 volume
a
Adapted from Committee on Industrial Ventilation (1986).
pressure to match the resistance of the system when conveying dust.

According to Kice (1983), typical dust control system resistances are in the
range of 20.32–25.4 cm (8–10 in.) water gauge pressure. Table 3-1 shows
some of the typical air requirements in a wheat elevator.
Standards of the Occupational Safety and Health Administration
(OSHA) define “fugitive grain dust” as combustible dust particles from the
stock handling system of such size as to pass through a U.S. Standard 40-
mesh sieve (425 µm). The minimum ignition data for such wheat dust in the
presence of oxygen and in a confined space are concentration 50 g/m3, tem-
perature 440°C, ignition energy 0.060 J, and maximum pressure 7 bar
(101.5 lb/in2).
OSHA regulations and standards are very detailed concerning the eleva-
tor section of the flour mill. The standards establish a 1/8-in. (3.175-mm)
action level for grain dust accumulations in priority areas. This provision
requires cleanup wherever 1/8 in. accumulates in any part of a priority area,
regardless of total amount. Cleanup should not be done with compressed air
but with vacuum or soft hair brooms, which suspend less dust in the air.
The grain elevator is at the top of the list of facilities to which the
OSHA regulations (Federal Register, 1989) apply. These regulations
address procedures for and operation of the various pieces of equipment in
grain elevators. The regulations are concerned with the functions of the
different machines in the elevator design and with preventive maintenance.
Sampling
Sampling of wheat upon arrival at the elevator is important for segre-
gating wheat to different bins and for subsequent blending to achieve least-
cost product optimization. Sampling can be done manually or with an auto-
matic sampler. In either case, the objective is to get the best representative
sample from the tested load.
Seldom is any load of wheat completely uniform throughout. To get a
good representative sample for testing, it is necessary to draw a sufficient
106 CHAPTER 3
number of small quantities from the stream of wheat. With a good sampling
device and an appropriate method of blending subsamples, a composite
representing the load average can be obtained. ISO Method 6644 (2002)
specifies requirements for automatic sampling of grains moving in bulk for
assessment of their quality using a mechanical sampler.
Manual Sampling
Truck and rail loads can be sampled by using a sampling probe (Fig. 3-1).
Depending on the size of the load, sampling should take place at five or more
points (Fig. 3-2).
Fig. 3-1. Grain sampling probe. (Courtesy of Seedburo Equipment Co.)
Fig. 3-2. Locations of sampling of a carload. (Source: U.S. Grain Inspection,

Packers and Stockyards Administration)
Automatic Sampling
Automatic sampling usually is achieved while loading or unloading the
grain. At preset intervals, a sampling device, such as the one illustrated in
Figure 3-3 grabs a sample from the wheat stream and transfers it to a con-
tainer. Ship or barge holds, for example, can be sampled by periodically
sampling the surface of the grain in the load or the flow of wheat in the con-
veying system to the unloading bins.
Working Sample for Analysis
The composite sample must be reduced by a dividing method to obtain
a smaller-sized working sample that is still representative of the load. The
composite sample should be thoroughly mixed, preferably with some stan-
dard device. Then it should be divided into working quantities for grading
and analyzing. The Boerner divider (Fig. 3-4) is the most common device
used to achieve an objectively divided sample. Another method is “quarter-
ing,” in which the wheat sample is mixed and then spread over a board in a
thin layer and divided into quarters. Alternate quarters are taken and then
similarly quartered until a small-enough working sample is generated.
The rules and methods should be consistent throughout sampling, han-
dling, dividing, analyzing, and finally evaluating the material. Every labora-
tory should have a separate office for receiving and registering wheat sam-
ples. Each sample should be in a two-pocket bag; the contents of one pocket
are used for analysis and the other is retained for reference. Once the
sample enters the office, the responsible person should assign an
identification number, record details of the sample in a logbook, store the
Fig. 3-3. Gamet automatic sampler. (Courtesy of Seedburo Equipment Co.)

108 CHAPTER 3
Fig. 3-4. Boerner divider. (Courtesy of Seedburo Equipment Co.)
reference sample, and send the working sample for testing with an
identification number so that it remains anonymous throughout testing.
Analysis
Upon receipt of wheat at the mill, it is important to determine whether
the wheat meets the correct standards for the point of delivery. Testing of
wheat upon arrival should not exceed 15 min. Based on the evaluation
results for the waiting loads, wheat can be classified, unloaded, and sent to
the appropriate storage bin. Equally important, the sample taken must be a
fair and accurate representation of the load. Figure 3-5 shows a suggested
procedure for analysis of wheat arriving at the mill. The visual inspection is
a major step in the evaluation process. An experienced laboratory technician
can recognize that a wheat sample is heavily contaminated with foreign
matter, has started to sprout, or is grossly affected by disease such as smut
or mildew. Such wheat loads or those containing live pests should be
rejected.
The natural moisture of the wheat upon arrival at the elevator affects its
storability and determines the amount of water added by the miller during
tempering for optimum milling conditions. An accurate and dependable
method for moisture determination of the incoming wheat is important for
economic and quality reasons.
Electrical instruments, which are quick and simple to operate, are the
most popular with elevator operators. However, electrical instruments
Fig. 3-5. Flow diagram for analysis of quality of arriving wheat.
must be calibrated periodically against the more-precise oven methods of

moisture determination. The greatest discrepancies are most likely to
occur at the higher end of the wheat moisture range, where moisture has
the greatest effect on storage. Some of the methods used to determine
wheat moisture are capacitance, impedance, distillation, air oven, vacuum
oven, conductance, dielectric, microwave, and near-infrared reflectance
(NIRR) and transmittance (NIRT).
The miller checks incoming wheat for its quality characteristics to make
sure it is suitable for the expected storage period and intended flour. It
should be checked for infestation, amount of impurities that are not millable
to flour, and suitability for the specific technical characteristics of the mill.
Based on information describing the wheat sample, it is possible to make
some decisions and take the necessary measures for segregating to bins,
storage, or blending. Wheat that is known to have been subjected to recur-
ring cycles of wetting and drying after maturity or that was exposed to
abnormal conditions before or during harvest will exhibit reduced storage
quality. Under unfavorable storage conditions, lower-grade or weathered
wheat deteriorates more readily.
Knowledge and understanding of the methods of wheat grading and
specification ensure receipt of good-quality wheat with below-maximum
levels of impurities and result in the highest economic value. Wheat
millability and compatibility with other wheat varieties in the blend are
other concerns of the miller in specifying wheat quality.
Fluctuation in the quality of incoming wheat can be traced using on-line
instrumentation to determine moisture, protein, and the test weight or
110 CHAPTER 3
hectoliter weight (Graef, 2002). Instant on-line control of incoming wheat

should ensure values within set tolerances. NIRT is used for whole-grain
analysis. The NIRR wavelength is in the range of 600–1600 nm, while
NIRT is in the range of 800–1,100 nm. The NIRT infrared light is applied to
a layer of wheat, where it is absorbed, scattered, and transmitted through the
layer. Appropriate filters select the appropriate wavelength, and the detector
on the other side of the wheat sample measures the amount of the
transmitted light to determine the specific chemical content in the wheat. As
with NIRR, the NIRT instrument should be calibrated against standard
oven-moisture tests and Kjeldahl or Dumas tests for protein analysis. The
main advantage of NIRT over NIRR is the elimination of sample grinding,
which is needed for NIRR moisture determination.
Preliminary Cleaning
A significant amount of impurities is separated in the mill storage facili-
ties upon unloading. This precleaning removes foreign material, dust, and
insect-infested kernels to prevent their detrimental effect. This is justified
economically because more storage capacity is available if the wheat is
clean and sound. Cleaned wheat flows more readily from storage bins and is
blended more accurately. Clean wheat allows air to flow more uniformly
through the mass of wheat, causing more effective aeration.
The principles used in cleaning machines for incoming wheat are simi-
lar to those used in the mill cleaning house (see Chapter 4). However, in the
elevator, the main objective is to separate the coarse foreign materials at
very high capacity. As a result, the machines are designed with a relatively
coarse sieve opening and other appropriate means to avoid choke-ups. Aspi-
ration and an effective dust-collecting system are of prime importance in
order to separate dust from the grain and to eliminate possible dust explo-
sions.
Any kind of foreign material may be found in a load of wheat
reaching the mill elevator. Foreign, rigid materials can damage cleaning
and conveying machinery in the plant. The preliminary cleaning is the
first stage at which this material is removed. Separating unmillable
material allows additional storage space for sound wheat and removes
material that could disrupt the uniform flow of wheat from the bin and
lead to interference with the fine adjustment of machinery. Precleaning
the wheat to remove broken kernels and dust also helps control infesta-
tion during storage.
A strong, appropriately located, well-designed magnet, with a suit-
able magnetic circuit, is required to separate ferrous material from the
wheat stream. Characteristics such as magnetic value in Gauss units,
Fig. 3-6. Scalperator. 1 = Inlet, 2 = feeder, 3 = upper reel screen, 4 = discharge

gate, 5–7 = aspirators, 8 = light material discharge, 9 = lower reel screen.
(Courtesy of Satake, UK)
location, method of cleaning, and capacity should be considered when a

magnet type is selected. Currently, metal separators can be found in
elevators to separate nonferrous metals.
The Scalperator (Fig. 3-6), or another high-capacity sieve, is used in the
precleaning section of the elevator. This machine removes field trash and
foreign material. Aspiration features in the machine eliminate light chaff and
dust for better aeration, storage, drying, and handling. The Scalperator’s
scalping reel lets the wheat flow through the screen from the outside while the
screen is rotating, whereas the foreign material is held back and tails over.
Preconditioning of Wheat
Sometimes millers condition the wheat in the elevator after the
precleaning. This practice is used especially when very dry wheat enters the
mill. In this case, 1–1.5% of water is added to the wheat of 7–8% moisture.
Wheat conditioned in the elevator before storage should not exceed 12.5%
moisture content. The water added in preconditioning creates fissures in the
kernel structure so that hard wheat absorbs water more readily in the condi-
tioning system that follows intensive cleaning before milling. If mill capac-
ity requires additional tempering capacity, one of the wheat storage bins can
be converted to a pretempering bin.
112 CHAPTER 3
To avoid transferring wet wheat, preconditioning systems are located at

the top of the mill elevator, where operators are not frequently present.
Accordingly, extra precautions should be taken in the design to secure water
addition only when wheat flows through the system; otherwise, water keeps
running, causing serious problems. The bin or bins used for preconditioned
wheat should be furnished with properly designed multiple outlets to ensure
a mass flow of the tempered wheat.
Storage Facilities and Equipment

As in any industrial operation, storage of wheat should be efficient and
cost effective. Size, capacity, equipment capacity, rate, labor, insurance,
energy cost, and maintenance are some of the variables effecting the cost of
storing a ton or bushel of wheat for a given period.
Bins
Storage bins, or silos, as they are called in some countries, are con-
structed from steel or reinforced concrete. Inflated portable plastic bins
have also been developed for temporary storage capacity. Steel bins can be
erected quickly and cheaply compared with concrete ones. They are con-
structed from small steel segments or from a continuous, spiraling strip of
galvanized surface. Steel bins range from 6 to 9 m in diameter and are up to
30 m high. The bin design must ensure structural rigidity in response to all
physical stresses during loading and unloading of the grain.
Because temperature control in a bin is important, the thermal properties
of the construction material must be considered. The final distribution of
temperature through bin walls is a function of thermal conductivity. The
rate of change of the temperature distribution allows the determination of
the thermal diffusivity. From a knowledge of these two quantities, the
specific heat may be calculated (Babbitt 1945). Table 3-2 shows the ther-
mal conductivity, thermal diffusion, and the resulting specific heat for steel,
concrete, and wheat. These values affect the heat rate transfer in wheat stor-
TABLE 3-2
Thermal Properties of Bin Walls and Wheat
Thermal
Conductivity Thermal Diffusion Specific Heat
Material (cal/cm3⋅sec⋅°C/cm) (cm2/sec) (cal/g⋅°C)
Steel 0.13629b 1.13575 0.120c
Concrete 0.00264b 0.01205 0.219c
Wheat a 0.00036 0.00115 0.370
a
Babbitt (1945).
b
Eckert (1963).
c
Perry et al (1969).
age. The main drawback of steel bins is that the walls are usually good heat
conductors compared with those of concrete bins. Changes in outside
temperature are conveyed through the steel bin walls to the grain, which
may easily deteriorate if stored for a long time. Steel bins also are likely to
sweat, affecting the moisture level of the outer layers of the stored wheat.
Reinforced concrete bins used for wheat storage are not likely to sweat, and
changes of temperature are transmitted slowly through the concrete walls.
Reinforced concrete walls offer 1,000 times greater thermal insulation than
steel bin walls.
The problem with lack of insulation is the temperature differential that is
created across the walls. When the temperature outside a steel bin decreases,
the air in the silo between kernels and on top of the grain develops a
continuous convection movement. The air near the walls is cooled, which
raises its relative humidity and results in increased moisture content at the
bottom of the silo. The increase in moisture can create a deterioration spot
within the bulk of the stored wheat. Internally, the drier, warmer air rises
through the central part of the bulk mass and picks up moisture from the
grain. When this warm, moist air contacts the cool upper grain surface, the
moisture is deposited and another deterioration zone can occur. The opposite
air movement pattern may occur if the air outside the bin warms up, causing
the moisture content to increase near the bin bottom. Figure 3-7 shows the air
current flow in a bin as a result of changes in outside conditions.
Fig. 3-7. Moisture migration in stored grain when outdoor temperatures are
warmer than the grain. (Source: Foster and Tuite, 1982)
114 CHAPTER 3
Concrete bins also have problems with heat transfer. Over time, they go
through a change in their structure, insulation, and waterproofing. Depend-
ing on the quality of the concrete ingredients and the shrinkage on setting,
many small hairline cracks in the bin walls may be formed internally and
externally. From inside the bin, respiration of the wheat produces carbon
dioxide, heat, and moisture. In the long run, water and carbon dioxide may
start dissolving the concrete. The outside water from wet bin walls is drawn
into the walls by capillary force and vapor pressure differences. Brown
(1948) stated that, based on studies, heat transfer factors increase 23, 46,
and 132% as the moisture in concrete walls increases from 0% to 5, 10, and
15%, respectively. Special weatherproofing materials applied to the con-
crete walls of wheat storage bins can increase the detrimental effects.
The maintenance cost of concrete bins is significantly cheaper than for
steel bins, but the construction cost is three times higher. Internal bin clean-
ing and disinfection should be performed at least once a year. Upon enter-
ing storage bins for cleaning, the safety regulations for confined spaces
should be followed very strictly.
Inlet Distribution
Filling of a bin should be done carefully, so that the different lots of
wheat, which might vary in moisture content, are not separated into layers.
If heating and respiration start in layers with high moisture, an untreated
problem may cause the entire bin of wheat to go out of condition. The
wheat in the bin should be thoroughly mixed to evenly distribute small fluc-
tuations (0.5–1%) in moisture. Well-distributed, damper wheat can ensure
moisture migration between kernels. Distribution can be achieved by blend-
ing the wheat upon entry or by continuous turnover of the wheat in the bin.
The miller segregates the wheat lots into different bins based on their
qualities (protein content, hardness, and additional criteria). This is to pro-
vide flexibility in blending the different wheats into a final mix of predeter-
mined specifications for milling.
Bin Outlets
Significant research has been published concerning the flow of materials
out of a bin and methods for calculating the forces in the bin. Hoppers and
outlets affect the technological aspects of blending and outflow of wheat.
Dry grain flows readily from a bin if the hopper slope and bin outlet are
large enough to accommodate minimum requirements. Bin design is much
more significant in an operation in which care is taken to avoid segregation
of stock during emptying of the bin.
Flow from bins can occur in two main configurations: mass and funnel
flows. Mass flow occurs if the hopper is sufficiently steep and smooth to
cause all solids in the bin to flow without stagnant regions during discharge.
The flow is uniform, and the bulk, specific weight at the outlet is practically
independent of the height of the head of the solids in the bin. This fre-
quently permits the use of volumetric feeders for feed rate control and
blending. Segregation is minimized because the “first-in first-out” flow
sequence ensures that the same particle size distribution enters and exits the
hopper. Funnel flow occurs when the hopper is not sufficiently steep and
smooth to force material to slide along the walls or when the outlet of a bin
is too small or has a poor feeder or gate design. In a funnel flow bin, the
bulk solids flow toward the outlet through a vertical channel that forms
within stagnant material. Because arching of cohesive solids is more likely
to occur in funnel flow bins than in mass flow bins, they usually require
larger outlets for dependable flow. These bins also cause segregation of sol-
ids and are unsuitable for solids that degrade with time if they stay in stag-
nant regions (Fig. 3-8).
Large-capacity steel bins usually are constructed with a central collect-
ing hopper or a screw conveyor to transport the remaining grain to the cen-
ter of a flat-bottom bin. Steel bins should be discharged through a central
outlet; off-center discharge generates higher pressure on the opposite wall,
which may result in deformation of the bin. On the other hand, in a cen-
trally collecting hopper if a funnel flow mode exists, the wheat segregates
itself into heavier and lighter material. Such a flow affects the consistency
of a blend made up from wheats drawn simultaneously from a number of
bins. Better results in extracting a homogenous wheat stream from such a
large-diameter bin are obtained by using a centrally collecting screw con-
veyor. An inverted cone inserted into the hopper could sometimes provide
Fig. 3-8. Bin flow modes. Funnel flow (left), mass flow from multiple hopper
(right).
116 CHAPTER 3
a means to increase the size of the funnel flow channel and prevent arch-
ing or segregation. Using multiple outlets from one bin, designed for
wheat, also ensures a mass flow of the grain.
Wheat Blending Equipment
Scales, volumetric feeders, belt scales, and flow balancers using load
cells are among the equipment used in the elevator for wheat blending
and other purposes. Their accuracy is a function of the principle used, the
cleanliness, and the uniformity of the wheat’s specific weight. In operat-
ing the blending equipment, care should be taken to accommodate differ-
ences in physical characteristics of the wheats to be blended. For exam-
ple, volumetric feeders, which blend wheat by volume, will feed different
weights of wheats if their specific weights happen to be significantly
different.
Conveying Equipment
Designing a grain elevator involves not only solving the problems of

construction and meeting the objectives of the operations, but also ensuring
the use of low-maintenance equipment, which is energy saving as well as
easy to operate at high turnover. One of the choices the designer must make
is how to convey grain in the facility. Figure 3-9 shows a comparison of
energy consumption and cross section area among different conveying
methods for grain.
Fig. 3-9. Energy consumption and space requirement for different modes of
conveying. (Source: Krach and Klabunde, 1979)
Bucket Elevator
Bucket elevators are usually used to elevate grain to the storage facili-
ties. Some of the advantages of bucket elevators are a mechanical efficiency
of about 90%, low power and maintenance, and little damage to the grain.
The bucket elevator can be installed in a vertical position or at an angle. In
wheat handling and processing, bucket elevators are used mainly in the
vertical position. The bucket elevator (Fig. 3-10) used for handling bulk
materials consists of 1) buckets to contain the material, 2) a belt to carry the
buckets and transmit the pull, 3) a means to drive the belt, 4) accessories for
loading the buckets or picking up the material, for receiving the discharge
material, for maintaining belt tension, and for enclosing and protecting the
elevator, and 5) accessories for motion-detection devices, for belt-alignment
monitoring devices, for fire-suppression systems, and for an aspiration
system to keep dust concentration inside the bucket elevator at least 25%
below the lower explosion limit at all times during operation.
The horsepower (hp) requirements for a bucket elevator can be
expressed as
T ×H
hp = ,
990
where H is the vertical difference in feet between the loading and discharge
points, and T is the tons (ton = 2,000 lb) handled per hour.
In the past, most of the elevator buckets were made from rolled steel or
in the case of special uses from stainless steel. Currently, the most popular
are made from high-density polyethylene, nylon, and polyurethane (Beaty,
2001). The advantages of the nonmetallic buckets versus metallic are that
they are non-corrosive, absorb impact in the elevator leg without deforma-
tion, are of nonsparking material when dragged inside the elevator leg, are
Fig. 3-10. Bucket elevator cross-sections.

118 CHAPTER 3
lighter, and reduce power consumption. Safety requirements dictate that all
belting in bucket elevators must be grounded. The design and construction
of elevators and buckets depends on material characteristics, capacity, and
the physical conditions of the facility.
Belt Conveyors
Belt conveyors have long been recognized as the simplest, most reli-
able, and most economical means of handling materials in large or small
volumes. The earliest reference to the use of belt conveyors in American
practice is in Oliver Evans’s “Miller’s Guide,” published in Philadelphia in
1795.
A belt conveyor consists of a moving, endless belt, which supports
material and, by its motion, carries the material from one place to another.
The belt is driven by a pulley and is supported through all its length, going
and coming, by rollers or by a runway. The wheat is usually put on the belt
by a chute and is removed from the belt by discharge over the end pulley or
by deflection at some point along the run of the conveyor with a special
mechanism (Fig. 3-11). The elements of the belt conveyor are 1) a belt to
carry the material and transmit the pull, 2) a means to support the belt, usu-
ally rollers or pulleys, 3) a means to drive the belt, usually a pulley or a pair
of pulleys, and 4) accessories for maintaining belt tension, such as take-ups;
for loading the belt, such as a chute; for discharging the material, such as a
chute, tripper, or scraper; and for cleaning and protecting the belt, such as
housing, decks, covers, and cleaning brushes.
The belt is a flexible, endless, and usually jointless, flat strip of material
that runs quietly at any speed. With good aspiration at the wheat loading
and unloading points, no dust should be generated to cover the belt struc-
ture or moving parts. In addition, the wheat does not come into contact with
moving parts such as pulleys, rollers, or shafts, which ensures low friction
losses and reduced power consumption.
The belts themselves are made from a wide range of materials. They
must be flexible to wrap around the pulleys, must withstand the tension
between the pulleys, and must convey the pull between them. Their width
and strength are calculated based on the amount of material they convey.
During construction of the belt conveyor, a support system can be installed
to reduce loading zone impact stress and control fugitive materials. This
Fig. 3-11. Discharge mechanism from belt conveyor.

system can be installed below the conveyor loading point to cushion blows
of heavy loading and reduce impact damage to the belt, idlers, and conveyor
structure.
Some of the advantages of properly designed belt conveyors are 1) han-
dling bulk at the lowest cost per ton—in large and small volumes, 2)
carrying material up slopes of up to 27°, 3) being low in cost, 4) having
large capacity at low power consumption—up to 6,000 tons per hour, 5)
delivering uniform volumes at high or low speed, 6) having few parts
subject to wear, 7) being simple, quiet, and reliable, and 8) with good care,
handling up to 100 million tons.
A general expression of horsepower for belt conveyors depends on two
elements: the empty conveyor and the material requirements. It can be
expressed as follows:
hp = 0.001 × F × B × L + G × T × L ,
where F = a friction factor of the belt, B = weight of the belt and moving
parts, L = length of the conveyor in feet, G = friction factor of the load on
the belt, and T = tons of material per hour. The Association of Operative
Millers (1994) described usage of belt conveyors in grain handling.
Detailed engineering and design procedures were shown by Hetzel and
Albright (1941).
A weighing segment can be installed on the conveyor belt. Such devices
are fitted as one segment of the roller support system in the belt. They are
available at up to 182 cm (72 in.) in width and with a capacity of up to
6,000 t/hr.
Heavy-duty plate magnets suspended from a support frame can be
installed over the conveyor belt. Plate magnets for conveyor belts are avail-
able up to about 120 cm (48 in.).
A recent development eliminates the supporting rollers along the con-
veyor belt. The belt moves on a 1-mm (0.04-in.) thick film of air generated
by a fan located between the belt and the trough supporting it from below.
The thin film of air supports loads up to 976 kg/m2 (200 lb/ft2) at high speed
with no mechanical friction. The benefits of the air-supported belt conveyor
are the reduced maintenance of rollers and up to 30% reduction in power
requirements. The smooth movement of the belt on the air layer in an
enclosed structure eliminates material segregation and dusting and reduces
noise level.
Screw Conveyors
The screw conveyor consists of a screw supported by bearings and
rotating inside a trough (Fig. 3-12). This conveyor can transfer dry materi-
als at any angle. The pitch, diameter, and hand of the screw characterize the
helicoid part of the screw conveyor. The pitch is the distance from the cen-
120 CHAPTER 3
Fig. 3-12. Screw conveyor.
ter of one thread (or flight) to the center of the next thread (or flight). If the
conveyor is a flat, helix-shaped screw, each revolution advances the material
a distance equal to the pitch. However, pitch can vary in length, revolutions
of the screw can be altered, or the shape of the screw can be modified to
accommodate the needs of a particular operation. Conveyors are assembled
with a right-hand or left-hand screw. To determine the hand of a conveyor,
one stands on the side of the conveyor with the top of the screw turning
away from the observer. In this position, if the material is conveyed to the
right, it is a right-hand screw, and if the material is conveyed to the left, it is
a left-hand screw. The reverse of this method is that, if the hand of the
screw is known, the correct direction of rotation can be determined. Use of
the screw conveyor is declining today in flour mills because of its relatively
high maintenance and sanitation costs. Screw conveyor troughs can be
constructed with a drop bottom. Such a design, with the bottom attached
by hinges or other means, permits the trough to be opened to allow better
access during periodic cleaning.
Drag Conveyors
The drag conveyor, or chain conveyor, can be used for the transfer of
grain horizontally, vertically, or in an inclined position (Fig. 3-13). It moves
material more gently than screw conveyors and is relatively self-cleaning. It
can be designed to include multiple inlets and outlets.
The drag conveyor consists of a series of specially designed paddles or
bars, which should be made to fit each conveyed material, mounted on a
drive chain that travels within a stationary trough. The endless chain is
driven at the discharge end by a bearing-supported sprocket. At the tail end,
the bearings are movable to adjust the chain tension.
The trough is airtight and aspirated to reduce dust emission. It could be
a single enclosure or a divided unit, in which the return chain is completely
separated from the conveying chain. The shape of the trough conforms to
that of the bars or paddles, which makes it almost self-cleaning. Bars push
the grain they contact, and the grain above the top of the bars is also carried
along. As a result, very large capacities can be conveyed with a relatively
small demand on space.
Extensive engineering information is available on drag conveyors. The
energy requirement can be calculated using the following equations.
Fig. 3-13. Chain conveyor. (Courtesy of Buhler Inc.)
Horsepower (hp) requirements for a paddle-type conveyor are:

C × F × L× M
hp = ,
1,000 × E
where C = capacity (t/hr), E = drive efficiency (normally 0.85), F = friction
factor of the material on the steel trough (for wheat, 0.3–0.4), L = length of
conveyor (in feet, where ft = 0.3048 m), and M = load factor (1.2 plus 0.3
for each feeder section and intermediate discharge).
Horsepower requirements for a bar-type conveyor are:
hp =
[(BPH + L )]× (1 + 0.033× D ) ,
55,000
where BPH = bushels per hour (bu = 60 lb; lb = 0.4536 kg), L = length of
conveyor (ft), D = degree of incline of conveyor, and 55,000 is a factor.
Drag conveyors are gaining acceptance in the wheat handling and proc-
essing industry, replacing belt conveyors. The following are some of the
advantages of this type of wheat conveying: 1) can move material vertically,
horizontally, and at any slope up to 45°, 2) requires simple methods of load-
ing and unloading, 3) handles more than one material at a time, 4) produces
minimal dust emission because it is completely enclosed, 5) is automated
(remote-controlled), and 6) is safe because it has no fast-moving parts.
Pneumatic Conveying Equipment

The benefits of pneumatic conveying of grain are the small space occu-
pied by the conveying lines, improved sanitation, and the increased flexibil-
ity of diverting flow of material to any point, as compared with other means
of conveying wheat. A main disadvantage is the relatively high-energy con-
sumption compared with other means. Excessive kernel breakage can occur
during pneumatic conveying in a system that is not properly designed. Inter-
nal fragility of kernels as a result of infestation, faulty drying, or handling
can also cause breakage during pneumatic conveying.
122 CHAPTER 3
Elbows in pneumatic conveying equipment are usually the points that

wear and tear. To reduce this abrasion, they are lined with ceramics. In
some equipment, elbows are made with double steel walls, and the space
between is filled with seamless Cerathane ceramic. This extra thickness in
the elbow resists abrasion and extends its life. Other equipment uses
ceramic brick tile to overcome the abrasion in elbows.
Aspiration of equipment and pneumatic conveying generate a relatively
large volume of air mixed with fine dust. Separation of the dust from the
clean air that is released back to the atmosphere is a must for both environ-
mental and economic reasons. Accurately designed bag-filters with appro-
priate self-cleaning mechanisms are used for efficient separation of air and
dust. Characteristics such as the ratio of air volume to cloth surface area, the
material used for the bags, and the self-cleaning mechanisms are important
in the selection of the bag-filter.
Filter fabrics vary in weight, thickness, permeability, strength, specific
gravity, pore size, temperature limitations, and surface finish. Selection
decisions should be based upon a thorough understanding of the dust
characteristics, after analytical examination. Fabrics such as Dacron,
polyester, nylon, or felts are some of the materials used for the bags in the
dust-collecting filters. Sizing of the filter fabric area is one of the more diffi-
cult tasks and should be discussed with the filter manufacturer. Sizing of the
filter means the ratio of air volume to bag surface area, for example, 1:7 (1
m2 of cloth per 7 m3 of air/min).
Cleaning the fabric bags of the filter is important for keeping the filter at
top performance efficiency. Usually, a manometer is connected to the dirty
and clean air parts of the filter. An acceptable pressure drop across the filter
is about 100 mm water gauge pressure. A substantial increase in pressure
difference across the filter indicates resistance created by accumulation of
excessive dust on the bags.
Depending on the design and degree of cleaning intensity needed for the
filter bags, various commercial systems are available from filter manu-
facturers. One mechanism, the “reverse jet,” uses a rotating arm above the
filter bags and sends the purging air at low or medium pressure, about 0.5
bar (6–8 psi). The “reverse pulse” system uses relatively small quantities of
high-energy gas, usually compressed air of about 6–7 bar (100 psi), and
purges each filter element in turn.
Protection systems monitor volume and pressure of airflow in and out of
dust collectors. Such suppression systems include venting and isolation to
prevent incipient fires and subsequent dust explosions. OSHA regulations
should be studied very closely as they relate to the design, assembly, and
operation of dust control equipment, such as filter collectors.
Preserving Grain Quality

Stored wheat quality changes to some degree following harvest (see
Chapter 1). Subsequently, during storage, the main objective is to preserve
its quality. Shrinkage, or loss in quantity, occurs during storage of wheat
after harvest. Ackels (1965) listed the causes for losses during storage: dust
loss to the atmosphere, moisture loss due to intentional or natural drying of
the grain, respiration losses from grain, losses due to the activity of micro-
flora, and losses due to insect activity. To achieve consistent quality and
minimal deterioration and storage shrinkage, it is essential to control mois-
ture, temperature, infestation, and activity within the wheat, which is a liv-
ing organism. Excessive movement of wheat causes abrasion and generates
fine dust that is separated from the bulk, increasing the shrinkage percent-
age. Farrell and Ward (1965) studied the effect of repeated movements of
wheat between bins. Estimated losses during one transfer, attributable to
equipment layout and other technical as well as ambient conditions, were
about 0.14 and 0.0074% for moisture loss and collected dust, respectively.
Reed (1987) studied the accuracy and precision of estimating dry weight
losses in wheat during storage, using test-weight and thousand-kernel
weight. Use of the test-weight method was found to be less variable than the
thousand-kernel weight method for loss estimation during storage. Skriegan
(2000) reviewed factors and problems of wheat storage and showed
conservative values of wheat shrinkage during storage. Table 3-3 shows
wheat shrinkage due to respiration as effected by various temperatures and
duration of storage.
Controlling Infestation
Infestation is one of the major quality parameters the miller must watch
for when wheat arrives at a mill. The U.S. Grain Inspection Packers and
Stockyards Administration (GIPSA, 1995), under special grade require-
ments, designates wheat as infested when a representative sample (about
TABLE 3-3
Material Loss from 1,000 t of Wheat (15% Moisture) During Storage
at Various Temperaturesa
Material Loss (kg) Through Breathing
Storage
Temperature (°C) After 30 Days of Storage After 90 Days of Storage
10 180 547
20 820 2,016
25 1,490 4,464
35 5,760 15,840
a
Adapted from Skriegan (2000).
124 CHAPTER 3
500 g) contains two or more live weevils, or one live weevil and one or
more other live insects injurious to stored grain, or two or more live insects
injurious to stored grain. Individual mills might specify stricter limits for
extended storage of wheat.
An X-ray technique can be applied to detect internal insect infestation in
grain. The equipment for the test is a Machlett cobalt-target X-ray diffraction
tube with a beryllium window. The tube is excited to a voltage in the range of
12–30 kV at a current of 8–10 mA. Exposure times for samples range from 3
to 5 sec (inversely with the excitement voltage). The kernels are in direct
contact with an 8.9- × 12.7-cm (3.5- × 5-in.) sheet of Eastman Type A
industrial X-ray film. This technique is capable of detecting insects at various
stages of development, including unhatched eggs, larvae, and pupae.
Dowell et al (1998), Ridgway and Chambers (1999), and
Cheewapramong and Wehling (2001) developed simplified NIRR spectro-
scopy methods for detecting internal insect infestation in wheat kernels. The
method detects the presence of insects and larvae in wheat. Diffuse
reflectance spectra were obtained from individual wheat kernels over
various spectral ranges. Using NIR, more than 96% of wheat samples were
correctly classified as uninfested or infested. Dowell et al (1998) scanned
the wheat samples with an NIR spectrometer incorporated into a single-
kernel characterization system (Fig. 1-11) at a rate of one kernel per 4 sec.
Besides insects, other living organisms may be harbored by stored grain.
Bacteria and molds are very common. Molds tend to grow first on the germ
portion of wheat, producing acids from the germ oil.
Heat in Storage Facilities

Heat has an effect on living organisms and also on the common insects
in the mill and storage facilities. To control their growth and infestation, the
effects of heat on the system should be known. Most insects are dormant
below 10°C (50°F). Temperatures above 50°C (122°F) can kill insects and
their eggs in a few hours. (However, Mao and Rayas-Duarte [2001] showed
that if hard red winter wheat storage conditions reach 50°C, substantial
damage to dough and baking qualities can result. Different cultivars showed
specific rates of change for particular properties.) Pests flourish and breed
best at about 30°C (86°F). In storage facilities, heating from insect infesta-
tion may occur in grain with as low as 11% moisture but rarely will it reach
temperatures in excess of 43°C (110°F). As grain temperature increases,
insects usually migrate to cooler areas. Heating from grain sprouting, which
occurs only at very high moisture levels and causes loss of wheat vitality,
also ceases at about 43°C. Insect development is enhanced by high moisture
content (above 12.5%), and insect activity hardly occurs in cereal grains at
moisture contents below 10%.
Storage at high moisture and temperature also causes increased growth

of mold populations. Mold is one of the most damaging factors in grain
storage. It decreases test weight and fat content, while causing an increase
in fat acidity. Thiamin and, to a lesser degree, nicotinic acid decrease,
whereas riboflavin increases. Mold spores are known to germinate at about
75% rh. Wheat that is in equilibrium with air of less than about 70% rh pro-
vides unfavorable conditions for mold growth. The maximum moisture
level for safe storage is generally accepted to be 12.5%. However, the above
conditions are dependent on all other ambient air characteristics and should
be adjusted accordingly. The optimum temperature for growth of most grain
molds is between 25°C (77°F) and 30°C (86°F), although some molds
develop best at around 37°C (98°F). The minimum relative humidity of air
for mold germination is 65%. Thus, to prevent mold growth on cereal grains
at any temperature, the relative humidity of the air in the grain mass must
be less than 65%. However, under suitable conditions of moisture and
insulation, molds can cause grain bulks to heat to 54.4°C (130°F), with very
serious deteriorative consequences before they are killed by the heat they
produce. Among other fungi that can affect wheat is the fungus Fusarium
graminearum (scab), which infects wheat when damp and cool conditions
occur during maturing and harvesting periods. During storage, this fungus
can produce a toxic metabolite, 4-deoxynivalenol, that can affect the
wheat’s milling performance and baking quality and also exhibits various
toxicological effects in humans and animals.
Bacterial growth, which is very rare in wheat, is another form of
biological heating in grain. Bacteria can multiply in grain only when kernel
moisture levels are in equilibrium with ambient relative humidities in excess
of 90%. Certain bacterial species are tolerant to temperatures as high as
71°C (160°F).
Temperature-sensing systems in the storage bins can monitor any change
in wheat condition. Sensors on cables hung from the bin roof at the
appropriate distances show changes in resistance as a result of increase in
temperature. The rise of a few degrees in one sensor can be a warning signal
that a pocket of wheat within the bin could be warming up. Such early
detection is key to corrective action. Temperature-detection systems are
important in steel storage bins for wheat, especially in cases where the wheat
is newly harvested at high temperature or is stored for extended periods.
Alagusundatam et al (1990) developed a finite difference model of heat
transfer to predict temperature distributions in the radial, vertical, and
circumferential directions of free-standing, cylindrical, grain storage bins.
This three-dimensional model can predict temperatures using the input data
of initial grain temperature, ambient air temperature, solar radiation on a
horizontal surface, wind velocity, and the thermal properties of grain, bin
wall, concrete, soil, and air.
126 CHAPTER 3
Fumigation
The miller uses fumigants to protect stored grain from damage by
insects and for the control of burrowing pests. Currently, one of the major
fumigants used to protect stored wheat is Phostoxin, a metal phosphide
fumigant that is acted upon by atmospheric moisture to produce hydrogen
phosphide (phosphine, PH3) gas. The fumigant is on the market in the form
of tablets or pellets, which contain aluminum phosphide (AlP) as their
active ingredient and liberate hydrogen phosphide via the following chemi-
cal reaction:
AlP + 3H2O → Al (OH)3 + PH3
Hydrogen phosphide gas is highly toxic to insects, burrowing pests,
humans, and other forms of animal life. In addition to its toxic properties,
the gas corrodes certain metals and may ignite spontaneously in air at con-
centrations above its lower flammable limit of 1.8% (v/v).
The commercial product includes 55% active ingredients and 45% inert
ingredients to reduce fire hazards. The inert ingredient is ammonium
carbonate, which liberates ammonia and carbon dioxide as follows:
(NH4)2CO3 → 2NH3 + CO2 + H2O
The ammonia gas also serves as a warning agent.
Table 3-4 may be used as a guide in determining the minimum length of
the exposure period at indicated temperatures for wheat fumigation. As an
addition to wheat to be stored, aluminum phosphide at the rate of 5–10 tab-
lets per ton for five days is a recommended dosage. It must be added while
the wheat is entering the bin.
Upon filling of a bin with wheat, application of fumigants in solid form
can cause uneven distribution. The release of the fumigating gas from the
solids, for example, hydrogen phosphide from Phostoxin, is localized and
distributes itself very slowly because it has the same weight as air. To over-
come this problem, air movement through the load is initiated. An improved
method of solid fumigant application involves spreading the material over
the load of grain. An air circulating system, in which air is pulled down
Table 3-4
Minimum Exposure Periods for Phostoxina
Temperature Pellets Tablets
Below 5°C (40°F) Do not fumigate Do not fumigate
5–12°C (40–53°F) 8 days (192 hr) 10 days (240 hr)
12–15°C (54–59°F) 4 days ( 96 hr) 5 days (120 hr)
16–20°C (60–68°F) 3 days ( 72 hr) 4 days ( 96 hr)
Above 20°C (68°F) 2 days ( 48 hr) 3 days ( 72 hr)
a
Source: Manufacturer’s instructions (Degesch, Frankfurt, Germany).
through the load at a very slow rate, ensures even distribution of the gas
through the grain in the bin. The circulated air mixed with the gas is blown
back to the top of the load to ensure a balanced concentration of the gas.
Aeration
A common practice is to turn wheat when hot spots are detected in stor-
age bins by probing or by use of remote temperature-control systems. Turn-
ing accomplishes several objectives: cooling, drying, and breaking up of
high-temperature spots in the bulk. Turning of the wheat with the objective
of drying it should be done at a time when humidity is low. Cooling can
also be optimized when it is done under favorable conditions. In any case,
turning breaks down the hot spots in the bulk and mixes the damp with the
drier grain, which interrupts the advancement of the respiratory process.
Aeration is applied where necessary in vertical storage bins. However, aera-
tion is important in flat storage, where it is difficult to move or turn the
wheat. Holman (1960) compiled and reviewed the work of numerous engi-
neers regarding the technology, equipment selection, duct construction,
energy, and operating cost of commercial grain storage. The installed cost
of an aeration system ranged from 1 to 5 cents per bushel capacity, depend-
ing on the size of the storage, the type of system, ease of installation, and
other contributing factors.
Aeration of stored wheat is a common procedure used to maintain
its physical condition for an extended length of time. In applying aera-
tion to wheat stored in a bin, consideration should be given to the
amount of foreign material it contains. Chaff and dockage affect the
rate of airflow through the wheat bulk, and weed-seed moisture can be
transferred to the freshly harvested grain. The effects of the relative
humidity and temperature of the air on the drying rate of grain are
important in determining the time and conditions for aeration. Aeration
is beneficial when air conditions are appropriate; otherwise, the aera-
tion merely aids respiration of both the grain and its associated micro-
organisms by supplying oxygen needed for the process.
For aeration by air artificially moving through the bulk, the amount of
air required is calculated based on an average of 0.1–0.2 m3/min per 1,000
kg (0.1–0.2 ft3/min [cfm] per bushel [bu]). For flat storage, where more
rapid cooling is desired, rates as high as 0.25 m3/min per 1,000 kg (0.25
cfm/bu) may be used. Using psychrometric charts and data relating wheat
moisture and temperature, as well as the ambient air temperature and rela-
tive humidity, it is possible to determine whether conditions are appropriate
for aeration. Various tables, graphs, and computer programs are designed to
determine the range of optimum air temperatures and relative humidity lev-
els at which wheat should be turned. These are based on the difference
128 CHAPTER 3
between the grain and air temperature, as well as the grain moisture. Aera-
tion can take place if the relative humidity is below a certain level.
Shedd (1953) stated the relationship between wheat density, depth of
grain, moisture, and foreign material and the resistance to airflow through a
mass of wheat. Values from a graphical presentation of the relationship
between airflow of cfm/ft2 and the pressure drop in inches of water per foot
depth of wheat are multiplied by factors related to wheat condition. Holman
(1960) gave examples for design of wheat aeration systems, fan horsepower
requirements, and static pressure (inches of water) requirements for aerating
wheat at different rates of airflow (cfm/bu) and at grain depths ranging from
10 to 150 feet.
Sick wheat in the trade is mainly a result of deterioration during stor-
age. This condition is identified as wheat kernels in which the germ is dead
and has turned black. Samples of sick wheat usually have a sour or musty
odor. The darkening of the germ can be caused by fungal attack, mold
growth, or anaerobic conditions with no mold growth. If wheat with a mois-
ture content of 13% or above is kept long enough at a temperature of 35–
40°C (95–104°F), the germ will turn brown even in the absence of storage
fungi (Christensen and Kaufman, 1969).
Wheat is a hygroscopic material, so when it is exposed to certain condi-
tions of relative humidity and temperature, its moisture content can reach
equilibrium with the air. However, differences in temperature produce
noticeable modification between relative humidity and moisture content.
Table 3-5 shows the constants (C, E, and F) to be used with the Chung and
Pfost (ASAE, 1992) equation to calculate the moisture content of grain in
equilibrium with air of various relative humidities and temperatures. The
equation is
M = E – F · ln[–(T + C) · ln (RH)] ,
where M is the grain moisture, RH is the relative humidity, and T is
temperature.
Spontaneous heating occurs when the rate of respiration starts to
accelerate. Respiring wheat releases moisture and heat as storage carbo-
hydrates are metabolized. This release is cumulative. The spontaneous
increase in temperature occurs only because of the insulating effect of the
TABLE 3-5
Constants for the Chung and Pfost Equation
Moisture
Grain C E F Standard Error
Wheat, durum 112.350 0.37761 0.055318 0.0057
Wheat, hard 50.999 0.35616 0.056788 0.0061
Wheat, soft 35.662 0.27908 0.042360 0.0147
grain, which serves to retain the heat and cause it to accumulate. Spontane-
ous heating is the most serious of all types of grain deterioration, and wheat
that has reached this stage is quite worthless for processing purposes.
Spontaneous heating normally stops at temperatures considerably below the
temperature of ignition, because of heat losses and insufficient air supply.
For hard wheats, the rate of respiration increases significantly above
14% moisture, and for soft wheat, it increases at a higher rate even at a
lower level. The moisture level for long-term storage should not exceed
12.5%. The cumulative process of heating and moisture increase should be
watched carefully to avoid deterioration.
Even at relatively high moisture content, in northern areas, it is possible
to keep wheat in storage bins for several months at low temperature. Freez-
ing temperature does not have a detrimental effect on mature wheat. It is
important to turn the wheat during the cold weather to ensure uniform cool-
ing and drying by low-humidity air. Periodic turning over of high-
temperature wheat slows down the respiration process. Continuous aeration
during cold weather conditions also might decrease respiration.
The water in a hygroscopic material of a certain moisture content pro-
duces a water vapor pressure, p, which is less than the saturated water
pressure of pure water, ps, at the same temperature as the material. The
ratio of these pressures, p/ps, is the equilibrium relative humidity for that
particular moisture content and temperature of the material. According to
Henderson (1952), the equilibrium moisture curve is a graphic expression
of the relationship between the moisture content of a material and its
equilibrium relative humidity. Temperature affects the curve somewhat,
an increase in temperature causing a slight reduction in moisture content
for a fixed relative humidity.
Hysteresis is characteristic in wheat and other grains. At a given relative
humidity, the moisture of the wheat differs depending on whether it is in a
state of adsorption or desorption. This can be seen in the S-shaped curve for
adsorption of water vapor by grain (Fig. 3-14). When the amount of mois-
ture content is plotted against the relative humidity, the curve can be
roughly separated into three segments. In the first part, at low vapor pres-
sures, the amount adsorbed increases rapidly with an increase in the vapor
pressure. This section of the curve is followed by a more or less linear rela-
tion between the amount of water adsorbed and the vapor pressure. This
relation extends up to 65% rh and has a much more gentle slope. The third
segment of the curve is characterized by a sharp upswing in the amount
adsorbed as the relative vapor pressure is increased.
The desorption curve follows the opposite course as the grain loses
moisture. However, the curves do not coincide. Grain of the same lot with
the same relative humidity may have a different moisture content. This phe-
nomenon, for which the exact reason is not known, is called hysteresis.
130 CHAPTER 3
Fig. 3-14. Hysteresis curve for wheat at 30°C.
Chung and Pfost (1967) developed a general isotherm equation to explain

the sigmoid shape of the curve.
The nature of the adsorption relation between wheat and moisture is of
practical importance in drying and storage. As long as no shrinkage or
cracks occur in the grain, there is a substantial decrease in sorptive capacity
of the wheat.
Drying of Wheat
High moisture content is a primary cause of wheat spoilage; therefore,
the most obvious preventive measure is to reduce moisture below the criti-
cal level. This should be accomplished as quickly as possible after the
wheat is harvested to prevent excessive respiration and heating.
In certain countries, harvested wheat reaches the mill at 16% moisture
or above, and the miller must take precautions for its safe storage by using
careful drying procedures. Drying can be achieved by forcing air through
the lot of wheat in the bin. At low temperature, using air at optimal condi-
tion to absorb moisture during its movement through the wheat is time-con-
suming. Artificially heated air at low relative humidity, when forced through
the wheat, can reduce moisture at a faster rate. A major disadvantage of

heated air is the possibility of causing damage to the wheat with high tem-
perature. In countries where wheat is harvested at moisture levels of 18%
and above, drying columns are used. They are used also as a means to
change the characteristics of wheat components, such as the starch (Scott,
1951), protein, and especially the gluten protein.
Successful drying can be accomplished if precautions are taken not to
damage the wheat. Living materials, such as wheat, are readily damaged by
heat, particularly when they are moist. As wheat dries, sensitivity to tem-
perature decreases, and drying temperature may be increased. For this
reason, in drying systems, the dampest wheat is exposed to the heated air
stream after the air has already passed through the dry wheat and thus is
reduced in temperature.
The process of drying involves evaporation of water from the wheat to
the surrounding atmosphere. Because evaporation is a cooling process, the
grain remains cooler than the surrounding air as long as moisture vapor is
being removed. As the grain dries, however, this rate of vapor movement
decreases, and the temperature of the wheat rises toward that of the
surrounding air. This change in the wheat can cause quality deterioration
because of temperature sensitivity and must be carefully balanced against
the increased rate of drying with elevated temperatures. Mathematical
calculations can predict the drying of grain at different vapor pressures.
In general, drying of grain for seed and malting purposes requires
considerably milder conditions than drying for processing such as flour
milling, because the germination process is more sensitive to destruction by
heat than is the chemical quality of the material. Therefore, wheat for seed
purposes with moisture content above 24% should be dried in air below
43.3°C (110°F). As moisture decreases below 24%, the temperature of the
air may be increased to a maximum of 48.9°C (120°F). For wheat that is to
be used for milling purposes, where germination capacity is not important,
the drying air temperature should not exceed 65.6°C (150°F) (Greer, 1963).
Wheat gluten is easily damaged by exposure of the grain to drying tempera-
ture above 65.6°C (150°F); therefore such temperatures should not be used.
A serious problem in drying is the rapid decrease in the rate of moisture
removal from the wheat immediately after drying is begun, even though the
interior grain moisture remains high. This phenomenon is apparently due to
resistance to water movement through the grain toward the outer surfaces.
Continued application of heat under such circumstances is uneconomical in
terms of water removal. In addition, serious detrimental consequences to
wheat quality occur if higher temperatures and prolonged exposure are
applied in an attempt to overcome this condition.
These difficulties can be avoided by a process of intermittent and fre-
quent drying, such as that used for rice, to avoid internal fissuring. The
132 CHAPTER 3
wheat is allowed to rest between the drying periods, so that the remaining
moisture can spread evenly through the mass of the kernels and can be
removed more readily in succeeding drying periods. This method makes
possible a considerable savings in heat costs and minimizes damage to
damp grain by high temperatures. In general, the shorter the drying inter-
vals and the greater the number of rest periods, the more efficient the drying
of wheat in terms of heat expenditure.
Automation and inline control of drying systems improve drying per-
formance, make more efficient use of energy, raise quality assurance, and
save labor costs (Latein et al, 2003).
Refrigeration of Stored Wheat
Portable units are employed to deliver refrigerated air into the bottom of
a storage bin. Using this system, wheat with high moisture levels can be
stored for long periods. The refrigerated air is circulated through the wheat
continuously for a certain number of hours each month. This depends on
the bin size, bin walls, wheat moisture, atmospheric temperature, and other
local conditions. Reinforced concrete bins with lower levels of thermal con-
ductivity (Table 3-2) function as better insulators of refrigerated wheat than
steel bins. When the atmospheric air is cooled to about 8°C (46.4°F) with
the refrigeration unit, some of the moisture condenses on the unit and drains
off. Skriegan (2000) showed approximate safe storage periods between
consecutive cooling periods for wheat at different moisture levels after it
had been cooled to 10°C (50°F) (Table 3-6).
Other Approaches
Wheat that is stored for long periods of time is sometimes stored with
an inert gas or fine dust to retard insect infestation. The gas is usually nitro-
gen or carbon dioxide, which deprives the insects of oxygen and can be
retained in the stored wheat for long periods. Glass et al (1959) experi-
mented with sound wheat stored in atmospheres of air or nitrogen (contain-
ing 0.04% oxygen) at temperatures of 20 and 30°C. Testing was done with
TABLE 3-6
Safe Storage Period Between Consecutive Cooling Periods
of 10°C-Cooled Wheata
Average Moisture (%) Storage Period
14 1.5 to 2 years
15 8 to 12 months
16 4 to 8 months
17 3 to 5 months
18 1.5 to 3 months
20 2 to 6 weeks
23 about 2 weeks
a
Adapted from Skriegan (2000).
two lots of wheat: one a pure high-quality variety and the other a commer-
cial dark northern spring that ranged in moisture content from 13 to 18%.
At 16% moisture, the commercial wheat stored in nitrogen was free of germ
damage after 40 weeks and the high-quality wheat after 48 weeks, whereas
the same wheats stored in air had 100 and 95% germ damage, respectively.
Bailey (1955) and Oxley and Wickenden (1963) deprived stored wheat
of oxygen by placing it in an airtight container and allowing respiration of
insects and grain, thus causing an increase of carbon dioxide. To bring
about 100% mortality of all stages of Calandra granaria L. or Sitophilus
granaries, various experiments were conducted, increasing the level of
carbon dioxide and reducing oxygen in airtight storage for different num-
bers of days. In general, the adult insects are the stage most resistant to
deprivation of oxygen, and the first instar larvae are the most susceptible.
Different variables affect the reduction of oxygen and increase of carbon
dioxide. Hyde and Oxley (1960) determined that the carbon dioxide
concentration rose to 90–95% at grain moistures of 22–24%, to 70–75% at
19%, to 50% at 18%, and to 35–40% at about 17% moisture content.
A chemically inert dust with a particle size of 1 µm or less acts as a
desiccant to kill insects. It is inexpensive and easily removed in subsequent
cleaning of the wheat. Wilbur (1953) used a pyrenone wheat protectant con-
sisting of piperonyl butoxide (1.1%) and pyrethrins (0.08%) integrated into
pulverized wheat. The protectant was used at the rate of about 34 kg (75 lb)
per 27 ton (1,000 bu) of wheat.
Reichmuth (2000) reviewed possibilities of controlling pests in stored
products with biological methods, which control insect pests without resi-
due-building chemicals. All stored product pests have natural enemies that
can be used to prevent pest population growth. Among these are tiny wasps
(Trichogramma evanescens) that destroy insect eggs without leaving
organoleptically detectable residues. The tiny wasps are easily separated in
the wheat cleaning system after storage.
Ethyl formate is a colorless liquid with a low boiling point (54.1°C) and
a pleasant aromatic odor. Unlike phosphine, which takes days to kill insects,
ethyl formate kills rapidly. Residues can be reduced to natural levels
without aeration. It also has the added advantage of degrading to non-
poisonous and naturally occurring products (formic acid and ethanol). Ethyl
formate occurs naturally in vegetables, animal products, and products from
processed grain such as beer, fermented rice, soy sauce, and bread
(Desmarchelier, 1999). Desmarchelier et al (1998) sprayed ethyl formate
diluted in water onto wheat during receival into a bin. Wright et al (2002)
used ethyl formate as a fumigant in unsealed farm wheat storage bins.
Double doses of 85 g/t were applied at the top of the bins. In the wheat bin,
insects at all stages were killed within two days, and after three to five days,
ethyl formate residues were reduced to natural levels without aeration.
134 CHAPTER 3
Blending of Mill Mixes in Storage

The objective of wheat blending is to achieve a wheat mix of specified
physical, chemical, and baking characteristics. Such a mix is intended to
produce uniform flours within the required specifications. However, the
numerous variables in wheat and the processing system influence the accu-
racy of the resulting flour quality. No procedure is available to determine an
optimum ratio by which the qualities of the mill mix and the resulting flours
can be accurately predicted. That is why the final mix should be tested to
confirm that the quality factors meet specifications. The fact that a wide
number of blends can be created with various results, because of natural
variation in the wheat, indicates that blending is as much art as it is science.
In some countries, the blending of mill mixes is sometimes referred to as
“gristing” and the “grist” is the wheat mix that is processed by the mill.
To achieve repeated results within a tolerance limit, blending should be
done only with wheats compatible with the particular mill design. Blending
of different classes of wheat, such as hard in soft or vice versa, usually
results in reduced milling efficiency. The main parameters for blending
wheat are the protein content, quality, and baking characteristics of the
resulting flours. Additional parameters that are gaining importance are ker-
nel size, hardness, and sprout damage. The sizes and shapes of corrugations
on the break rolls are directly related to the wheat kernel sizes. Average dry-
wheat kernel hardness affects milling efficiency and should be considered a
parameter in wheat blending and subsequent conditioning procedures.
Sprout damage in some of the wheats used in the final blend before milling
is related to mill adjustment and the capacity to generate starch damage,
especially by smooth rolls. Some of the above characteristics and their
interrelationships are shown in Figure 1-13.
Blending models currently provide procedures for responding to price
and technology changes. Thus, it is possible to have readily available in the
model’s framework not only quality schedules but also price and quantity
schedules to analyze wheat purchase and the sale of marketable products.
Linear programming was used to mix wheats at the lowest cost and meet
minimum acceptable product requirements (Niernberger and Phillips, 1972;
Sarkar, 1988). In parts of the world where bakers use alveograph data as the
yardstick for flour quality, software is used to optimize wheat blending for
optimal alveograph performance. The miller continuously collects the
necessary wheat quality information as independent variables and the end-
product results as dependent variables to be used for analysis to determine
specific parameters for the particular mill unit (Posner, 1988).
In applying model ratios and information, care should be taken that the
technical aspects of the blending procedure are adequate. The best data con-
cerning blending cannot compensate for poor technical facilities. The flow
of the wheat from the elevator (silo) bins has an effect on the precision of
blending. Segregation that might occur in the wheat as a result of differ-
ences in kernel size and density could affect the ratio and the quality of a
wheat mix. Storage bins must be designed to achieve mass flow from the
bin for optimum uniform blending. Where blends are made from dirty,
uncleaned wheat, weighing equipment should not be used to control the
amount or percentage of each kind of wheat in the blend. On the other
hand, clean wheats can be blended with equipment based on a volumetric
method. However, gravimetric weighing of the mix components is more
accurate and inventory control is better when weights can be totaled and
recorded in the computer for each mix.
The dry-wheat mix bins should have enough storage capacity to accom-
modate production for at least three shifts in the flour mill. The number of
wheat mix bins needed should be based on predicted quantities to be milled
from each mix. Sufficient bins allocated to wheat mixes increase the
miller’s flexibility to change the order in which mixes flow to grinding. The
blending capacity should be large enough to allow the preparation of differ-
ent mixes during the day shift and to accommodate the needs of the remain-
ing shifts. As an example, a mill with a milling capacity of 650 t per day
should have a blending capacity of about 100 t/hr.
A premix program is the preferred method of formulating final mill
mixes. This is done in the blending section of the elevator, and bins with
accurate feeders are dedicated to this purpose. A premix is composed of
wheats drawn from several bins, and the blend is stored in more than one
holding bin. Subsequently, by blending premixed wheat from several hold-
ing bins the final mix for milling is made up. The holding bins, which are
kept relatively full at all times, should be constructed to guarantee a mass
flow of the wheat to avoid any segregation in the premix. The mix is sam-
pled at regular intervals to determine the standard deviation. A composite
sample is formulated from the run that represents the final mix. This sample
can be tested for specification tolerances. The advantage of a premix is that
the mill has large amounts of wheat that has been tested to meet the final
mix specifications, usually sufficient for several weeks of operation. The
sampling procedure is determined by statistical methods to ensure that the
mix results are within tolerances for the specifications. If the final mix is
out of specification range, it can be remixed and corrected before it is sent
to the mill.
The method and equipment used for blending wheat vary from mill to
mill. Blending of wheat is required when millers must accommodate their
customers by producing a large number of uniform flour grades meeting
different quality specifications. Some mills formulate the mix out of the
tempering bins. The optimum moisture and temper time vary with the type
136 CHAPTER 3
and hardness of the wheat. Each type can be tempered separately and
blended together out of the temper bins, using gravimetric feeders to obtain
an accurate mix. Some mills, rather then changing the wheat mix for each
flour type, blend base flours from holding bins to generate the different
final products. Uniformity is ensured and can be tested before shipment.
See Chapter 9 for more information. Strict procedures should be established
in the plant regarding steps to be taken for mix changes and for accurate
recordkeeping. This can be controlled with a computer program for each
mixing system.
Procedures and Control

As would be expected, procedures and control are very important parts
of the grain storage system. Unjustified shrinkage and spoilage of wheat in
storage can cause large financial losses. Accurate procedures should be
established in the elevator for reporting, receiving, handling, blending, and
transfer of wheat to the mill. Procedures must relate also to safety precau-
tions specific to the elevator, for example, entrance into empty or full stor-
age bins. Guidelines for grain storage management and control are avail-
able, without charge, from institutions such as the Purdue University
Cooperative Extension Service (Purdue, 1994). As in any economic entity,
the miller or the elevator supervisor must be aware of all stocks and their
quantity and quality in inventory. The weighing of entering and outgoing
stocks must be checked and adjusted continuously. With modern electronic
weighing and registration, the miller can have access to all the critical infor-
mation at all times. Because the major expense in the mill is wheat, a
successful wheat storage and blending system is needed. The latter depends
on input from the different experts in the organization. Persons responsible
for production, quality assurance, sales, procurement, and traffic should be
part of a team that continuously discusses decisions regarding wheat blend-
ing, based on relevant data.
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storage studies. XXVIII. The influence of temperature and moisture level on the
behavior of wheat stored in air or nitrogen. Cereal Chem. 36:341-356.
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intake. Getreide Mehl Brot 56(1):12-14.
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United States Standards for Grain. U.S. Dep. Agric., Washington, DC.
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33(1):29.
Hetzel, F. V., and Albright, R. K. Belt Conveyors and Belt Elevator, 3rd ed. John
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178. Agric. Mark. Serv., U.S. Dep. Agric., Washington, DC.
Hyde, M. B., and Oxley, T. A. 1960. Experiments on the airtight storage of damp
grain. I. Introduction, effect of the grain and the intergranular atmosphere. Ann.
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ISO. 2002. Sampling of Grains. ISO 6644, Approved 2002. International Organiza-
tion for Standardization, Geneva, Switzerland.
Kice, J. 1983. Dust control for sanitation and safety. Assoc. Oper. Millers Bull.,
Dec., pp. 4175-4181.
Krach, H., and Kalbunde, H. 1979. Report of the Milling Technology Conference,
30th. Granum Verlag, Detmold, Germany.
Latein, T., Blume, P., Köhler, K., and Russ, R. 2003. Field experience with a dryer
controller. (In German) Muehle Muschfutter 140:481-484.
Mao, Y. E., and Rayas-Duarte, P. 2001. Effect of wheat storage temperature and time
on dough rheology and bread characteristics. Poster 435 (abstr.). Online:
AACCnet.org/meetings/past meetings.
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Cereal Sci. Today 17:194-197.
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insects which infest grain. Ann. Appl. Biol. 51:313-324.
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Handbook. McGraw-Hill, New York.
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SUGGESTED READING
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140 CHAPTER 3
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CAB International: http://www.cabi.org

Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization (CSIRO)
Publications: http:// www.sgrl.csiro.au/comm/Publications_SGRL.doc
Purdue University: http://www.agcom.purdue.edu/AgCom/Pubs/AE/AE-90.html
CHAPTER 4
Wheat Cleaning
and Conditioning
Wheat arriving in the mill usually contains foreign matter, such as

strings, straw, parts of bags, wood, stones, or metal, that must be removed
before processing. The contaminants usually become mixed with the wheat
in the field and during its transfer through the various stages of the grain-
handling system. In addition, wheat always contains some seeds of other
plants, even if grown under the best conditions. If farming or environmental
conditions are poor, the amount of screenings is likely to increase.
Although part of the foreign material (dockage), or all of it, is discounted in
the trade, the cleaning system in the mill should be designed to allow the
miller enough flexibility to properly clean any wheat arriving at the mill.
Upon arrival, the wheat is precleaned with a high-capacity system to
separate coarse foreign material, ferrous particles, and dust and to prepare
the wheat for storage and safe handling (see Chapter 3). This chapter
describes the intensive cleaning of wheat and its preparation for milling to
flour for human consumption.
The heterogeneous physical characteristics of wheat (namely, different
dimensions, specific weight, and shape even in one load) contribute to the
difficulties of separating unmillable materials. The miller must make com-
promises in the selection of cleaning methods, machine adjustments, and
sieves because wheat is not a homogeneous material.
Unmillable Material
The unmillable fraction is treated differently by individual mills. Some
use a hammer mill to grind the screenings to a fine material, which can then
be mixed with the mill feed. Other mills find markets for the separated frac-
tions of the screenings. Some millers feed the separated broken and
shrunken wheat kernels to the tail-end breaks in the mill.
141
142 CHAPTER 4
Foreign Material
The material separated in the cleaning house from the millable wheat
could be poisonous, reduce flour quality and extraction, or damage machin-
ery. Decisions on how to set the flow of the cleaning house and adjust the
machines are dependent upon the wheat’s physical characteristics and the
level of impurities in it. A good, dependable cleaning house is flexible
enough to handle all the possible variations in wheat physical characteristics
and those of the unmillable materials. A cleaning house designed to
separate only some particular contaminants in the wheat, and only up to a
certain level, is a technical and economic handicap to the mill.
Included in the screening fraction are the grains of other cereals, such as
barley, oats, and rye, and weeds that were mixed with the wheat during
growing or handling before arrival in the mill. Figure 4-1 shows some of the
types of seeds that can be found in wheat, and Table 4-1 lists seeds and
other impurities often found in wheat that should be considered foreign
material. Their physical characteristics are used in the cleaning process to
separate them from wheat.
Rodent pellets or droppings and bird excreta sometimes contaminate the
wheat through unclean farm machinery, handling, and storage. The pellets
usually are larger than the wheat kernel and, as will be shown later, can be
separated by separator sieves or indents in discs or cylinder separators. Fine
Fig. 4-1. Various seeds commonly found in a wheat sample. (Courtesy Satake
(USA) Inc.)
CLEANING AND CONDITIONING 143
TABLE 4-1
Characteristics of Foreign Material in Wheat
Diameter Density
Material (mm) (kg/m3) Color Shape
Corn-cockle 3–4 Black or brown Globular
Cockle 2–3.5 736 Jet black Three sided
Wild mustard 1–2 720 Brownish black Round
Garlic 3.5 Green Bulbous
Milo 3–4 640–720 White Sphere
Sorghum 3–4 512–560 Brown Sphere
Soy beans 6–7 720–800 Yellow, green Sphere
Buckwheat 4–5 640–672 Dark brown Three sided
Sand 1–2 1,281–1,601 Red, brown Cube
Granite 3–8 1,521 Black Irregular
Dirt (mud balls) 1–8 600–1,000 Black Irregular
Oats 3–8 416–480 Yellow Longitudinal
Dust Microns 176 Gray Irregular
separation of this kind is achieved by longitudinal slot sieves 4 mm wide.

Pellets also may be separated in washers by floating based on their specific
weight.
Damaged Wheat
Wheat kernels that have been damaged mechanically, biologically, by
insect infestation, or by disease during growing or subsequent handling also
should be removed during the cleaning. Kernels that are unripe at the time
of harvest become light, meager, and shriveled after drying. Frost-damaged
wheat that has been frosted in the milk stage of growth has meager and
shriveled kernels. Insect damage decreases the grain’s value. Infested grain
is defined as insect-damaged kernels that are visible in the sample. Accord-
ing to the regulations of the U.S. Grain Inspection, Packers and Stock Yards
Administration (GIPSA), if 32 or more insect-damaged kernels are found in
a combined portion of 100 g of wheat, the grain is labeled “U.S. Sample
Grade.”
Pasikatan and Dowell (2001) reviewed optical sorting systems for
detection and removal of seeds infested internally by insects or fungi. The
wavelength pairs reported (used for detection and sorting of fungal
contamination) were by fluorescence, 440 and 490 nm and 442 and 607
nm; by near-infrared (NIR) transmittance, 800 and 930 nm, 700 and 1,100
nm, 710 and 760 nm, 615 and 645 nm, and 640 and 910 nm; and by NIR
reflectance, 735 and 1,005 nm, 625 and 1,555 nm, 835 and 1,030 nm, and
730 and 1,360 nm. For internal insects in wheat, the following wavelength
pairs were reported: 982 and 1,014 nm and 1,194 and 1,304 nm by NIR
reflectance. The NIR method can detect infestation up to about seven weeks
before insects emerge as adults.
144 CHAPTER 4
Fungal diseases in the field also are a source of damage. Fungal rust
causes small, shriveled kernels with low bushel weight. The fungus Tilletia
tritici causes bunt (stinking smut) by entering the plant below ground and
invading the ovaries during the growing period. In the case of bunt smut, the
kernel contains a powdery black or dark brown mass of spores within the peri-
carp. If the mass is broken, ill-smelling spores scatter onto other kernels and
can taint the flours ground from that wheat. The fungus Ustilago tritici causes
the loose or common smut that infects the plants during flowering and then
prevents them from producing seeds.
Ergot, also caused by a fungus (Claviceps purpurea), attacks mainly rye
but also wheat. The airborne spores of the pathogen infect the plant’s ovaries,
forming a dark purple mass as large as or larger than the wheat kernel. Toxic
alkaloids are produced, which caused hundreds of thousands of deaths in the
Middle Ages after people consumed contaminated cereal grains. During the
last four decades, no outbreak of ergot has been recorded (Lorenz, 1979).
Ergot can cause abortion and death in humans and animals (Christensen,
1975). Regulatory agencies determine the maximum allowable percentage of
ergot in a sample, above which the wheat will be designated “ergoty” and not
suitable for consumption. GIPSA classifies wheat and rye containing 0.3% as
ergoty; for triticale, 0.1% ergot earns that classification. The Canadian Grain Act
specifies that the highest grades of wheat and rye intended for milling should be
free of ergot. In Canada, grain samples containing more than 0.33% ergot
sclerotia by weight are graded “ergoty.” A maximum level of 0.05% is allowed
in German wheat for human consumption, and Japan has set a limit of
0.04% ergot in wheat. Handreck and Zwingelberg (1995) stated that, during
the baking process, the alkaloids are reduced about 50%. Redemann et al
(1994) gave physical data about ergot: kernel width, 2–8 mm; thickness, 2–
5 mm; length, 3–80 mm; weight, 52–54 kg/hl; density, 1.04 g/cm3; and
color, blue-violet to black.
Methods of Separating Wheat Impurities

Unmillable material is removed in the cleaning system by multiple
methods based on different principles because a load of wheat usually con-
tains heterogeneous materials differing substantially in their characteristics.
The various machines used to separate impurities from the wheat are based
on one or more of the following characteristics of either the impurities or
the wheat: 1) magnetic and nonmagnetic properties of metals; 2) size and
dimensions (volume, width, and length); 3) shape; 4) specific gravity; 5)
behavior during wheat washing; 6) behavior in air currents; 7) surface
friction, elasticity, texture, and hardness; 8) friability under impact; 9)
electrostatic properties; and 10) color differences.
Some modern wheat-cleaning systems include machines that are

designed to perform multiple functions by incorporating two or more of the
above-mentioned principles. In many instances, such machines are installed
in the system to save space and to reduce investment, control by operators,
and power consumption. However, some of the multifunctional machines
are unsatisfactory in allowing operator access for adjustment during the run.
In addition, multifunctional machines have limited flexibility in handling
wheat loads with significant variability in physical shape and amount of
unmillable material. The professional miller must evaluate the installment
of such multifunctional machines in the mill wheat-cleaning section based
on the expected variance of quality and the characteristics and level of
unmillable material that might be included in wheat loads to the mill.
Magnetic and Nonmagnetic Metals

A magnetic separator is installed as the first machine in the system to
separate any free metal pieces in the wheat stream. Magnets are needed not
only to remove metal from the wheat but also to protect machines from
damage and generation of sparks that might trigger a dust explosion. It is a
good practice to install more than one magnet in the system, because addi-
tional metal pieces can enter the wheat stream from the operating machines.
Permanent magnets or more powerful electromagnets activated by electrical
current can be used. If the current supplied to the electromagnet is alternat-
ing, a rectifier of some kind must be used because the system requires direct
current.
The development of metal alloys, such as aluminum-nickel-cobalt, has
resulted in very strong and efficient permanent magnets that come in horse-
shoe or plate shapes. The installation of magnets in the operation requires
some careful design (Fig. 4-2). A magnet installed at the bottom of a spout
may cause blockage of the stream if a large piece of iron is caught. Another
concern is that small pieces of iron may be knocked free by the force of the
grain as it passes over the magnet. To overcome these problems, the
strength of the magnet must be selected carefully. The design of the spout,
if possible, should slow the flow of the grain and spread it into a thin layer.
Prevention of blockages can be achieved with a stronger magnet at the top
of the spout. Newly developed spout magnets also can be installed in a
vertical spout section. The magnet, which is attached to a swing-out door,
can be removed, cleaned effortlessly during operation, and then replaced by
closing the door.
Another type of magnetic separator is the drum separator. The drum
magnet is installed as one pulley of a belt conveyor or as a permanent mag-
net inside a revolving shell. The endless belt or the revolving shell carries
the material through the magnetic field. The nonmagnetic material falls
146 CHAPTER 4
Fig. 4-2. Two magnet installations.
freely from the belt or the shell, whereas ferrous particles are held firmly
until carried beyond a diverter and out of the magnetic field. In some cases,
electromagnets are used as drum magnets.
Nonmagnetic metal detectors use a balanced three-coil arrangement
around an aperture through which the material moves; any metal is detected
while passing through the electromagnetic field. Metal detectors can be
placed around transport belts or around a pipe through which material flows
in a free fall.
By Size and Dimensions

For separating grain impurities according to size, machines with differ-
ent mechanical arrangements of sieves are used. The separating media, the
sieves, can be made from perforated sheet metal or wire cloth. To achieve a
separating action with a sieve, it must be in motion. The motion of the
sieves varies in machines originating from different manufacturers.
Machines are constructed with rotary motion, oscillating (reciprocating)
motion, and a combination of head-end rotary motion and tail-end

reciprocating motion. With flat sieves, the screening process can take place
only when the motion of the seed is not synchronized with that of the
screen. The relative motions of the wheat and the screen can be obtained by
one of two methods: 1) movement of particles caused by their gravity along
an inclined, static screen and 2) movement of particles caused by the
movement of the screen.
In most modern cleaning machines, the screens always move. The mate-
rial on the sieves moves at a slower velocity than the sieve. The relative
velocities depend on the sieve surface and the material’s shape and surface.
The screens can be horizontal or set at a low angle to the horizontal to
ensure that the material moves on top to the lower end. The load should be
distributed evenly over the whole surface of the screen to ensure efficient
usage of all the sieving area. The relative velocities of the screen and mate-
rial should allow particles smaller than the screen openings to pass through
the screen with ease.
Reciprocating sieves for wheat usually run at 325–600 rpm with a back-
and-forth stroke of about 3.2–3.5 cm (11/4–13/8 in.). Sieves usually are
inclined in the machine and are driven by a self-balancing mechanism or by
eccentrics. When the reciprocating movement is in the direction of the
inclination, the sieve can handle a larger capacity but the separation is not very
efficient. However, when the reciprocation is at right angles to the inclination
of the sieve, capacity is lower but with higher separation efficiency.
A gyrating screen operates at a speed of 150–300 rpm with a throw
diameter of about 3.8–10.2 cm (1½–4 in.). The capacity of gyrating screens
is considerably below that of reciprocating screens, and throughs of similar
screens are finer for gyrating screens. The gyrating screen separates accord-
ing to the length, whereas the reciprocating screen separates according to
the width of the kernels.
New developments in the design of machines with vibrating drives
allow reduction in sieve size by increasing the efficiency of separation.
Vibrations with an amplitude of 0.5–5.0 mm and frequencies up to 50
cycles per second can separate heavier and lighter seeds of the same size or
particles of the same specific gravity but of different sizes.
In contrast to the flat sieve, which reciprocates or gyrates, as discussed
above, the rotary screen can vary in shape from cylindrical to polygonal.
These screens, with a nearly horizontal axis of rotation, can be divided into
more than one aperture size in one machine based on the characteristics of the
material to be separated. The main division (between low-speed and high-
speed screens) is based on the number of revolutions and the kinematic
conditions of work. A reel is a cylindrical or polygonal screening surface
revolving about its axis. The rolling, turning motion of the reel causes material
with the appropriate dimension to pass through the screen. Only about 25% of
148 CHAPTER 4
the total screen surface is actually active in the screening process. The
peripheral speed of these screens is low, ranging from 0.65 to 0.75 m/sec.
Perforated sheet metal screens are made from steel, tin-plated iron, spe-
cial steel alloys, or copper and bronze. Holes may be round or oblong, and
the width of the hole is determined by the separation to be made. Wire
cloths differ in wire gauges (light or heavy), meshes, and cross sections.
The sieve aperture is selected based on the working principles of the
machine, the load, and the physical characteristics of the wheat kernels and
the unmillable materials. Wheat kernels generally vary in size from 2.7 to
4.0 mm in width and from 5 to 8.5 mm in length. The performance
efficiency of a screening machine depends on the following features:
suitable screen surface, appropriate agitating motion and speed, and
dependable screen-cleaning mechanism. Comprehensive studies were con-
ducted on sieve design, motion, aperture shape, location, and matching to
seed dimensions (Grochowicz, 1980). One of the miller’s objectives should
be to apply information generated by research for accurate sieve selection to
achieve the best results with each kind of machine and wheat.
Separation by Width
Particles tend to be arranged on a sieve in relation to the sieve move-
ment. When placed on a reciprocating sieve, they tend to be arranged with
their longest axes parallel to the direction of reciprocation and to upend at
each reciprocation. Thus, a particle passes through a screen opening that is
only slightly larger than its width. By reciprocating the screen with the cor-
rect stroke and speed, the particles may be made to stand on end. The reel
(described below) separates and sizes material by width when a sieve with
round perforations is used.
Separation by Length
Particles in a mixture passing over a horizontal sieve that moves with a
gyrating or rotary motion in the horizontal plane have no tendency to
upend. However, they align in such a manner that their longest axes stay
parallel to the screening surface. Particles whose length is less than the
diameter of the holes in the sieve fall through sideways, thus making a
separation by length regardless of width. The physical dimensions of wheat
(namely, the kernel width and length) vary throughout a load of wheat;
therefore, separation of impurities from wheat by sieving should be
achieved by preselecting the opening sizes of sieves.
The miller usually has the screen positioned so that the wheat flows on
the backside of the surface from which the holes were drilled or punched.
This ensures that the kernels are not caught in the screen.
The milling separator combines coarse and fine screens with efficient
aspiration to remove light dust and foreign material. Machine capacities
vary depending on such design parameters as sieve motion, speed, angle of
inclination, and area. Theoretically, a series of two sieves can separate from
a load of a certain kind of wheat all particles that do not fall within the
range of normally expected kernel dimensions.
The Granostar (Buhler, Inc.) is an example of a machine in which a set
of sieves gyrate (Fig. 4-3). The machine makes three separations by size:
foreign material larger than wheat, wheat, and material smaller than wheat.
In addition, with the help of air currents, a fraction lighter than the wheat is
separated in a channel located at the tail end of the machine.
The reel (precision grader or ring grader) is a rotating sieve cylinder that
separates and sizes granular material by thickness, using cylinders with slot-
ted perforations, and by width, using round perforations. The machine is
equipped with a quick cylinder change feature for fast, easy changes in
types and sizes of perforations, as required, or for thorough cleanout
between wheat lots. A vibrating trough conveys throughs to the feed end of
the unit, where a discharge spout is located.
Fig. 4-3. Sieve separator. A = inlet of grain to be cleaned, B = outlet for cleaned
product, C = connection for aspiration of the machine, D = lateral outlet for
coarse impurities (large kernels, strings, straw, etc.), E = lateral outlet for fine
screenings (light and broken kernels, sand, etc.), F = coarse sieve, G = sand
sieve, H = motor, J = flywheel.
150 CHAPTER 4
By Shape
Separation based on differences in shape is made in a disc separator
(Fig. 4-4) or an indented trieur cylinder (Fig. 4-5). As the names imply, the
disc separator comprises a series of discs rotating in the bulk of the wheat,
and the trieur cylinder is a rotating metal cylinder in which material is
picked up by indentations or pockets and thrown into a centrally located
trough.
The disc separator is constructed in such a way that several discs, with
indented pockets on both sides, rotate in uninterrupted contact with the
mass of wheat within the body of the machine. The discs revolve partly
buried in the mass of grain, picking out particles small enough to enter the
pockets and discharging them into catch troughs on the downward moving
side between the discs. A particle short enough to lodge in the pocket on the
working surface of the machine is picked up and removed from the mass of
Fig. 4-4. Disc separator method of operation (top) and disc cross-section
(bottom). (Courtesy Carter-Day International)
material, provided that its center of gravity stays within the indentation until
the discharge point is reached. The axes of the pockets usually are inclined
to the radius of the cylinder to prevent the particles from falling out too
soon. Pocket shape influences the separation; however, manufacturers have
standardized some pocket shapes for economic reasons. To make a good
separation with the disc separator, there must be a difference in length of at
least 1/16 in. (1.6 mm) between the two separated fractions. The lifted prod-
uct slides from the catch trough into a collecting hopper running the entire
length of the machine. Valves at the end of each trough can be flipped, and
the material can be conveyed by a backward-moving screw conveyor to the
head end of the machine for reseparation. Wheat is fed in at one end of the
machine and conveyed to the other end. The mass of wheat is conveyed
through the machine by inclined blades on the spokes of each disc, which
attach the indented pocket section to the central shaft. Based on expected
capacity and the amount of foreign material to be separated from the wheat,
machines vary in disc diameter and number. When the machine is used in a
low-capacity system, the set of discs can be split into two pocket sizes.
In the mill cleaning house system, disc separators are divided into long-
and short-kernel separations. In the short-kernel disc separator, small seeds
Fig. 4-5. Indented cylinder separator. A = indented cylinder, B = collecting tray,

C = position of collecting trough, D = discharge conveyor, E = trough adjustment
hand wheel, F = screw conveyor in the trough, G = indicator disc.
152 CHAPTER 4
and particles that fit into the indented pockets are lifted, while the whole
wheat is conveyed out over the gate at the tail end of the machine. The
pockets of a long-kernel disc separator accommodate the size of whole
wheat kernels. The longer kernels of grain that do not fit into the disc
pockets are conveyed to the end of the machine. Those are usually barley,
oat, or other seeds. At the outlet of a disc separator, an adjustable gate can
control the overtail of the kernels that did not fit into the pockets and the
depth of the grain in the machine. In the past, worn-out discs were changed
by disassembling the whole rotating shaft and mounted discs. At present,
discs are manufactured in two halves, making possible easy exchange of a
single disc at a time.
Another machine that is designed to separate bulk fractions different in
shape is the trieur cylinder (indent separator). The cylinder, with indenta-
tions on its inner surface, usually is inclined to allow the mass of wheat to
move by gravity to the end. Particles small enough to lodge in the pockets
are raised to a certain point, after which they drop out into a trough and are
removed by a screw conveyor. The rest of the material tails over the end of
the cylinder. The maximum capacity of the trieur cylinder is reached when
the indented cylinder is rotating at a speed just below that at which centrifu-
gal force would prevent the lifted particles from dropping out at all. The
following list indicates advantages of the disc separator over the trieur
cylinder.
1. The disc separator has a much higher capacity. It has more surface
and indentation pockets for a given machine size than the trieur cylinder
separator.
2. The discs can be cast from very hard iron, able to withstand the abra-
sion of the wheat.
3. Pockets of different shapes are easily cast into the disc.
4. Separated fractions from different discs can be returned to the head of
the machine for retreatment.
5. Discs with different pocket shapes can be combined in a single
machine.
On the other hand, the advantages of the trieur cylinder include the fol-
lowing:
1. Removal of product can be adjusted by the angle of the trough while
the machine is operating.
2. Pockets are longer lasting than those of the disc separator.
3. Maintenance is lower because changing cylinders is easy.
Two other machines that separate particles using difference in shape or
in “roundness” are the band separator and the spiral separator. The band
separator is a short, endless belt running over rollers, the upper surface
being slightly inclined and running uphill. Round particles roll down the
incline, whereas flat or polygonal particles are moved with the belt and
Fig. 4-6. Spiral gravity separator. A = aspiration; B = inlet; C = wheat; D = cockle,

vetch, broken grains; E = vetch and round cockle.
discharged over the upper end. The spiral separator operates on a similar
principle based on differences in shape. A spiral channel is wound con-
centrically around a vertical shaft (Fig. 4-6). The material containing wheat
or broken wheat kernels and different round seeds to be separated is fed
from the top. Particles that roll most freely attain the highest speed and
move to the outside, where they are deflected off, thus causing separation
by shape. Spiral separators can separate round weed seeds from broken
wheat kernels.
By Specific Gravity
Particles such as stones, dirt (mud balls), glass, or metal about the same
size as the wheat kernels flow with the stream of wheat from the sieve
separator. The stones or other materials heavier than wheat may be
separated by specific gravity differences, using air or water as segregation
aids. Machines in which this principle is implemented are the dry destoners
and the destoning section of wheat washers.
154 CHAPTER 4
Dry destoning based on differences in specific gravity is achieved in a

machine in which air current, sieve stroke, and sieve inclination are vari-
ables that affect the separation efficiency (Fig. 4-7). The specific gravity
separators can remove not only particles heavier than wheat, such as stones
and mud balls, but also particles lighter than wheat, such as ergot, rodent
pellets, and heavily insect-infested kernels. Barton (2001) stated that
blackpoint score, determined by an image analysis procedure, increased
with the thousand-kernel weight of wheat. The regression plot of thousand-
grain weight against blackpoint score was R² = 0.92. Accordingly, gravity
separation can be used to remove some of the badly discolored kernels
before processing. This idea, however, has not been generally adopted.
Tkachuck et al (1991) used a specific gravity table to remove tombstone
wheat kernels and associated mycotoxins from Fusarium-infected wheat.
Mycological examination of the wheats and their fractions showed that the
incidence of Fusarium infection was greatest for the least dense fractions and
least for the densest fractions. Happle and Mecke (1995) described a cleaning
house flow in which the wheat stream from a gravity table was divided in two;
the heavy, separated fraction was cleaned grain and the lighter fraction
contained ergot.
Fig. 4-7. Dry destoner. A = Observation window, B = impurities outlet, C =

cleaned wheat outlet, D = feeding tray to the processing deck, E = inclined
processing deck, F = wheat inlet, G = spiral spring supporting the vibrating unit,
H = adjustable suspension rod, I = exhaust for air containing dust and impurities
lighter than wheat.
The concentrator, or combinator, uses a combination of two or more

cleaning machine principles. On the first half of the sieve, the product is
fluidized and stratified according to specific gravity by an oscillating
motion and a strong airflow. On the second half, the screen openings
become progressively larger so that the heavy product falls through the
sieve first, then the medium-weight grain, and finally the light-weight grain.
The products falling through are divided into a heavy product stream and a
mixed-product stream. The tailings consist of light product (light screen-
ing). This type of separation is important when the system needs to separate
ergot, pellets, and infested wheat, which usually are concentrated in the
mixed-product stream.
Wheat Washing
Wheat washing is no longer a method preferred by millers because of the
effluent water issue and pollution control. When it was used in the mid-
1900s, the most common washing machine included a metal water bath and
an agitator that also advanced the wheat, below which a screw conveyor
turned in the opposite direction, removing stones, metals, and heavy par-
ticles. The agitator moved the washed wheat to the base of a whizzer, a
machine with inclined blades that lifted the wheat vertically and, at the same
time, threw the wheat against a perforated screen. The level of water pickup
by the wheat could be controlled, to a certain extent, by adjusting the duration
of wheat in the agitator. The amount of water absorbed by the wheat could
vary from 1.5 to 3% based on the amount of wheat fed to the machine, the
wheat type, and the duration in the agitator (Lockwood, 1946). The wet wheat
from the whizzer was directed to the tempering bins. Fresh water was added
continuously to the machine to compensate for water absorbed by the wheat.
The wheat washer was a very effective machine for removal of fungi,
bacteria, and other materials adhering to the wheat kernel. Excess water,
dirt, dust, and, to some extent, outer kernel layers were removed through
the perforated screen. Washed wheat produced higher flour extraction and
was characterized by better color, lower ash, and reduced bacteria count.
Water usage in the wheat washers was up to 0.5 m3 of water per ton of
wheat, which was the main cause for the discontinued use of this machine.
The cost of modern methods for efficient recycling of water in wheat-
washing systems probably will be reevaluated in the future against the
significant benefits of improving the final products.
By Air Currents
Aspiration, or separation by ascending air currents, is used mainly to
separate dust, chaff, straw, leaves, and other light particles from whole,
156 CHAPTER 4
sound grain. The separation is based on the aerodynamic properties of the

different parts of the material entering the machine. Air in a separating sys-
tem can act horizontally or vertically; of the two, vertical separation is more
efficient. The terminal velocity of particles is a function of their size, shape,
and specific gravity. Particles falling through still air accelerate until the
frictional force, which is a function of the velocity, is equal to the gravita-
tional force. Hence, the particle falls at a steady speed after it reaches its
terminal velocity. The critical velocity, however, is the limit velocity of the
fall of a particle in immobile air. When the upward vertical drag force on
the particle, Rp, is equal to the force of gravity, G, then the particle remains
suspended at a constant height. If Rp is larger than G or vice versa, the
particle moves upward or downward, respectively. The critical velocity (Uk)
is regarded as a basic characteristic of the aerodynamic properties of a
particle (Grochowicz, 1980). It can be expressed as:
(g × G )
Uk =
k × Yz × Fz
where Fz = cross-sectional area of the particle perpendicular to the direction
of the airstream (m2), Yz = specific gravity of the particle, k = dimensionless
coefficient of aerodynamic drag, g = gravity acceleration, and G = particle’s
force of gravity.
The heavier particles settle in the rising airstream, and the lighter
particles are carried away by the airstream to an expansion chamber. In
the expansion chamber, the air carrying the light material loses velocity
and allows some of the airborne particles to fall to the bottom. Some
aspiration systems are designed to circulate air in the machine without
discharging it to the atmosphere. In most cleaning machines, air separa-
tion is applied in combination with other methods. Many factors affect air
movement in the cleaning machines. The distribution of the air across the
aspiration channel in cleaning machines, the shape of the channel, and
static pressure losses are some of the factors the mill designer and the
miller must take into account in the construction, assembly, and the use of
the machines.
Another approach to the use of air to separate light impurities is the
round aspirator. Its design is such that it can be placed easily in any
convenient gravity spout run. Grain enters the inlet via a dead-box, which
slows down the grain to give a steady, even feed to the machine. Centraliz-
ing cones in the following feed spout direct the grain onto a wear plate
where, due to a boil-over effect, a thin uniform curtain of stock passes down
around the whole circumference of the aspirator. Air that is drawn through
inlets at the bottom of the unit passes upward through the curtain of grain,
lifting the lighter material. Machines that employ air currents among other
methods for separation are the following:
Fig. 4-8. Belt classifier. (Courtesy Smico Inc.)
1. Wheat-cleaning separators in the receiving and storage systems and in

the wheat-cleaning system. Aspirators are designed to combine sieves and
aspiration arrangements.
2. The aspiration channel, as part of a machine or as a separate unit,
which removes particles with high ratios of surface area to mass.
3. Dry destoners, which remove particles with low ratios of surface area
to mass.
4. Gravity tables, which grade a mixture of particles into several
streams of different surface-area-to-mass ratios.
5. The belt classifier, which throws particles in a trajectory orbit, allow-
ing the heavier particles to proceed further than the lighter ones.
Intercepting air separates the different fractions into receiving hoppers (Fig.
4-8).
By Surface Friction, Elasticity, Texture, and Hardness

Friction on the wheat kernel separates impurities adhering to the
kernel’s surface. It has a polishing effect and cleans the wheat. “Beeswings”
of the pericarp can be removed very efficiently by friction after the first
tempering of the wheat. This action takes place in a scourer (Fig. 4-9), in
which a rotor bounces the wheat against the wall of the machine, which
may be perforated sheet metal, a screen of woven steel wire, or an emery
surface. The rotor may be made of a drum, on which inclined beater blades
are positioned. The small impurities pass through the screen, and the
cleaned grain is discharged at the outlet end of the machine.
158 CHAPTER 4
Fig. 4-9. Horizontal scourer. 1 = product inlet, 2 = rotor with palettes, 3 = wire
mesh jacket, 4 = abrasion fines, 5 = outlet of main product, 6 = aspirating
channel. (Courtesy Buhler Inc.)
Fig. 4-10. Single-chamber motion of separation between light and heavy stock
with the paddy table. 1 = single chamber, 2 = feed channel to the lower bottoms,
B = direction of movement of the separating table, C = conveying direction of the
heavy stock, D = conveying direction of the light stock.
Cylindrical fine wire brushes mounted on a rotor also are used as a fric-
tion mechanism. This type of machine enables the separation of softer
seeds, such as garlic, from the mass of wheat by piercing them with the
steel points of the brush.
Differences in hardness between wheat and ergot or wheat and mud
balls allow separation, especially in durum mills, using a paddy table (Fig.
4-10). The paddy table, which originated in the rice-processing industry,
includes a set of zigzagged channels arranged side by side on an inclined
table. The table moves sideways at a relatively slow speed, forcefully
striking the kernels. The softer ergot and mud balls respond differently from
wheat to the impact of the paddy table channel walls and are separated as
screenings.
By Friability Under Impact

Friability of a particle when subjected to impact, crushing, or attrition
forces is another characteristic used to separate screenings from wheat for
milling. Some impurities, such as insect-damaged and -infested kernels,
break up on impact, and the small fragments later are removed by aspiration
or sieving. The impact machine contains a fast-rotating rotor, which can be
of two types. One type, which exists in a variety of diameters, has one or
two rows of pegs on the outside circumference of the rotor. The greater the
diameter of the rotor, the greater the peripheral speed of the pegs and the
greater the impact exerted by the pegs on the wheat. The other type is a
blade-type rotor that accelerates the wheat from the center out to the edge
of the rotor, eliminating any impact within the rotor, but throwing the wheat
against the machine’s inner walls (Fig. 4-11) with more speed than peg rotors
of equal diameter. The inner walls are covered with a smooth or corrugated
liner; the latter increases the breakage of wheat. The velocity should be high
enough to break up the infested kernel or destroy insect life yet avoid
breakage of undamaged wheat. A higher velocity is allowed with elastic,
tempered wheat than with dry, fragile kernels. The use of an impact machine
for clean, tempered wheat ahead of the first break is sometimes treated as a
prebreak. Intensive aspiration removes insects and broken kernels while
avoiding removal of a significant amount of flour-producing endosperm. The
variables influencing the effectiveness of the impact machine are condition of
the wheat (moisture content, softness, amount of weathering, etc.), feed rate of
wheat to the machine, speed of the rotor, type and diameter of the rotor, and
type of liner. It is a good practice to install a magnet before the impact
machine or any other fast-moving equipment. The magnet should remove
from the material stream any metal pieces released from operating equipment
that might damage the impact machine or cause a spark that could ignite fine
dust.
160 CHAPTER 4
Fig. 4-11. The Entoletor, an impact machine. 1 = wheat inlet, 2 = aspiration, 3 =

wheat outlet. (Courtesy Entoletor, Inc.)
By Electrostatic Characteristics
Separation of unmillable fractions and impurities from wheat can be
achieved by charging particles passing through an electrostatic field of
20,000–30,000 V (Fig. 4-12). The field is created between a charged elec-
trode and a grounded feeding-roll or chute (Andrews, 1952; Ake 1955). The
particles entering the electrostatic field assume different degrees of electro-
static charge. The sign of the charge is determined by the particles’ proper-
ties, such as the electrical conductivity and the dielectric constant. Its
magnitude is based on the particle size, form, and specific gravity. When the
charged particles flow through an electric field, which is created by two
poles, particles are attracted by the pole with the opposite charge or repelled
by the pole with the same charge. The electrostatic forces between the elec-
tric field and the electrically charged particles cause mechanical movement,
which results in separation of the particles. For example, rodent excreta
Fig. 4-12. Electrostatic separator. 1 = hopper, 2 = vibrating trough, 3 = endless

belt, 4 = needle, 5 and 7 = deflecting electrodes (E), 6 = partition, 8 = photocell,
9 = optical chamber, 10 = amplifier.
(pellets) take on a greater charge than the grain and are deflected to the
waste hopper. This type of machine is limited in its capacity because
separation occurs while the material flows in a single row of kernels. The
product fed must be clean of dust and low in moisture content. The
electrostatic separator usually is integrated into the flow at the end of the
normal cleaning of dry wheat. Electrostatic separation also has been used to
separate ergot, which is used by the drug industry, from heavy screenings.
Ake (1955) documented use of the above method to separate sand from
farina and semolina and to remove ergot and mouse and rat pellets from
grain.
By Color Differences
Color sorting of seeds is a common practice in the rice-milling industry.
Its use is growing for whole-wheat products to remove discolored or par-
tially discolored kernels. Development of multichannel high-capacity color
sorters (up to 15 t/hr) have made it a common machine in durum wheat-
cleaning systems, where discoloration of the raw material results in black
specks in the granular products from the durum mill. Color sorters also can
be found in systems in which wheat is processed into flakes and other
162 CHAPTER 4
breakfast cereals. The color sorter, with its limited capacity, is used to
handle small fractions of the main wheat flow in the cleaning section,
sometimes in conjunction with a gravity table that concentrates impurities
into smaller fractions. Barton (2001) suggested removing black-pointed
wheat kernels using the color sorter. The discoloration of the kernel appears
to be caused by a phenolic compound produced by the grain in response to
injury or fungal attack. The outer bran layer over the germ becomes a dark
brown to black; this may extend onto the shoulders of the grain and
sometimes along the crease. The endosperm inside the grain, from which
Fig. 4-13. Optical bulk sorter. 1 = inlet hopper, 2 = flow control gate, 3 = vibratory
feeder, 4 = chute, 5 = fluorescent lamps, 6 = optics assemblies (camera), 7 =
backgrounds, 8 = reject deflector, 9 = ejector valve, 10 = accept chute, 11 =
sample tube, 12 = accepts outlet, 13 = rejects outlet. (Courtesy Satake (USA)
Inc.)
white flour is produced during milling, is not affected at all. Handreck and
Zwingelberg (1995) recommended the use of separation by specific
differences (size, weight, etc.) followed by color sorting as the most
effective method for ergot removal.
Seeds are separated from the bulk of grain based on differences in their
color, using an electronic sensor. Such a machine contains four main
components: the feeding mechanism, the background, the sensors, and the
ejector. The seeds are fed individually through the detection unit, which is
equipped with sensitive photocell sensors and a source of light (Fig. 4-13).
The sensors are directed against the background, which can be adjusted to
the color of the flowing material. Lighter-colored seeds reflect the light,
which is detected by the photocell, at the same intensity as that of the
background and the whole-wheat kernels of the desired color. Separation
occurs when shaded or discolored kernels pass through the optical chamber
and light is not reflected, causing a jet blast of compressed air to remove
them.
Although using a method based on color difference for sorting wheat
streams is an expensive solution, professional millers appreciate its usage
when glass and plastic particles are separated also. A properly adjusted
color sorter can be effective in the separation of small glass and plastic
particles from the wheat stream. Especially when the mill produces granular
products, such as farina, semolina, or whole-wheat products, ground glass
and plastic could cause hazardous situations and great damage to the mill’s
reputation.
Theory of Conditioning Wheat for Milling

An old slogan of the experienced miller is that having clean, consistent,
well-prepared wheat at the first grinding stage is at least half the battle
toward mill balance, which results in the most favorable flour extraction and
flour quality. Part of wheat preparation for milling is conditioning, which
involves removal (or, more often, addition) of water, followed by a rest
period. Some call this process “tempering,” a term that actually should refer
to the rest period, during which the added water penetrates the kernel. The
unique feature of wheat that makes milling possible is that the three parts of
the kernel (bran, germ, and endosperm) differ in relative toughness or
friability. Adding water to the different parts exaggerates their differences
and their behavior in reaction to the forces exerted upon them during mill-
ing. Bradbury et al (1960) published a detailed survey of the available
international literature on the subject of wheat conditioning.
The original moisture content of the wheat before it is conditioned var-
ies. Accordingly, the actual moisture content of the wheat must be
164 CHAPTER 4
monitored on a continuous basis, and water must be added to bring the

wheat to its optimum milling moisture. Generally, this optimum milling
moisture is between 14 and 17%. However, each wheat type also has an
optimum moisture distribution among the kernel parts, at which separation
is best in a particular milling process. Although the average moisture
content of the grain may be 16%, unsatisfactory flour color may result if the
bran has about 14% moisture and the interior has 17%. The same average
moisture of 16% with the interior at 14.5% and the bran at 18.5% would
affect flour yield and the balance of the mill.
The amount of water added depends on the original moisture of the
wheat, the relative humidity and temperature in the mill processing space,
and the desired moisture content of the final products. Depending on the
above variables, the variance between the moisture content of wheat before
the first break and that of the final flour could be 1–2.5%. Depending on
specific local conditions, 40% of losses in material moisture during wheat
milling are estimated to be related to the heat generated during the grinding
process, 40% to the cooling effect while transporting among stages, and
20% to the ambient conditions in the mill. In a hot, humid processing
environment, depending on the mill flow, it would be difficult to get the
required flour moisture (for example, 14%) without decreasing mill
capacity and extraction level. The flour miller should collect temperature
and relative humidity data continuously in the milling space to help deter-
mine optimal water addition. Wheat moisture is monitored with various
electronic or electrical systems that automatically adjust the amount of
water added to the wheat. Intensive mixers disperse the water within the
grain mass as evenly as possible. The moistened wheat then is allowed to
rest for a period of time, or temper, to let the added moisture penetrate to
the best level for each kernel part. Erroneously, in some cases, more
emphasis is placed on the amount of water added to the kernels than on the
time required for the water to soften the endosperm to its optimal softness
for a particular milling unit. This tempering is probably the only stage at
which the miller can modify the wheat’s physical and chemical state. The
objective is to have all kernels in the tempered wheat reach the same
physical condition before milling.
The relative readiness of the kernel is unique to every wheat and mill.
As will be shown later, each milling unit, with its specific machine
characteristics, produces the best results with wheat in which water was
distributed to an optimal level during tempering. The readiness of wheat for
milling is a function of temperature, moisture, and time. To achieve kernel
readiness without heat, the wheat must be held for a longer time in the
tempering bins to reach optimum mellowness of the endosperm. The
maximum allowable moisture content in the finished flour must be
considered also. If endosperm mellowness is achieved with heat, at high
temperatures, the moisture addition can be higher because the applied heat
removes a large portion of it. One way to increase the rate of water
penetration with unheated water is to use high-frequency vibration of the
wheat. Figure 4-14 shows the Hydrator, which applies energy to the wet
wheat by high-frequency vibration. Zwingelberg (1992) showed that the
increase in water absorption rate by the outside layers of the wheat kernel as
a result of vibration resulted in a significant reduction in tempering time (6
hr) yet gave flour extraction and ash comparable to those of conventionally
conditioned wheat (24 hr).
Conditioning involves adding cold or warm water to the wheat and
allowing the wheat to rest, or temper, in bins until it reaches the optimum
moisture distribution and kernel suitability for milling. The objective is to
toughen the bran and mellow the endosperm. A too-hard endosperm will
function as a hard background in the grinding system and cause the bran to
split excessively. Pence (1938) differentiated between mellowing and wet-
Fig. 4-14. The Hydrator, a vibrating machine to increase rate of water absorption.
A, the instrument; B, schematic, showing parts. (Courtesy Satake Corp.)
166 CHAPTER 4
ting. He related some of the mellowing effect to enzymatic action, which

proceeds at different rates in different kernels. Optimum conditioning of
wheat causes the bran to toughen and to remain in large particles during the
milling process, from which pure endosperm can be separated more effi-
ciently. Some millers spray the stream of wheat with water to add a maxi-
mum of 0.5% moisture and let it rest about 20 min before it reaches the first
break to toughen the bran before milling. Some refer to this stage as the
“second temper.”
Pulverizing of the wheat bran during mechanical handling and grinding
cannot always be avoided completely. Sometimes the bran of the wheat ker-
nel reaching the mill cleaning house already has suffered irreversible dam-
age. In addition to damage caused by mechanical handling, other reasons
for lower resistance to pulverizing during milling are drying of the wheat by
winds during ripening, climatic shocks such as alternate rain and sun, and
storage at high temperature (resulting in heat damage).
Numerous studies have been conducted on wheat conditioning before
milling, because this stage is of great importance to the miller from technical,
flour-quality, and economic points of view. Even when the mill processes
only one kind of wheat, different loads show significant variation in water
absorption and best characteristics for milling. The wetter or drier the wheat
is in relation to its required moisture for milling, the more the system will be
out of optimum balance, which results in reduction of flour yield and
nonuniform flour characteristics. In an optimally balanced milling system,
appropriate amounts of the kernel fractions flow to all grinding stages.
Properly prepared wheat produces flour with minimal bran contamination,
the desired amount of starch damage, and optimal particle size distribution.
The relationship between amount of water to be added, temper time, and
kernel hardness value using NIR spectroscopy is shown in Figure 4-15.
Based on numerous milling experiments, the granulation of milled-flour
samples, measured as percent over a 75-µm sieve activated by air, was
found to correlate with the NIR hardness of ground whole-wheat samples
from the same lot (Zwingelberg, 1981).
Another approach to determining the appropriate conditioning for a cer-
tain load of wheat is to test grind a sample. A sample of wheat is condi-
tioned using a repeatable procedure of water addition and tempering time.
The wheat is ground on an experimental first-break roll and sifted on a
stack of sieves. The ground meal separated into different fractions is evalu-
ated for ash and moisture content. The Chopin laboratory mill (Fig. 2-11)
with a fixed roll gap could be used for this purpose. The sizing fraction
generated by the mill is evaluated for weight, percent of particle size
distribution, ash, and moisture. Correlating the generated values with mill
performance in respect to flour extraction can give an indication of the
optimum wheat condition for milling on a specific commercial mill.
The operative miller also can determine variation in the conditioning

level of a certain wheat lot or shipment by monitoring the hectoliter or test
weight (TW) before the first break. The TW of the conditioned wheat bulk
should be determined and compared with the TW of optimally conditioned
wheat. Any variation from the optimum TW would indicate extremities in
tempering time. This approach to control is based on the fact that the wetter
wheat kernels occupy more space due to the change in physical structure,
and the specific weight of the wheat bulk is reduced accordingly.
Pence (1938) showed that, depending on the wheat kind and its initial
moisture, wheat swells very rapidly in the first 40 min after water addition,
gaining 8% in volume. The gain in volume is only 1.5% more in the next 80
min. Temperature also plays a role in the swelling rate and the physical
condition of the wheat. After water is added to hard wheat, there is a natural
rise of 4–6°C in wheat temperature during the tempering period. Anderson
(1937) studied the internal rise of temperature in wheat during the first 3–4
hr of tempering. Bull (1944) studied and calculated the heat of adsorption
during the hydration of protein by water molecules.
Some mills temper wheat for a very short time, about 3 hr. The water
penetrates the periphery of the kernel and, when the kernel is opened on the
first break, water migrates to its other parts. This type of reduced tempering
Fig. 4-15. Near-infrared (NIR) hardness and desired milling moisture for the
determination of rest time. (Reprinted, with permission, from Zwingelberg, 1981)
168 CHAPTER 4
time for hard wheats is suitable for farina production, where the objective is
to produce pure, granular endosperm.
The moisture of a sample of wheat is determined by finding the bulk
average of all wheat kernels in the sample. Moisture levels of single dry
kernels of wheat entering a mill cleaning house have been found to vary
5.51–9.66% from that of the bulk average (Fisher, 1978). The effect on
flour extraction of moisture variation among single kernels in a wheat blend
is very significant technically and economically. Single kernels with differ-
ent levels of outer coating toughness and endosperm mellowness break up
differently from each other and in an unpredictable way. Therefore, one of
the main goals in wheat conditioning before milling is to distribute the
water uniformly in all the kernels of the wheat mix. Uniformity and
consistency of the physical condition of all wheat kernels before milling are
related also to the parameter of power consumption. Wheat conditioned
optimally for a specific mill consumes a certain amount of electrical power
during milling, which is one of the variables the miller observes and records
for analysis.
The amount and rate of water uptake by wheat kernels depend partly on
the initial water content, kernel hardness, and kernel temperature. An
increase in kernel temperature causes the kernel to expand; then, the capil-
lary tubes become distended, allowing passage of a large amount of water
in a given time. The theory of capillary tubes extending from the region of
the kernel by which it had been attached to the spike was developed by
Fritsch (1940). He assumed that capillary tubes led from this area into the
interior of the kernel and that they could be used for the entrance of water.
Subsequently, this concept was used to explain the principles of vacuum
conditioning (described later). Grosh and Milner (1959) used high
magnification to follow water movement through cracks formed in the
wheat kernel. Cracks radial and transverse to the wheat-kernel crease were
formed during the first hour of wetting. Moss (1977) used titrated water to
produce an autoradiographic pattern of the rate and distribution of water
within the wheat kernel. Within 1 hr, the labeled water had penetrated the
aleurone cells and, in many cases, the starchy endosperm to a depth of 50–
60 µm. The embryo and scutellum also absorbed the water with great
rapidity. Subsequent penetration of the starchy endosperm was delayed for
several hours. Saleh et al (1984), using an energy-dispersive X-ray system
under a scanning electron microscope, showed that, during an increase of
wheat kernel water content from 11.5 to 16.5%, soluble elements migrated
from the peripheral bran. The minerals accumulated in the aleurone cells
and passed through its walls to the endosperm of the wheat kernel if the
water content was above 14.5%.
A moist kernel absorbs less than a dry one, but the rate is faster in a ker-
nel that has been initially tempered. This phenomenon can be explained by
the fact that the internal structure already has been modified and cracks
have been formed by the water during the first tempering stage. The minute
spaces and cracks within the endosperm created by conditioning convert
vitreous wheat kernels to mealy and opaque kernels. Milling results can be
improved in many cases by multiple tempering periods. After the first tem-
pering, the wheat can be scoured and aspirated to remove the outer pericarp
layers (“beeswings”) that separate from the kernels during tempering.
Multiple tempering stages can improve flour color and reduce bran content
in the final flour. The rate of water absorption, at least up to a certain point,
also depends on environmental factors such as relative humidity and
temperature in the mill. Hook et al (1984a) compared the milling per-
formance and flour quality of U.K. wheat milled at natural moisture (15–
15.5%) and wheat that had been dried, stored, and conditioned back to the
original moisture level. As a result of the treatment, the dried and condi-
tioned wheat had undergone a structural change and thus gave a higher
extraction rate, lower color values, and lower moisture content than the
same wheat milled at natural moisture content.
Reality dictates that, in some instances, millers need to grind a wheat
blend made up of wheat kinds significantly different in their hardness. In
such cases, the soft and hard wheats should be conditioned separately and
then blended before milling. In conditioning systems in which two stages of
water addition and tempering periods are practiced, the percentage of water
added to the hard wheat on the first addition should be short of the desired
amount. Following the first tempering stage, the soft wheat is blended with
the hard wheat, and the remaining percentage of water is added shortly
before milling to allow the brans of both wheats to toughen without over-
wetting the soft wheat.
The migration of moisture into the kernel during tempering was studied
by using 1,000 g of a reconstituted hard red winter wheat blend consisting
of 20% small kernels, 30% medium-sized kernels, and 50% large kernels by
weight (Li and Posner, 1987). A calculated amount of water was added to
bring the moisture of the wheat sample to 15.5%. The dampened wheat then
was mixed for 15 min in a rotary, batch-type mixing machine (Fig. 2-4).
During the period after tempering, samples of about 30 g of tempered wheat
were withdrawn at predetermined time intervals. These samples were sepa-
rated into three kernel size groups, using a Ro-Tap sifter with 7-, 8-, and 9-
mesh wire sieves. The wheat kernels were ground in a coffee grinder for 1
min, and the moisture content of the meals was determined in triplicate in
an air oven.
The change in moisture content of each size group during the time after
tempering was discussed briefly in Chapter 1 and is shown in Figure 1-8.
The small wheat kernels absorbed water after tempering at a faster rate than
large and medium kernels. As the time after tempering proceeded, migra-
170 CHAPTER 4
tion of moisture occurred from the small kernels containing higher moisture
content to the large kernels containing lower moisture content to reach
moisture equalization. The hard red winter wheat sample required about 10
hr for complete moisture migration. The whole process, from pickup of
water by the outer layers of a wheat kernel to the final even water
distribution throughout the whole kernel, can be divided into two steps,
according to the rate of water diffusion. At the initial stage, the highly
porous outer layers of wheat kernels absorb the added water very quickly.
Thus, the amount of the initial absorption should be proportional to the
surface area of the kernels. Because small kernels have a higher surface-to-
volume ratio than large kernels, the moisture content of small kernels is
much higher than that of large kernels at the initial tempering stage.
The curves shown in Figure 1-8 suggest that moisture migration started
immediately after the completion of water addition. This may suggest that
the resistance to additional water diffusion into the endosperm is smaller for
large kernels than for small kernels. The faster water diffusion for larger
kernels causes a rapid decrease in water content of the outer layers of the
wheat kernels. The slow diffusion of water into the endosperm of small ker-
nels keeps higher moisture content in their outer layers. The uneven mois-
ture distribution in the wheat mass results in migration of moisture from the
portions with high moisture content (small kernels) to the portions with low
moisture content (large kernels).
The moisture equilibration data shown in Figure 1-8 suggest that wheat
kernels of different sizes can differ in moisture content for quite a long time
after wetting. Therefore, any factors that can cause the separation or stratification
of wheat kernels by size during the tempering process should be eliminated.
Special attention should be given to the proper manner of conveying the tem-
pered wheat and filling tempering bins.
Hook et al (1984b) studied the moisture migration between significantly
different wheat kernels, Canadian Western Red Spring and U.K. wheats, that
were conditioned separately to different moisture levels and blended at various
times before milling. A progressive and substantial moisture migration between
the components of the blend was observed.
The breaking system in the mill is very sensitive to variations from the
optimum wheat-tempering level. Break flours from low-moisture wheat
have higher ash values than similar flours from well-tempered wheats. Usu-
ally, in the break system, the lowest flour ash of well-conditioned wheat is
that from the second-break grinding stage.
The physical shape of the kernel also has an effect on its tempering.
During harvest and handling, some of the kernels are injured and their
embryos are exposed. Such grains have increased chances for damage by
mold growth during storage. Exposure of the embryo or endosperm also
may cause lack of uniformity in the response of individual kernels to
tempering. Where wheat still is washed as part of the tempering process, a

high percentage of kernels with exposed germ produce more foam during
washing.
Heat Conditioning of Wheat

Millers used to increase the rate of water penetration in wheat and also
modify a wheat’s physicochemical characteristics by the application of heat
during wheat conditioning. Heat conditioning has gone out of style because
of operating procedures that are critical to quality of the flour. Currently,
most millers want a “foolproof,” simple system that is easy to operate and
inexpensive. The general trend is to use cold conditioning, with heaters in
the northern cold climates to hold the wheat temperature at about 21–27°C
(70–80°F) for absorption of water during the 12- to 18-hr tempering time.
Some grain and environmental conditions should be considered when
designing and operating a wheat conditioning system. One of the main con-
cerns millers usually have is wheat temperature in a cold climate. Wheat is a
very poor thermal conductor (see Table 3-2), and great differences exist in
temperature level between inner and outer layers of wheat stored in a bin.
When the bin is emptied, the outer wheat mixes with the inner, warmer
wheat. In this case, wheat enters the mill from the elevator at an average
freezing temperature or sometimes around 6–10°C. Cold wheat needs more
time to absorb water than wheat at a temperature between 21 and 27°C.
Howe (1934) showed the difference in results achieved between warm (24–
27°C) and cold wheat (<15°C) (Table 4-2). Uneven temperature distribution
across the kernels results in unequal water absorption. Dry kernels
“powder” during milling, whereas overly wet kernels “flake,” and lead to
reduction in extraction and to finer flour and too-wet products.
In small mills, where wheat still is delivered in bags, the wheat should
be stored in a warehouse close to the mill for temperature equalization. In
larger mills, conditioners can be used for this purpose. In addition, mix bins
TABLE 4-2
Difference Between Cold and Warm Wheata
Cold Wheat Warm Wheat
(<15°C) (24–27°C)
Total flour extraction, % 74.7 76.2
Patent flour extraction, % 90 96
Patent flour ash, %b 0.52 0.46
Patent flour protein, %b 14.4 14.2
a
Source: Howe (1934).
b
Corrected to 14% moisture basis.
172 CHAPTER 4
should be positioned close to the cleaning house, where circulated warm air
can be pulled through the mass of wheat. Aspiration should be achieved
with circulated air from the cleaning system after it has passed through
efficient air filters. After the conditioning process, a very fine spray of
moisture should be applied to the wheat to toughen the bran before the first
break.
During heat-conditioning, wet wheat is heated by direct application of
steam or through radiators to temperatures usually below 55°C. Then the
wheat is dried to milling moisture and thereby also cooled. Figure 4-16
shows a conditioning system for wheat. During this type of conditioning,
gluten characteristics change, and enzyme activity is weakened. Kernel tem-
perature and moisture influence the gluten, diastatic power, and proteolytic
power. A higher moisture content (up to about 20%) makes the gluten and
enzymes more capable of interacting. Some proteins, of which gluten is an
example, are capable of swelling considerably in water and can be coagu-
lated or toughened under the influence of heat. Wheat with weak gluten
Fig. 4-16. Wheat conditioning system: diagrammatic arrangement of air circuit

conditioner.
conditioned at a high temperature shows greater improvement in baking

than wheat with tough gluten. The individual sensitivity or insensitivity of
the wheat to temperature must be noted. In general, gluten protein has the
least susceptibility to heat denaturation at or below 40°C. The gluten com-
plex is composed of two main groups of proteins: gliadin (a prolamin) and
glutenin (a glutelin) (Hoseney, 1994). Gobin et al (1996) stated that con-
ditioning triggers a number of biochemical events in the kernel, thereby
modifying the characteristics of its components. These modifications can be
amplified by increasing the temperature and moisture content. Their
findings suggest that certain proteins in the endosperm undergo reduction
during conditioning. Results obtained by fractionating the protein fractions
confirmed that gliadins, as well as glutenins with high and low molecular
weights, became partially reduced during conditioning.
Extensive research on wheat heat conditioning and modification of
wheat characteristics was conducted in the past, mainly in northern Europe,
where soft-wheat qualities were altered by this process to accommodate
bread-baking needs. Today, stronger wheats and oxidizing additives such as
ascorbic acid achieve much the same effect. Heat conditioning of European
soft wheat at temperatures of 36–43°C caused the disappearance of natural
defects in the properties of the dough, such as “spreading” and “running”
(Wild, 1950).
As mentioned before, in wheat conditioning, a close relationship exists
among temperature, time, and moisture. Thus, the longer the transit time
through the conditioner, the lower the optimum treatment temperature can
be, because the heat has sufficient time to enter the interior of the endo-
sperm. With use of a higher temperature (60°C), measured before the
drying and cooling section, a shorter transit time of about 1 hr through the
conditioner favorably affected only the outer layers of the kernel, especially
the aleurone cells with high lipid content (Cleve, 1952). Studies of the rate
of heat transfer into single kernels of wheat by application of hot air
currents showed heat transfer at a rate of 19–36 kcal/m2hr°C; whereas, with
use of steam, rates reached 500 kcal/m2hr°C. Measurements taken on heat
rate conductivity in layers of wheats showed 7–8 kcal/m2hr°C for air and 50
kcal/m2hr°C for steam. Heat conductivity showed an average of 0.1
kcal/m2hr°C for wheat (Cleve, 1952).
Among other developments in wheat conditioning is the use of vacuum
to alter wheat quality and millability. Vacuum was used on dry grain to
exhaust the air from the capillary tubes at the germ tip where the kernel is
attached to the spike. If the kernel is thrown into water at this stage, the
water penetrates rather rapidly, even without higher temperatures. Wheat
conditioning systems using vacuum in commercial mills shorten the process
(to 3–4 hr). Within this time, the wheat reaches the first break with the char-
acteristics desired by the miller: uniform moisture and uniform mellowness.
174 CHAPTER 4
Initially, all kernels are given an excess of moisture before being fed into
the vacuum conditioner. The moisture then is reduced step by step under
vacuum to the desired amount. The kernels, which have been artificially
swollen, retain their volume during and after the drying in vacuum. Any
degree of endosperm mellowness can be achieved using the vacuum
conditioning method, and the wheat can be prepared for any milling system.
In the vacuum conditioning process, the grain is conditioned at tempera-
tures of about 35°C; then the temperature is reduced to 25°C within the vac-
uum treatment stages. The pericarp is not dried out, as with conditioners
heated by direct application of steam or through radiator systems, and no
dust develops. The system is absolutely independent of climate, and the
milling stock characteristics can be adjusted easily to quick changes in tem-
perature or humidity.
A vacuum conditioning system can also shorten tempering time and is
therefore favored by some mill engineers. Following two short tempering
periods, wet wheat is fed alternately into two bins in which a vacuum of
10,000 mm water gauge is created. Within 15–20 min under vacuum, the
wheat is ready for milling and is transferred to the first break. The total time
required for all stages of the conditioning process is claimed to be about 2 hr.
Wheat Conditioning Equipment

Today’s tempering system consists of an intensive mixer in which the
wheat is tumbled with water for about 20–30 sec (Fig. 4-17). During this
short period, the objective is to get the maximum dispersion of water within
the grain. The modern wheat tempering mixer allows the addition of up to
7% water, which requires less capacity in the tempering bin than multistep
methods do and provides a single control point for water addition. An
automatic, pneumatically activated water-dosage regulator is used to adjust
the addition of water to the tempering mixer, so that the actual moisture
content of grain leaving the mixer coincides with the target moisture
content. The moisture of the wheat going in or out of the tempering mixer is
checked continuously by what are called feed-forward or feedback signals,
respectively. A feed-forward system measures the dry wheat moisture
dielectrically before it enters the tempering mixer. The system corrects the
moisture values based on density and temperature and subsequently
controls the amount of water addition. In the feedback system, the moisture
and temperature of the wetted wheat are determined after it leaves the
tempering mixer. Based on the target moisture level, the system sends back
a signal to control the amount of water to be added.
Various online methods are used to continuously determine the moisture
content of the wheat. A capacitance-type method is used to measure the
moisture content of dry wheat. The system also measures the grain flow
rate, density, and temperature and regulates a signal (feed-forward) to adjust
the water flow rate to the target moisture level that has been entered into the
computer. The feed-forward method cannot compensate for moisture added
by steam to the tempering mixer in cold climates.
A continuous measuring device to measure the moisture content of wet-
ted wheat uses gamma rays to determine the wheat density and a microwave
to measure the level of water. In addition, the wheat temperature is moni-
tored continuously to avoid excessive heat in the wheat in cases where
steam is added in conjunction with the water. This method measures the
wheat moisture directly after the tempering mixer and generates a signal
that is sent back (feedback) to the water regulator. The feed-forward and
feedback approaches could be combined for more accurate water addition.
A microwave beam has been used since the early 1960s to determine the
water content of freshly wetted wheat. This method measures the change in
attenuation (in decibels) with increase in moisture content. Since then,
much more sophisticated instruments have been developed that use this
principle and can send a pulse automatically to a water adjustment system.
Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) is another method of continuously
measuring the water content of freshly tempered wheat. The advantage of
using NMR is that it can determine the free and bound water in wheat.
Bound water is the fraction that is an integral part of the colloidal material
in the wheat kernel. It is held by considerable force as a result of a charge
Fig. 4-17. Intensive tempering conveyor with a moisture-control feedback system.

(Courtesy Satake (USA) Inc.)
176 CHAPTER 4
possessed by the colloid particles and may be expressed from the

biocolloids with great difficulty. Bound water does not contribute to form-
ing of solutions and therefore does not exhibit characteristics such as
freezing. Accordingly, conventional instruments used to determine wheat
moisture express the free water content only.
Tempering Bins
After water addition, the wheat is held for a time to enable the water to
penetrate the wheat kernel. Optimum wheat temperature in the tempering
bins should not be below 25°C. The storage capacity of the tempering bins
depends on the required lay (resting) time and the mill’s grinding capacity.
Bins to hold the tempered wheat usually are constructed from steel and
concrete, but also can be of wood. Wooden bins are superior for grain
storage because wood is a poor conductor of heat; therefore, even wheat
temperatures across the bin can be maintained. Another advantage is that
moisture does not condense on walls of wooden bins as a result of changes
in outside temperature. One disadvantage of a wooden bin is that bacterial,
mold and insect infestation can occur unless it is periodically cleaned. This
is a potential problem in the upper part of concrete and steel bins also,
especially where wheat is not flowing. Wooden bins are also fire hazards
and not used in new construction.
The design of tempering bins should guarantee a mass flow of the wheat
that was changed physically during the temper period. A mass flow can be
described as “first in, first out,” where the earlier tempered wheat leaves the
bin first. Factors such as wheat swelling after water addition, exposed
endosperm of broken kernels, and the shape and size of the tempering bin
might prevent the wheat from flowing out readily. Pence (1938) suggested
that keeping the wheat in motion for at least 40 min and up to 2 hr after
water addition overcomes the phenomena of wheat expansion that can cause
“bridging” in bins. Some mills use mass flow in only one bin, which has
adequate capacity to accommodate a long-enough holding time for the
wheat after water addition. The whole mass of wheat moves evenly down
the bin, and any wet wheat added to the top of the continuously full bin
receives adequate tempering by the time it reaches the outlet. Mass flow can
be achieved to a certain degree where one bin has been constructed with
multiple outlets. When different wheat mixes are tempered above each other
in one bin that has multiple outlets with appropriate design, number, and
diameter, it takes 5 min for 100% of the new mix to start flowing out (Fig.
3-8). The outlets should have openings with a minimum diameter of about
155 mm (6 in.) to guarantee a mass flow of tempered wheat (Shyam and
Posner, 1988).
Many mills still use a number of bins, usually constructed with

multiple outlets. Withdrawing wheat from several bins at the same time
theoretically secures a homogeneously blended mix for the mill. Some
mills temper the wheat by filling each bin in sequence and discharging
each after a given time interval. This procedure requires larger bin
capacity compared with a single mass-flow bin. It also requires more
work for the operator, who must keep changing bins as tempered wheat is
withdrawn.
Different Approaches
to Wheat Conditioning
Even with the best dispersion of water in the bulk of commercial wheat,
water penetrates the large and small kernels in the mix to different degrees.
As shown earlier, large kernels absorb water at a slower rate than small
kernels. Application of controlled pressure on the wheat kernels fissures
their structure and creates cracks through which the water can penetrate.
However, care should be taken to avoid complete breakage of kernels.
Excessive breakage of kernels and exposure of endosperm might cause
problems in the flow of the fissured, tempered wheat from poorly con-
structed bins. Fissuring the larger kernels between smooth rolls with a 1:1
differential ahead of the tempering stage increases the water penetration rate
into the endosperm, especially in very-low-moisture wheats. The fissuring
process benefits the miller in cases where a substantial increase in produc-
tion capacity is planned. Using the fissuring process, the miller can shorten
the tempering time and use existing bin capacity, avoiding the necessity of
constructing additional tempering bins. Qualities of resulting flours are
comparable to those from conventionally conditioned wheat (Hodler, 1941;
Shyam and Posner, 1988).
Wheat “stripping,” “peeling,” and other similar approaches to removing
the wheat kernel outer layers before milling were mentioned earlier. A cur-
rent development in the milling industry is the process by which the wheat
kernel is debranned before milling (see Chapter 5). Debranning of the
wheat kernel with abrasion and friction machines can thin, peel, or damage
the kernel pericarp. However, debranning the wheat kernel enhances its
water absorption rate during a very short tempering time just before milling.
The final accurate adjustment of water content and kernel condition results
in better milling performance, higher flour extraction, lower ash, and
accurate moisture content in end-products. As a result of the debranning,
coarse bran production decreases and its ratio to fine bran changes
compared with that from conventional milling.
178 CHAPTER 4
Cleaning of Preconditioned Wheat

Some mills precondition very dry wheat that was only precleaned in the
elevator before storage. Moisture is increased to a level of 12.5% or below
to guarantee safe storage for an extended period. The preconditioned wheat
is cleaned intensively in the mill cleaning section before final conditioning
and milling.
Machines in the intensive cleaning section are of the conventional type.
However, the physical changes that occur to the whole wheat kernels, bro-
ken shrunken kernels, and foreign material as a result of swelling during
initial tempering in the elevator should be considered in the selection of
screen aperture and indent shape and in cleaning machine adjustments.
Cleaning-House Flow Sheet

The sequence of machines in the typical wheat-cleaning section follows
in general the arrangement shown in Figure 4-18. Magnets to separate fer-
rous materials are followed by sieves to separate foreign materials that are
smaller or larger than the wheat kernel. Next, a gravity table is used to sepa-
rate foreign materials that are of the same size as the wheat kernel but differ
in specific gravity. Separation of sand with sieves and of stones with the
gravity table ensures that the mass of wheat, which subsequently is treated
with indentation machines, does not wear out the pockets of these machines
too fast.
The cleaning-house flow has changed since the early 1990s, and not for
the better if wheat cleanliness and capacities are considered. The cleaning
system is considerably shorter in its design; the bulk of the stream is
separated at the beginning of the flow. The fraction of the total wheat
stream containing most of the unmillable material goes through an intensive
cleaning system, while the rest of the wheat is diverted to the tempering
process. Figure 4-18 shows the conventional cleaning-house flow, in which
100% of the wheat stream is processed through the machinery. Figure 4-19
shows a flow in which only about 30% of the total cleaning-house capacity
is intensively cleaned. Often, as a result of poor machine adjustment, the
remaining 70% contains impurities that do not separate easily by specific
gravity.
As a result of shorter cleaning systems and reduced flexibility, millers
complain about the cleanliness of shipments, and demand is growing for
cleaner wheat in the trading channels. To perform an adequate job of
cleaning the wheat with a short system, greater emphasis is placed on
cleaning the wheat more intensively in the elevator. Fluctuations in the level
of impurities between loads and variations in wheat characteristics can be

managed with a flexible cleaning system, ample cleaning capacity, spare
sieves of different aperture, adequate air volume, and easy-to-adjust
machinery. This should be in conjunction with knowledgeable operators to
properly adjust the cleaning machine’s action when required.
The machines in the cleaning house are used to separate the unmillable
material from the bulk in the most efficient way. The miller is concerned
Fig. 4-18. Flow sheet for a conventional cleaning house.

180 CHAPTER 4
Fig. 4-19. Flow sheet for a short cleaning house. LW = long wheat, SW = short
wheat.
with the capacity of the machines, which is related to their efficiency.

Capacity, as published by equipment manufacturers for new pieces of equip-
ment, depends on the size of the machine, its motion, and its design. However,
modifications of machines often are needed to adjust for the sizes, densities,
and shapes of different wheats and the amount of unmillable material.
Future Trends
The cleaning house of the future will need to be more intensive and
flexible to remove all impurities that originate from wheat loads of various
origins. Today, in the milling process, some impurities are removed along
with the bran, but some are lost into the flour in the reduction process. The
cleaning house of wheat mills in the future will be expanded to ensure that
all impurities are removed before milling. This will require greater control
of the cleaning machines and more exotic methods of separation, using
computer-enhanced grain profile analysis and online monitoring of wheat
cleanliness in the process. The use of hazard analysis-critical control points
methodology and the procedures of the International Standards Organi-
zation (ISO), which are necessary for ISO certification, will require greater
emphasis on product purity and will reduce possible liability.
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Tkachuk, R., Dexter, J. E., Tipples, K. H., and Nowicki, T. W. 1991. Removal by
specific gravity table of tombstone kernels and associated trichothecenes from
wheat infected with Fusarium head blight. Cereal Chem. 68:428-431.
Wild, P. 1950. Weichweizenvorbereitung und beeinflussung der backfähigkeit.
Müllerei 3:493, 494.
Zwingelberg, H. 1981. Die Vorbereitung von Getreide am Beispiel neuer Netzver-
fahren. Muehle Mischfuttertech. 118:165-171.
Zwingelberg, H. 1992. Untersuchungen ueber den Einfluss der Vibrationsnetzung
auf die Abstehzeit von Weizen. Getreide Mehl Brot 46:330-336.
SUGGESTED READING
Becker, H. A. 1960. On absorption of liquid water by the wheat kernel. Cereal

Chem. 37:309-323.
Berliner, E. 1938. Untersuchungen über die wirkung der vorbereitung auf die
inneren eigenshaften des weizenkorns. Mühle 75:605-608.
Campbell, J. D., and Jones, C. R. 1955. The effect of temperature on the rate of
penetration of moisture within damped wheat grains. Cereal Chem. 32:132-139.
Dienst, K. 1952. Noch einmal: Vorbereitung und Vermahlung von Mishungen mit
harten und weichen weizen. Müllerei 5(8):109-110.
Farrell, E. P., and Milner, M. 1952. Insect fragment problem in the milling industry.
Circ. 291. Agric. Exp. Stn., Kansas State College, Manhattan.
Greer, E. N., and Butcher, J. Application of a microwave method to the problem of
wheat conditioning. Food Trade Rev. 36(12):55-58.
Hope, L. 1941. Die Schwierigkeiten beim Netzen in der kalten Jahrezeit. Mühle
78(2):19-21.
Jones, C. R., and Baker, G. J. 1952. Exposed germ in wheat. A factor in washer
foam production. Cereal Chem. 29:273-281.
Kuprits, Y. N. 1967. Technology of Grain Processing and Provender Milling. U.S.
Dep. Agric., Natl. Science Foundation, Washington, DC. (Translated from Rus-
sian by the Israel Program for Scientific Translations.)
Mead, H. W., Russell, R. C., and Ledingham, R. J. 1942. The examination of cereal
seeds for disease and studies on embryo exposure in wheat. Sci. Agric. 23:27-40.
Posner, E. S. 1987. Reduction of wheat tempering time before milling. Cereal Foods
World 32:886.
Rocca, S. C. 1986. Satake’s electronic color sorter. Assoc. Oper. Millers Tech. Bull.,
Sept., pp. 4827-4830.
Rogers, E. 1955. NMR: Newest member of the spectroscopy team. Ind. Lab. 6(9):2-6.
Seckinger, H. L., Wolf, M. J., and Dimler, R. J. 1964. A micro method for determin-
ing moisture distribution in wheat kernels, based on iodine staining. Cereal
Chem. 41:80-87.
Shollenberger, J. H. 1919. Moisture in wheat and mill products. Bull. 788. U.S.
Dep. Agric., Washington, DC.
Smith, L. 1950. Flour Milling Technology. Northern Publishing Co. Ltd., Liver-
pool, UK.
Soenen, M. 1952. Getreide-Vorberetung und Feinheitsgrad der Mehle. Dtsch.
Müller Zeitung. 50(Jan. 9):12-13.
Swanson, C. O. 1948. Is there any relief from ash? Assoc. Oper. Millers Tech. Bull.
1:170-173.
CHAPTER 5
The Grinding Process
The grinding process is the most important step in the milling system.
The manner in which the kernel is broken affects the subsequent sifting
and purifying operations, both in granulation (particle size distribution)
and in the amount of fine bran present in the ground material in the
reduction and sizings systems. The grinding process can be classified into
four systems: 1) the break system, which separates the endosperm from
the bran and germ; 2) the sizing system, which separates the small bran
pieces attached to the large pieces of endosperm; 3) the reduction system,
which reduces the endosperm to flour; and 4) the tailings system, which
separates the fiber from the endosperm recovered from the other three
systems. The quality characteristics of the flour particles are influenced
greatly by the grinding action used in the reduction system. The most
obvious effects are the amount of starch damage in the flour and varia-
tions in flour color from bran contamination.
In the grinding operation, energy is expended to break apart the bran
and endosperm and reduce the endosperm to flour. This uses about 50%
of the power connected with the milling system and results in heat gener-
ation and moisture loss in the ground material. Early primitive mills
consisted only of grinding to reduce the wheat kernel into flour to make a
bread product. As the taste for refined white flour grew, so did the
complexity of the milling system. It is during the grinding process that
the basic work is done. All other operations—conveying, classifying,
purifying, and other blending operations—use less energy and could be
considered secondary requirements for the milling system.
The principal forces of grinding are 1) compression, 2) shear, 3)
friction/abrasion, and 4) impact. Most grinders operate on a combination of
these principles. Some of the most common grinding machines are roller
mills, attrition mills, impact mills, ball mills, cutters, disc mills, bran
dusters, and pearlers. Each of these machines is discussed in some detail in
this chapter.
185
186 CHAPTER 5
Grinding Machines
Stone Mill
The stone mill, one of the oldest attrition mills for grinding wheat, uses
the forces of compression, shear, and abrasion. The grinding action occurs
between two stones. Figure 5-1 shows the operation of a horizontal burr
stone. The material is fed into the center of the top stone, which is
stationary. The bottom stone is rotated by a driven pulley and shaft. The
grinding gap between the stones is adjusted with a hand wheel that raises or
lowers the stone by gears and bearings. The material is ground between the
stationary and the running stone as the material is propelled radially to the
circumference by furrows cut into the faces of the stones. The ground
material is discharged by the rotating plate and outlet. Figure 5-2 shows the
furrows for a top running stone. The furrows convey and grind the product
by a shearing action. They must be sharpened when the edges wear to
Fig. 5-1. Stone mill. A = top stone, B = housing frame, C = bottom stone, D–F =
drive arrangement, G = hand wheel, H = gear, J = gear, K = bearing, L–N =
feeder arrangement, P = pulley, R = outlet, S = rotating plate. (Source: Nattrass,
1936)
GRINDING 187
maintain efficient grinding action. The stones also can be positioned ver-
tically and can be made of different materials, such as composition stone or
metal plates. In newer models, metal plates with composition stones or differ-
ent types of plate surfaces are used to produce different grinding effects.
Roller Mill
The roller mill is the principal grinding machine in a commercial wheat
flour mill because of its range of selective grinding action and economy of
operation. Manufacturers offer roller mills in a number of configurations.
The most popular is the four-roll double-roller mill, which has a pair of
rolls on each side of the stand that can operate independently or together on
the same stock. The cross-section of this roller mill is shown in Figure 5-3.
The older mills had a common drive arrangement for both pairs of rolls but
today, each pair of rolls is driven independently.
In recent years, eight-roll roller mills have gained popularity
(Wanzenried, 1991). They consist of four pairs of rolls that are stacked one
Fig. 5-2. Burr stone furrows: 1 = runner stone, 2 = stationary stone, 3 = feed
cone, 4 = basic circle, 5 = main furrow, 6 = side furrow, 7 = milling beam, 8 =
back edge, 9 = spring edge, 10 = furrow position of the stationary stone, 11 =
furrow position of the runner stone, 12 = crossing angle. (Reprinted, with
permission, from Rohner, 1989.
188 CHAPTER 5
above the other on each side of the stand so that the ground product from
the top rolls is ground again on the bottom pair of rolls (Fig. 5-4). In effect,
one set of rolls is superimposed above the other. The bottom pair of roll does
not have a feeding device but accepts the product discharged from the top roll
for further grinding. This type of roll configuration has been used in feed mills
and other operations where the objective was particle size reduction with no
need to segregate particles between grindings for quality reasons. In some
operations, the rolls are stacked three high. The advantages and disadvantages
of this configuration are discussed later in the grinding section.
The grinding action of the roller mill subjects the particles to shear and
compressive forces, caused by corrugations on the roll surfaces and
pressure exerted by the rolls while pulling particles toward the nip (Haque,
1991). The magnitudes of the stresses imposed on the particles during roller
milling vary according to grinding conditions. The rate and uniformity of
Fig. 5-3. Roller mill, cross-sectional view: 1 = feed entry and impulse transmitter,
2 = distribution screw, 3 = front feed roll, 4 = feed adjusting plate, 5 = hand wheel
for adjusting grinding gap, 6 = locking gear, 7 = knife scraper for smooth rolls, 8 =
brush scraper for corrugated rolls, 9 = grinding gap aspiration. (Courtesy of
Buhler Inc.)
GRINDING 189
flow of stock to rolls, the roll velocities, the ratio of speeds of the fast and
slow rolls (known as the differential), the gap between the rolls, the type
and condition of the roll surfaces, and the properties of particles affect the
magnitudes of each type of stress.
Figure 5-5 illustrates the forces acting on a particle undergoing size
reduction in the roller mill. The particle is assumed to be perfectly spherical.
Fig. 5-4. Eight-roll roller mill, cross-sectional view. (Courtesy of GBS Inc.)
190 CHAPTER 5
This assumption not only makes it possible to analyze the grinding process
theoretically but also tends to underestimate the forces on actual particles,
which seldom are perfectly spherical. This underestimation means that the
actual process is more effective than is revealed by the analysis.
The contact points between the particle and the rolls in Figure 5-5 are C
and A. The tangents at A and C make an angle, 2α, called the angle of the
nip, which is the angle between the roll faces at the level where they will
just take hold of a particle and draw it into the grinding zone, defined by the
arc AM or CX. The two forces acting on the particle are the frictional force
Ft and the radial force Fr. For the particle to travel toward the nip, the
downward vertical component of Ft must be equal to the upward vertical
component of Fr. The frictional force and normal (radial) force are related
by the equation
Ft = µ × Fr (1)
where µ is the static coefficient of friction; therefore, Fr × µ cosα = Fr ×

sinα. It follows from equation 1 that the particle is nipped if µ = tanα. The
particle cannot be nipped if µ is too large with respect to roll diameter and
gap setting. The nip angle, α, is dependent on the roll diameter, D, particle
diameter, dp, and size of the gap between the two rolls, dg, and is given by
the equation
D + dg
cos α = (2)
D + dp
Fig. 5-5. Forces (Ft = frictional force, Fr = radial force) on a particle in a roller mill.
A and C = points of contact between particle and rolls, D = diameter of roll, dp =
particle diameter, dg = gap diameter. (Source: Haque, 1991)
GRINDING 191
D + dg
or α = cos-1 (3)
D + dp
The size of the grinding zone depends on the roll diameter and the nip angle
according to the equation
D
CX = (4)
2α (radians)
Under dynamic conditions, the kinematic coefficient of friction, µk, rather
than the static coefficient, µ, must be considered. It is given by the equation
1 + (0.0112V )µ
µk = (5)
(1 + 0.0600V )
where V is the velocity of the roll circumference in centimeters per second.
When a body is moving very fast, µk could be as small as one-fifth of µ. For
most grinding operations, the two rolls run at different speeds. If the linear
velocities of the fast and the slow rolls are denoted by Vf and Vs,
respectively, the average velocity, Vz, of the grinding of the particles can be
approximated by equation 6:
V f + Vs
Vz = cos 2α (6)
2
Vf + Vs
If the nip angle is small, Vz = .
2
Impact Mill
The impact mill (Fig. 5-6) reduces the material by the loss of kinetic
energy when the particle is struck by a high-velocity impeller and stressed
beyond its elastic limits (Hibbs et al, 1947). The material also can be
accelerated and thrown against a wall to stress the particle beyond its elastic
limits. This type of action causes breakage along lines of least resistance
and produces less starch damage during reduction of the endosperm. The
most popular use of the mill is as a detacher, a machine to break flakes and
fractured endosperm, supplementing the roller mill before sifting. It also is
used on wheat to break infested kernels and expose internal insects for
removal and to knock loose the germ for removal in a separate recovery
system. The internal parts can be rotating blades or pins (pegs).
Impact mills have been used to supplement the rolls in both the break
and reduction systems. The impact action shatters the bran layers and
produces fine bran powder when used in the break system; however, they
also have been used to assist in the removal of endosperm from the bran at
the end of the break system, such as in fourth- and fifth-break operations.
They also have supplemented the reduction system by the reduction of
clean middlings at the head of the system.
Australian millers have used impact mills extensively in both the break
and reduction systems (Adamson, 1971). Most Australian wheat has low
192 CHAPTER 5
Fig. 5-6. Impact mill: 1 = material inlet, 2 = rotor, 3 = liner, 4 = material outlet, 5 =
motor. (Courtesy of Satake (USA) Inc.)
pigment in the bran, and so color is not as critical as when milling wheats that
contain dark pigments. Ash content is not a major factor in the flour
specifications; therefore, impact mills have played a major role in these mills.
Hammer Mill
Hammer mills (Fig. 5-7) consist of a number of hammers spaced
equally on a rotating rotor. The hammer-rotor assembly is enclosed within a
full- or half-circle, perforated, cylindrical screen, the size of the perforations
being dictated by the desired product size. The material enters the top and is
reduced in size mostly by impact between the hammers and the wall. It also
is forced through the perforated screen by the hammers, generating friction
and heat. This causes product degradation and loss of moisture. Hammer
mills require high energy, generate excessive dust, and are considered a
hazardous operation. In most flour mills, they are used for grinding screen-
ings and bran.
Ball Mill
A ball mill (Fig. 5-8) is a tumbling mill using spherical balls to reduce
the material inside a cylindrical rotating shell. The inside surface of the
cylinder is grooved to minimize backsliding of the material and balls
GRINDING 193
Fig. 5-7. Hammer mill. (Source: Haque, 1991)
Fig. 5-8. Ball mill. The inlet is on the right side. (Courtesy of Hosokawa Micron
Powder Systems)
while the cylinder rotates. The material is reduced by impact and com-
pression when the balls tumble onto it in a cylinder, while the cylinder rotates
and conveys the material along. At one time, these mills were used in some
flour mills, but they proved unsuccessful because of problems with high starch
damage, low capacity, and the need for high maintenance.
Cutting Machines
Cutting machines reduce by shearing action. Two types of cutting
machines are used to reduce bran in flour mills. For medium-sized bran
reduction, self-sharpening knife blades are mounted on a horizontal shaft
rotating inside a steel wire cylindrical cage (Fig. 5-9). The bran is fed into
the cylinder, where it is cut by the knife blades until the material is small
enough to pass through the screen. For fine bran reduction for high-fiber
bran, the bran is fed into a high-velocity rotor that has knife blades set
around the circumference (Fig. 5-10); these act against a set of blades in the
194 CHAPTER 5
Fig. 5-9. Cutting machine. (Courtesy of Johnson Sangati Inc.)
Fig. 5-10. Cutting machine.(Courtesy of Urschel Inc.)

GRINDING 195
liner. The granulation is controlled by the spacing of the knives on both the
rotor and the liner. It is very important to remove metal and other hard
objects that could damage the knives.
Disc Mill
Disc mills reduce the material by shear action between two discs, one
rotary and the other stationary (Fig. 5-11). The material enters the dis-
tributor in the center of the rotating disc, which feeds the periphery of the
grinding surfaces. The grinding elements are made of tungsten carbide and
have fluting similar to a roll corrugation. The grinding is dependent on the
fluting specifications and the distance between the discs. The disc mill can
be used to grind whole grain as well as individual mill streams.
Bran Finisher
A bran finisher (Fig. 5-12) is a beater machine that frees endosperm
from the bran by impact and friction. The beaters are steel bars attached to
spokes on a rotating shaft enclosed in a cylindrical, perforated metal or
screen cage. The edge of the bars adjacent to the screen is crimped at an
Fig. 5-11. Disc mill. (Courtesy of United Milling Systems)

196 CHAPTER 5
Fig. 5-12. Bran finisher: 1 = frame, 2 = rotor, 3 = beater blades, 4 = screen, 5 =

impact wall, 6 = air exhaust. (Courtesy of Buhler Inc.)
angle to move material the length of the cylinder to the discharge. The fine
material is forced through the screen by the centrifugal action of the
beaters.
Debranner
Debranning machines are primarily used for bran removal. A vertical
debranning machine is shown in Figure 5-13. The debranning machine
includes two operating sections. Initially, the wheat enters at the top of the
machine, moving into the abrasion section. It is abraded between the
rotating special abrasion stones and slotted screens. Next, the wheat enters
at the bottom of the friction section. There, a series of lifter paddles moves
the grain upward to the discharge gate, causing friction between the kernels
and the special screen. The degree of debranning is controlled by the stones’
roughness, screen slots, the gap, the revolutions per minute (rpm), the
automatically controlled discharge gates from each section, and airflow
through the material.
Prebreak
The use of some of the above machines to supplement or replace the
work of break roller mills is common practice in the modern flour mill.
They are used for pretreatment of the wheat before the first break.
GRINDING 197
Fig. 5-13. Schematic drawing of a debranning machine. (Courtesy of Satake

(USA) Inc.)
The purpose of the prebreak operation is to 1) prepare the wheat kernel

by modification of the structure and improve the operation of the break
system in the removal of the endosperm from the bran coats, 2) remove the
germ for recovery by a separate system, 3) break apart the endosperm to
expose hidden internal insects for removal, and 4) remove the bran coats to
reduce the amount of bran in the break. There are three main types of
prebreak machines: roller mills, impact machines, and abrasive machines
using a stone or the friction of kernels rubbing together.
Prebreak Roller Mill

The prebreak roll is set to crush the endosperm without damaging the
bran coat. This is accomplished by using a very small differential velocity
between the rolls (with a smooth surface or a small corrugation), just
enough to grip the wheat kernel and pull it through the nip of the roll
without damage to the bran coat. The treated wheat is usually aspirated to
remove dust and bran fragments. Sometimes, it is desirable to use more
pressure to remove some insects or other impurities. The prebreak material
198 CHAPTER 5
is sifted to remove the fine material and to classify the coarse material for
aspiration, which will remove impurities before the material is introduced
into the mill flow.
The crushed wheat then is ground in the break system using less-than-
normal pressure to obtain the required release of stock through the top
sieve. As a result, the released stock contains fewer bran fragments and the
bran particle size distribution is larger. Subsequently, the bran remains in
larger pieces through the break system. This adds another step in the flow,
but it can be an advantage for certain types of wheat. Very little data have
been published to prove the benefits of the prebreak roll system. It is used
mostly for hard red winter wheats in the United States.
Prebreak Impact Machine

The impact machine is used as the last step in cleaning the wheat before
the break process. The impact velocity is sufficient to break 15–30% of the
kernels and, at the same time, provides momentum to the kernels so that
they are scoured on the liner. The more fragile kernels are broken and any
insects they contain are exposed and can be removed by sifting or aspira-
tion. In cases where infestation is a bigger problem, the impact velocity is
increased to break more kernels and expose the insects.
The impaction of wheat also dislodges the germ (embryonic axis),
which can be recovered by sifting the material and flattening the germ with
smooth rolls (Fig. 5-14). Increased impact dislodges more germ and gives a
higher recovery. The disadvantage of more impact force is that it pulverizes
the bran in the impact area. The particles are mixed with the broken
endosperm, making separation of the bran and endosperm difficult. If the
impact is sufficient to dislodge the germ, most of the kernels are broken,
and the amount of fine bran produced is too great for efficient production of
clean middlings.
Most mills with impact germ-recovery systems break about 80% of the
kernels. This produces about 10% fine material (through 20 wire), most of
which contains the germ and purifiable middlings. About 1% good-quality
germ can be recovered. Further advantages are the production of more
sizings and the opportunity to increase mill capacity. The impact fractures
the endosperm; therefore, less pressure is required on the break rolls to
release it from the bran. The first-break roll surface, therefore, can be
segregated into coarse and fine classifications for grinding the broken
wheat. This requires less power and results in larger pieces of endosperm in
the particle size distribution of ground stock. The mill capacity can be
increased by 10% because of the removal of fines ahead of the break
system, if other conditions are satisfactory.
GRINDING 199
Fig. 5-14. Impact prebreak flow. ASP = aspirator. E. S. A. = Entoleter Scourer

Aspirator. (Reprinted, with permission, from Posner, 1985)
Prebreak Abrasive Machine

The outer layers of the bran can be removed to improve the color of
whole-wheat types of flour. During World War II, a large bakery, using this
idea, produced a bread with the nutritive value of whole wheat but a lighter
color. The practice was discontinued after the war because bakeries pre-
ferred white flour.
Currently, there is much interest in debranning wheat, because
improved machines can remove 8–12% of the kernel as bran with little loss
of endosperm (McGee, 1995). Removal of the bran reduces by at least a
third the necessary stages in the milling process that follows. There also is a
growing movement to accept higher-ash flour with a creamy color for
specialty breads. In some cases, the baker wants the aleurone included in
the flour for nutritional purposes. Wheat debranning works quite well to
200 CHAPTER 5
make this type of product. The removal of the outer layers of bran and germ
from weathered wheat improves the baking quality of the flour by reducing
α-amylase activity. The wheat debranning process can have important
advantages in the milling of weathered wheat with low falling number
values (Liu et al, 1986; Hareland, 2003). Other advantages of using the
debranning process before the roll grinding are the significant reduction in
bacterial count in the mill’s finished products and higher flour extraction at
equal color values.
The technical problem is the crease that folds into the center of the
kernel. The bran coat in the crease is hidden and cannot be removed by
surface abrasion or friction scouring. Improved grinding roll surfaces in the
mill allow efficient separation of the crease bran.
The Roll Surface

The term roll surface refers to the linear measurement of pairs of rolls in
a flour mill. It can be expressed as the total length or, more commonly, as
the unit of length per capacity of the mill for a 24-hr period of time. The
roll surface required for a flour mill depends on the type of wheat milled
and the specifications of the end products. The average roll surface in use in
the mid-1990s was about 10% less than that used in 1976. The roll surface
is 11 mm per 100 kg of wheat/24 hr (0.26 in. per cwt of flour/24 hr) for an
average mill flow of 425 tonnes (t)/24 hr (7,000 cwt/24 hr). The reduction
of roll surface is the result of the improved design of the roller mill, which
can operate at higher speeds, and the desire of the miller to shorten the mill
flow to reduce capital costs. When calculating the effective roll surface for
an eight-roller mill, one should consider the bottom rolls 75% of the length
of the top rolls because the fine material from the top roll passes unground
through the gap of the lower rolls.
Reduced roll surface has resulted in heavier loads on the roller mill;
however, the roll surface allocation has remained approximately the same:
40% of the total roll surface for the break system and approximately 7% for
sizings, 48% for middlings, and 5% for the tail end system.
The roll surface sometimes is supplemented by impact, disc, and cutting
machines, which reduce the amount of roll surface needed in the break and
reduction systems. For example, impact finishers between the breaks ahead
of the roll can shorten the system to reduce the number of rolls. It is quite
common for soft wheat mills and many hard wheat mills to have four break
steps in combination with impact finishers to reduce the roll surface used in
the break system. The bran finishers usually are placed after the third-break
sifter, just ahead of the fourth-break roll and after the last break-sifting
operation. Bran cutting machines sometimes are used in the last-break
GRINDING 201
operation in high-extraction mills to clean and reduce the particle size of the
bran.
The roll surface often is reduced in the middlings and tailing systems by
using impact machines in selected process steps. They can be used on break
redust (the overs of the break sifter flour screens containing a mixture of
fine particles of endosperm and flour) and in combination with rolls on the
first and second middling reduction steps that reduce low-ash material to
flour. These are usually high-velocity impact machines and sometimes pin
mills (machines using counterrotating pins) to produce more flour and keep
the starch damage low.
Low-velocity impact machines can be used on tailing stock (mixtures of
endosperm and bran) to clean endosperm off bran chips after compression by a
smooth roll. This is because the endosperm sometimes is flaked and adheres to
the bran. These machines are called detachers. The detachers are helpful for soft
wheat stocks or high-moisture material that is difficult to grind on a roller mill.
Operation of the Roller Mill

The roller mill is the primary grinder in the flour mill. Grinding is
achieved on pairs of horizontal, parallel, iron cylinders (rolls) rotating in
opposite directions. They pull the stock down between the rolls into the nip of
the rolls, which is considered the grinding zone. (The pair of rolls must be
parallel. This is achieved by tramming, the rolls, i.e., adjusting the eccentrics
that support each end of the rolls.) The nip of the rolls is the minimum space
between two parallel rolls. The roll gap is the distance between the rolls at the
nip; it is adjusted to control the severity of the grinding action. The rolls can
be set in a diagonal position to reduce the horizontal width of the roller mill;
however, this presents more difficulty in feeding the rolls. The newer models
are horizontal to simplify the feeder and increase the capacity of the roll.
Roller mills have been made with different roll configurations, such as two or
four pairs of rolls in one stand. The roll surface can be smooth or corrugated,
with grooves (flutes) running the length of the surface of the roll in a spiral to
produce a cutting or shearing action. The grinding action of a pair of rolls is
influenced by many factors.
Factors Influencing Grinding

Diameter
Commercial rolls range from 225 to 300 mm (9 to 12 in.) in diameter.
The diameter affects the work of the rolls by changing the area of the
grinding zone. The grinding zone starts at the point where a particle first
comes in contact with the grinding surface of the two rolls, called the
202 CHAPTER 5
“point-of-seizure” and measured by the angle of contact, and ends at the nip
of the rolls. The larger the diameter, the greater the grinding effect. A large-
diameter roll is preferred for flaking operations. It provides more seizing
ability to pull material into the nip of the roll and can exert more compression
or flaking action. A smaller-diameter roll sometimes is preferred in the break
system to minimize compression in favor of more shear action.
Length
The roll length varies from 450 to 1,500 mm (18 to 60 in.) in a commercial
mill. The grinding capacity of the roller mill is dependent upon the roll length,
which usually is expressed in quantity of material per linear dimension of roll
length for a given stock. For example, the first-break roll can grind 30–50 kg/cm
per minute (140–280 lb/in. per minute) depending on the rolls’ rpm. The feed to
the rolls must be sufficient to provide an even layer of material to the nip of the
roll. It is difficult to maintain an even flow across the length of the roll with flow
rates below a minimum quantity. Greater flow rates overload the roll drive and
force the rolls to grind against the spring overload device, which cannot maintain
an accurate gap. Most mills have enough capacity to use standard-size rolls of
1,000–1,250 mm (40–50 in.) in length. The 1,000-mm roll is preferred for
reductions because rolls of greater length have problems maintaining a uniform
gap between the rolls. A greater distance between the roll bearings allows the roll
to flex under pressure.
Surface
Rolls have been made of various materials to increase the life or work of
their surfaces. Most rolls are made of cast iron and “chilled” (rapidly
cooled) to harden the surface for longer life. For this reason, the rolls fre-
quently are called “chills.” The roll can be chilled or hardened from its
surface to a depth of about 10 mm (3/8 in.) by the static casting method.
The disadvantage is that the roll metal is hardest at the surface and becomes
softer with increased depth. After the corrugations have been ground off the
roll for recorrugating several times, the roll surface is soft and wears down
rapidly; the roll then must be replaced.
The latest rolls are dual-metal, centrifugally cast iron rolls. The cen-
trifugal casting is made by spinning the mold, rotating around its axis, to
hold the molten metal against the outer wall of the mold at centrifugal
forces up to 75 × g. Dense, heavy, molten metal is poured into the mold to
form a hard outer wall, and then a softer, shock-absorbing molten metal is
added. The second metal gives the roll strength. Figure 5-15 compares the
hardness of the centrifugal-cast roll to that of a static-cast roll. The greater
depth of hardness in the centrifugal-cast roll increases the life of the
corrugation and reduces the cost of replacement of the rolls when they are
worn out.
GRINDING 203
Fig. 5-15. Centrifugally cast iron chill rolls. A, cross-section of roll having chill iron
outer layer and gray iron core (inset: longitudinal section). B, comparison of wear
pattern for two types of rolls. BHN = Brinell hardness number. (Courtesy of
Shenango Industries)
204 CHAPTER 5
The hardness of the roll surface is in the range of 70–74, as measured

with a Shore Sceleroscope instrument, or 510–550 Brinell for corrugated
rolls. Rolls with a higher hardness number are too brittle, which causes the
corrugations to chip, and those with a lower number wear down more
quickly. Some millers prefer to use a softer chill (68 Sceleroscope, 500
Brinell, or lower) for smooth rolls to maintain a textured surface for
grinding. Many mills use break rolls that are beginning to turn soft (wearing
through the hardened outer surface) in the smooth-roll section of the mill.
The finish on the roll surface can range from mirror (smooth) to frost
(dull) or sandblasted (rough) in texture. Most smooth rolls have a frosted
finish, which is applied by a grinding stone running on the roll surface
without power to rough up the surface (the stone is rotated by friction from
the rotating roll surface). A quality-of-surface-finish comparison kit meas-
ures the roughness in microinches. A mirror finish has a reading of 0.0508
µm (0.02 in.), whereas a frosted finish would be approximately 1.524–2.54
µm (0.6–1.0 in.).
Taper
Taper is shown in Figure 5-16 as a slight reduction in the diameter at the
end of the roll. It compensates for an increase in temperature from the
bearing, or deflection, that occurs in the center of the roll with heavy com-
pression forces under load, and maintains a uniform gap along the full
length of the roll. Statically cast rolls can be solid iron with the center bored
out for the shaft or a cavity for water cooling. Centrifugally cast rolls are
formed with a cavity in the center, which saves metal in the manufacturing
process but sometimes can result in the peripheral wall being too thin to
uniformly dissipate the heat of grinding. This can cause hot spots that
distort the gap between the rolls, and taper at the end of the roll will not
solve these problems. If heavy roll pressures are anticipated, the roll should
be solid or the wall thickness adequate. Both the hardness and thickness of
the wall can be specified in centrifugally cast rolls. Tapers on the ends of
break rolls usually are not necessary, because the pressures are not great and
the grinding gap is much larger.
Fig. 5-16. Longitudinal view of a roll chill. (Source: Incorporated National Asso-
ciation of British and Irish Millers Ltd., 1992)
GRINDING 205
Corrugation Profile
Corrugations (Creason, 1975), sometimes called flutes, are grooves cut
into the surface of the roll. The profile (cross-sectional shape) of the
corrugation influences the work of the roll. The cutting action of the
corrugation becomes more intense as the angle decreases, and the depth of
the corrugation decreases as the angle increases. The depth of the
corrugation is matched to the particle size of the material being ground. If
the corrugation is too deep, the material could hide in the groove and pass
unground or the roll could cut up the bran without scraping off the endo-
sperm. A corrugation that is too shallow does not penetrate sufficiently to
scrape the endosperm off the bran or can result in more compression rather
than shear on the particle.
The European method of corrugation uses a single-point tool to cut each
corrugation at a prescribed angle measured from a radius of the roll (Henry,
2000). The corrugation can be sharpened by recutting the groove. U.S.
corrugators use a multiple-point tool that can cut three to five corrugations
on the roll surface in a single pass. This tool speeds up the cutting process
and also makes it possible to cut profiles that are curved as well as straight-
line angles. However, when the corrugation wears down, it cannot be
resharpened but must be ground off to a smooth surface and recorrugated.
The two methods of corrugating are shown in Figure 5-17.
Differential
Differential is the difference in rpm of the rolls working as a pair. The
fast roll is driven by a motor or line shaft, which drives the slow roll with
belts, chains, or gears. The slow roll exerts a holding action against the
fast roll. A differential of 2:1 indicates that the fast roll is rotating at twice
Fig. 5-17. Corrugation profile. (Reprinted, with permission, from McIntire, 1969)
206 CHAPTER 5
the revolutions of the slow roll, whereas a differential of 1:1 indicates

equal rpm for both rolls. In flour mills, the common practice is to operate
at 2.5:1 in the break system for cleaning the bran and 1.25:1 to 1.5:1 in
the smooth-roll reduction system to reduce the cutting of bran particles.
At one time, there was interest in a grand differential of 100:1 for
reduction of endosperm; however, the capacity was restricted because of
the movement of the slow roll in the grinding zone, and it is no longer
used.
Direction or “Action”
Direction indicates the movement of the angle or side of the
corrugation that does the work or exerts the force on the material to be
ground (Fig. 5-18). Dull to dull direction means that the dull side (the
larger angle from the radial) of the fast roll is passing by the dull angle of
the slow roll. This is used in the break system of most flour mills to
minimize cutting action on the bran; however, in semolina mills, sharp to
sharp direction is used to increase the cutting action and minimize
production of fines. The other direction combinations are sharp to dull
and dull to sharp, which are used in some mills to conserve power or to
extend the life of a roll corrugation.
Fig. 5-18. Roll corrugation direction. (Source: Incorporated National Association

of British and Irish Millers Ltd., 1992)
GRINDING 207
Hand
The corrugator needs to know the direction of rotation of the roll in order
to cut the corrugations for the desired working angle. This is referred to as the
“hand” of the roll. Figure 5-19 shows the hand of rolls of different drive
arrangements. The hand of the drive is determined by which end the drive is
on, as you face the fast roll in the stand. European rolls have the fast roll on
the outside of the stand and can be either hand, depending on the drive.
Spiral
The angle of inclination of the corrugation from the longitudinal line on
the surface of the roll is known as the spiral (Fig. 5-20). The spiral affects
the cutting action by controlling the number of corrugations that cross the
roll length in the grinding zone. The greater the spiral, the smaller the space
between corrugations, which increases the grinding action. Typical spirals
in U.S. mills are 20–84 mm/m (0.25–1 in./ft) of roll length. Other countries
express spiral in percentages (e.g., 2–8% of inclination).
Fig. 5-19. Hand of roll for corrugation and installation. Shaded area indicates the
drive. (Adapted and reprinted, with permission, from McIntire, 1969)
Fig. 5-20. Spiral of roll corrugation. (Reprinted, with permission, from Rohner,
1989)
208 CHAPTER 5
Land
Land is the term used to describe the roll surface remaining after the
corrugation is cut (Fig. 5-21). Some land is required when corrugations are
cut with a single-point tool to keep the roll round and give the corrugation
strength. Too much land reduces the capacity of the roll and the depth of the
cut. Multiple-point tools can cut the full depth, but limitations include the
root or bottom radii of the tool, which may round the edge at the top of the
corrugation, giving it a dulling effect. Usually, land is part of the corru-
gating instructions and is expressed in millimeters (or inches in the United
States) or as a percentage of the roll circumference. It varies from 0.25 to
0.1 mm (0.01 to 0.004 in.) for the break system and is 0.2 mm (0.008 in.) in
the reduction system.
Number of Corrugations
The number of corrugations determines the space between the corruga-
tions. It is specified on the flow sheet and varies from 4 to 16 corrugations
per centimeter (10–40/in.).
Revolutions per Minute
The peripheral velocity of the roll surface affects the capacity of the roll
because of the thickness of the material in the grinding zone. With anti-
friction bearings, it is not unusual to run at 500 rpm or, in some cases, 800
rpm in today’s mills. Higher rpm levels produce more undesirable fines in
the break system, and the power requirement increases as the square of the
speed. Therefore, it is more economical to run the rolls at the lowest rpm
necessary to handle the capacity. This means that rolls with small loads
should be run at a lower rpm levels than rolls with heavy loads.
Fig. 5-21. Land on the roll corrugation. (Source: Incorporated National Associa-
tion of British and Irish Millers Ltd., 1992)
GRINDING 209
Roll Accessories
A number of accessories can affect the grinding of a pair of rolls.
Feeder
A feeding device is very important in providing a uniform feed along
the full length of the roll. The load, or “cushion” effect, in the grinding zone
influences the grinding results at a given gap setting. This is quite evident
with tail-break stocks, in which one section of the roll length can cut the
bran severely when the load is reduced because of uneven load distribution.
Fig. 5-22. Roll feeder gate control. 1 = release plate, 2 = stock, 3 = limit switch, 4
= manual switch, 5 = servo cylinder, 6 = feed segment gate, 7 = pneumatic
indicator, 8 = pneumatic change-over valve, 9 = engagement and disengagement
cylinders, 10 = quick-action vent, 11 = control pressure, 12 = operating pressure.
(Courtesy of Buhler Inc.)
210 CHAPTER 5
In attempts to improve the feed to the nip of the roll, several ideas have
been tried. Two of the most innovative were the “Pratique Plate,” which
guided the material into the nip, and the rubber feed roll, which threw the
material into the nip at a one-wheat-kernel thickness. Both of these ideas
proved too cumbersome to be practical and were not accepted in U.S. mills.
The most successful feeder has been the variable-gap feed gate (Fig. 5-22),
which is controlled by a pneumatic valve that senses the level of the stock in
the feed hopper and adjusts the feed gate opening. A variable-speed feeder
roll controlled by an electrical probe, with proximity switches, in the feed
hopper also has proven to be successful.
Automatic Engagement/Disengagement Device

Roller mills have a pneumatically activated mechanism, as a safety
feature, that automatically disengages the rolls when the flow of material is
stopped or decreased to prevent fire or damage to the rolls from over-
heating. A sensor in the feeder mechanism signals the rolls to disengage
when the material reaches a predetermined level. When the material in the
feeder resumes the flow level, the rolls are reengaged. Some older models
used fluid, but the action was too slow for good operation. Frequent use of
this feature results in poor uniformity and inconsistency of the grind. The
miller must set the feed rate to the roll so that the roll disengages only when
there is a problem.
Roll Cleaners
Keeping the roll surface clean is an important operating function. Cleaners
(Fig. 5-23) can be brushes for corrugated rolls and scrapers for smooth rolls;
both clean the roll surface by friction. They must be adjusted and monitored
regularly to be effective. Improperly set cleaners can cause a ring on the roll
surface, formed by the ground material sticking and building up on the roll,
Fig. 5-23. Roll cleaners: brush (A) and scraper (B). (Courtesy of Buhler Inc.)
GRINDING 211
which forces the roll gap open and prevents proper grinding. The ring can also
result in fire or damage in the roller mill. Newly designed rolls have a
pneumatically activated mechanism that causes the cleaning elements to be
removed from the rotating rolls when they are disengaged.
Exhaust
An air exhaust system is necessary to remove heat and moisture and
prevent dusting in the roller mill. When the roll is working, the heat that is
generated is removed by evaporation of water from the ground material
with the air exhaust system. The amount of air required depends on the
Fig. 5-24. Air exhaust system providing bypass of the roll nip: 1 = air inlet, 2 = feed
roll, 3 = channel for material and air, 4 = channel for backed up air, 5 = front grinding
rolls, 6 = rear grinding roll, 7 = exhaust duct, 8 = outlet hopper, 9 = spout, 10 =
spout connector, 11 = pick-up unit, 12 = air inlet. (Courtesy of Buhler Inc.)
212 CHAPTER 5
amount of material and the intensity of the grind. Usually, the amount of
required air per roll length is about 0.56 m3/linear meter (5 ft3/linear inch).
In modern roller mills, the air for the pneumatic conveying system is used
for this purpose. Sometimes more air is required for pneumatic conveying
of the stock, and additional air is provided by openings in the roll housing,
discharge hopper, or the pneumatic pick-up unit. During grinding on
smooth rolls at high peripheral velocities, the air above the nip of the roll
can cause a blockage or boiling of the stock that prevents smooth entry into
the grinding zone. This problem has been solved by an air bypass that
shunts the air around the nip of the roll and improves the entry of the stock
into the nip, as shown in Figure 5-24.
Roll Changing Device and Cassette

Roller mill manufacturers have developed a method for changing the
grinding rolls as a unit, replacing the complete assembly, rolls, bearings,
and drives so that the machine is ready to resume operation in 15–30 min.
This offers great advantages, not only when down time is required to do
maintenance, but also for changing the first and second break roll corruga-
tions to obtain improved results if the kernel size changes significantly in
the wheat mix. See Chapter 1.
Grinding
In the Break System
The objective of the break system is to open the wheat kernel and
remove the endosperm and germ from the bran coat with the least amount
of bran contamination and, at the same time, obtain a granulation dis-
tribution of maximum large middlings with a minimum of flour and fine
middlings that cannot be purified before reduction into flour. The system
can be considered in two parts, the primary or head break system, which
releases relatively pure particles of endosperm, and the secondary or tail
break system, which cleans up the bran and releases smaller pieces of
endosperm along with more fine pieces of bran and germ.
The eight-roll two-high roller mill configuration presents some prob-
lems because the lower roll grinds the total material from the top roll. This
ignores the milling principle that, after grinding, coarse material is sepa-
rated from the fines. Good milling practice has long been to remove the
fines before the next grinding step. There are several disadvantages to using
this break system. First, it grinds fine material, coarse middlings, that
should not pass to the next break roll, whose function is to separate
endosperm from bran. Second, it produces more break flour and fine
middlings and less coarse middlings and sizings that can be purified to
GRINDING 213
produce clean middlings and low-ash flour. Third, the capacity of the lower
roll is limited because the ground material is lower in density, which in-
creases the volume to the roll. The advantages of this arrangement (Tegeler,
1999) are the savings in 1) floor space (for example, one footprint for first
and second break, 2) pneumatic lifts and filter surface (one lift for first and
second break), 3) power, and 4) sifter surface. All of this reduces the capital
cost of the installation. Tegeler (1999) also reported improved flour color
from the two-high roller mill.
Two ideas to solve these problems have been proposed. The first is to
adapt an old idea (Lockwood, 1946), the “Alphega” system, shown in
Figure 5-25. The heavy material exiting from the nip of the roll is thrown
farther than the flour and light material. A baffle arrangement separates the
Fig. 5-25. Cross section of eight-roll roller mill with Alphega system. The right side
of the figure shows the product flow through the top pair of rolls and separation of
the flow with baffles below the rolls. (Courtesy of Satake (USA) Inc.)
214 CHAPTER 5
fines that bypass the lower roll. The second (Marriott, 2002) is a drum-type
centrifugal sifter below the upper roll to separate the fines into a hopper to
bypass the lower roll (Fig. 5-26). It has been reported that the sifter, using a
9-mesh wire, can separate 36% of the first break, leaving 64% to the lower
roll.
It is very important to control the grinding work of the break rolls. The
primary break roll releases should be checked by sifting the ground stock on a
test sifter after a wheat mix change and once per shift on older roller mills to
ensure that the proper granule size distribution and the desired load on the rest
of the mill machines are maintained. Gwirtz (2002) conducted a statistical
study to evaluate differences in break release results among operators and
other variables. See Chapter 12 for more discussion on break release.
Fig. 5-26. Cross section of eight-roll roller mill with centrifugal sifter. 1 = cast iron
basement, 2 = stainless steel structure, 3 = product inlet, 4 = level sensor, 5 =
feed gate, 6 = feed screw, 7 = feed roll, 8 = handwheel for micrometric
adjustment, 9 = feed chutes, 10 = grinding rolls, 11 = roll brushes or scrapers, 12
= upper sifting group, 13 = lower sifting group. (Courtesy of Ocrim Spa)
GRINDING 215
The break roll corrugations are run in a dull-to-dull direction to mini-

mize excessive cutting of the bran and produce cleaner middlings. The
exception is in semolina mills, where fine middlings and flour must be kept
to a minimum to produce a granular product. In that case, the roll corruga-
tion direction is sharp to sharp. The roll corrugations must be in good
condition and should be recorrugated on a regular schedule.
The work of the secondary break system is usually set by observation of
the cleanliness of the bran. Examination will indicate how much of the bran
is cut. The corrugation cuts should be visible on the bran but not to the
point of completely cutting the bran on the last break operation. The
objective is to scrape the endosperm from the bran without cutting up the
bran. Some millers run the corrugations in a sharp-to-dull or even sharp-to-
sharp direction to obtain better cleaning of the bran with less heat produced
in grinding.
Several factors affect the grinding performance of break rolls. The roll
corrugations gradually wear and become dull. Dull corrugations reduce the
cutting action, produce more fine material, and increase the power require-
ment. It is best to follow a regular roll change schedule that suits the mill,
depending on the hardness of the wheat, the load on the rolls, the severity of
the grind or work, the cleanliness of the wheat (i.e., amount of stones and
dirt), and whether the rolls automatically disengage when there is no load to
prevent rolls running together.
It is important to maintain an even feed to the rolls, because the grinding
is affected by the load on the rolls. As mentioned above, the “cushion”
effect of the stock in the nip of the rolls affects the work of the roll. The
feed should be even and uniform over the complete length of the rolls.
Severe cutting occurs in thin-loaded areas. This is often a problem in the tail
end breaks (fourth and fifth breaks), where the bulky stock is difficult to
distribute across the length of the rolls. Frequent interruptions of the flow
by automatic engaging/disengaging of roll feeders also cause this problem
and should be kept to a minimum.
The rolls may need to be cleaned with a scraper or brush. Normally,
there is no problem when break stocks are ground with a maximum mois-
ture content of 15.5% at temperatures up to 20°C (85°F). However, when
grinding is intensive, at higher moisture and temperatures, the break roll
corrugations fill with the ground material and cause flaking of the material
or ringing of the roll, which prevents the rolls from grinding.
In the Sizing System

The objective of grinding in the sizing system is to detach the bran
pieces attached to the large middlings (endosperm particles with various
degrees of attached bran) and produce clean middlings, while minimizing
216 CHAPTER 5
flour production. The rolls can be smooth or corrugated. Smooth rolls have
less capacity than corrugated but do not cut the bran as much and make
more flour. Smooth rolls also tend to flake the large chunks of endosperm,
which are then separated with the bran in the sifter and lost to the tailings
recovery system. Corrugated rolls do a better job of detaching the bran
chips and can be used on clean sizings without excessive cutting of the
bran. Smooth rolls are used for dirty sizings and for fine sizings because of
the increased amount of attached bran in these stocks.
The sizing stock should be ground with caution. The optimum setting of
the rolls is determined by checking the granulation of the stock with a test
sifter. The scalp (coarse separation) should consist of bran fiber, germ, and
only a few endosperm flakes or particles. The coarse middlings should be a
mixture of middlings and bran particles that can be cleaned in a purifier.
The fine middlings should be clean with very few bran particles. The miller
grinds the sizings stock to suit the separation objectives. The most common
fault is overgrinding of the sizings stock, which produces dirty fine mid-
dlings for the reduction system.
In the Reduction System

The objective of the reduction system is to reduce the middlings to flour
in the most economical way, while retaining the most desirable baking
characteristics. This is achieved by a gradual reduction system to control
starch damage and minimize the amount of bran particles passing through
the sifter into the flour. The grinding action of the smooth rolls reduces the
more friable endosperm and at the same time leaves the bran pieces intact
so that they can be separated in the sifter.
Many mills in North America use corrugated rolls in the first and second
reduction steps to increase the capacity of the roller mill. The middlings
should be free of bran particles or they may be cut by the corrugations. The
advantage of using a corrugated roll is that it can produce about twice the
amount of flour compared with the smooth roll in the head-end (first and
second) reductions. The roll corrugations must be kept sharp and have
enough end taper to make sure that the grinding action is uniform across the
length of the rolls. The differential is usually 1.5:1 to 2.0:1, compared with
1.2:1 for smooth rolls. The flour produced from the corrugated rolls is
usually lower in temperature and is creamier in color than the flour from
smooth rolls.
Grinding on the smooth rolls should reduce the particles of endosperm
with a minimum amount of flakes. Flakes are compressed pieces of endo-
sperm formed by the pressure of the rolls. A few flakes will be present;
these can be broken up in an impactor following the roll. The amount of
fiber in the stock to the roll determines the amount of roll pressure to use in
GRINDING 217
grinding. High-fiber stock should be ground with less roll pressure to keep
it from passing through the sifter sieves into the flour. The grinding should
be adjusted to the sifter separations, where the larger branny particles are
scalped off into the tailings section for recovery of endosperm back into the
reduction system. The miller can determine the optimum roll setting by
examination of the sifter separations at different settings. Sometimes an
adjustment in the sifter particle size separations is necessary to obtain the
optimum roll setting.
The miller usually adjusts the roll grinding by feeling the stock under
the roll. This subjective test consists of rubbing stock between the thumb
and index finger to determine the texture, smoothness, and sharpness, while
observing the granulation and temperature. The miller also makes a visual
examination of the stock. This is a very practical method, because the miller
can examine and adjust all the rolls in a few minutes by relying on past
experience.
The method most used to objectively adjust roll grinding has been to
control the gap between the rolls. Modern roller mills use computers to
measure and control the gap between the rolls. The gap setting can be
stored in memory for each type of wheat mix for each pair of rolls. The use
of computers has made possible automation of the roll settings, as well as
most of the milling process. A schematic for computer-controlled grinding
gap adjustment is shown in Figure 5-27.
Computer feedback control of the roll gap has been developed by roller
mill manufacturers but is not in general use. The system requires measure-
ment of the stock from the mill sifter to control the roll gap setting, main-
taining a target roll extraction release. There are safeguards to limit the
control of the roll gap.
Several other methods have been used to determine the roll setting for
grinding a middlings stock. These have included monitoring the temper-
ature of the ground stock as it passes through the roll. Some mills have used
this method to check the grinding for each end of the roll to obtain uniform
grinding across the full length of the rolls. The optimum temperature is
determined empirically for a given stock. This method has not proven
reliable and is not used much at the present time. Moog (1956) reviewed
past developments and instrumentation in roll-pressure regulation. Data
generated with at least one regulator in a commercial mill showed that the
granulation curve did not change as a result of variation in the load to the
rolls. The amount of pressure (Ward and Shellenberger, 1951) required to
keep the rolls in grinding position is an indication of the work done by the
rolls. This method is used in flaking-roll operations to control the roll
settings. However, it also is not used much today.
The smooth-roll reduction stages are responsible for generation of the
optimum starch damage in the flour. To control starch damage, various
218 CHAPTER 5
measures can be used, some relating to mill design and some to mill adjust-
ment. The mill designer can allocate a longer roll surface area for each
reduction stage and accordingly cause a thinner layer of material to be fed to
the roll. This allows more severe grinding of the endosperm particles. Dexter
(2002) reported that increased roll differential released more fine material and
increased the starch damage in the flour. Also, finer flour cloth in the sifter
sections causes some of the overtails in successive reduction stages to include
flour, which will be overground and result in increased starch damage. The
operative miller can increase the starch damage by increasing the pressure
between the smooth reduction rolls. Smaller-diameter rolls impart more
compression to the material in the nip of the roll, the grinding zone.
Fig. 5-27. Computer-controlled grinding gap adjustment. (Courtesy of Buhler Inc.)

GRINDING 219
Therefore, smooth rolls with a 300-mm diameter cause less starch damage
than 250-mm diameter rolls. Another measure is tempering the wheat to the
minimal level for appropriate ash and extraction of the final flour. Grinding
dry endosperm on smooth rolls creates higher starch damage levels.
In the Tailings System

The objective of grinding in the tailings system is to recover small pieces
of endosperm by reducing their size in relation to the bran and germ particles,
so that a relatively pure middlings separation can be made in the sifter. The
grinding is done on smooth rolls to minimize reducing the bran and germ
particles. The grinding pressure is usually light to avoid flaking the middlings.
High-extraction flow diagrams sometimes use corrugated rolls in some of
the tailings steps. The grinding is usually done with low roll pressure to avoid
introducing too much fiber into the middlings system. Impaction machines are
also used to reduce the endosperm and break up the flakes. These machines
usually follow the rolls ahead of the sifter to improve the sifting efficiency.
Future Trends
The new mills will be designed to reduce labor and lower capital and
manufacturing costs. The roller mill will continue to be the basic grinder but will
be supplemented by more auxiliary machines to reduce the number of rolls.
Increased use will be made of impact and debranning machines in combination
with rolls to reduce the number of process steps. The two-high eight-roll roller
mill will continue to develop because it saves space, spouting, and sifters, thus
reducing capital cost. Grinding will be controlled by computers that regulate the
gap and the intensity of the grind, with feedback control.
Compact mills are a growing trend for specialty flour markets. These mills
are small-capacity, short-flow mills that are simple to operate and require one
or two operators to mill 60–120 ton/24 hr (1,000–2,000 cwt/24 hr). They can
be located near the consumer to provide good service at low cost. Multiple-
pass roller mills will continue to develop to simplify the grinding process.
Future advances in technology and in the materials of the roll stand will
allow higher speeds to increase capacity and noise reduction when the
machines are operating.
REFERENCES CITED
Adamson, F. 1971. Flour milling “down under”. Assoc. Oper. Millers Tech. Bull.,
Aug., p. 3265.
Creason, H. 1975. Grinding and corrugating rolls. Assoc. Oper. Millers Tech. Bull.,
Nov., pp. 3569-3571.
220 CHAPTER 5
Dexter, J. 2002. Effects of wheat moisture content and reduction roll temperature
and differential on the milling properties of Canadian HRS wheat. Assoc. Oper.
Millers Tech. Bull., Jul., p. 7807.
Gwirtz, J. 2002. Break release measurement. Assoc. Oper. Miller Tech. Bull., Apr.,
p. 7777.
Haque, E. 1991. Application of size reduction theory to roller mill design and opera-
tion. Cereal Foods World 36:368-375.
Hareland, G.A. 2003. Effects of pearling on falling number and α-amylase activity
of preharvest sprouted spring wheat. Cereal Chem. 80:232-237.
Henry, A. 2000. Single vs. multi point corrugations. Assoc. Oper. Millers Tech.
Bull., Mar., p. 7609.
Hibbs, A., Shellenberger, J., and Pence, R. 1947. The theory of impact grinding with
centrifugal machines. Trans. AACC 6(1):26.
Incorporated National Association of British and Irish Millers Ltd. 1992. Flour
Milling Industry Correspondence Course. The Association, London.
Liu, R., Liang, Z., Posner, E., and Ponte, J. 1986. A technique to improve function-
ality of flour from sprouted wheat. Cereal Foods World 31:471-476.
Lockwood, J. 1946. Flour Milling. Northern Publishing Co. Ltd., Liverpool.
Marriott, P. 2002. Inoxline by Ocrim Spa. Assoc. Oper. Millers Bull., Dec., p. 7874.
McGee, B. 1995. The Peritec process and its application to durum wheat milling.
Assoc. Oper. Millers Tech. Bull., Jan., p. 6521.
McIntire, 1969. Roll corrugations. Assoc. Oper. Miller Tech. Bull., Oct., pp. 3136-
3143.
Moog, O. 1956. Die Regelung des Mahldruckes am Walzenstuhl. Eine historishe-
kritische Betrachtung. Verlag Moritz Schaefer, Detmold, Germany.
Nattrass, J. 1936. Grinders. Tech. Educ. Series, pamphlet 13, June. National Joint
Industrial Council for the Flour Milling Industry, London.
Posner, E. S. 1985. The technolgy of wheat germ separation in flour mills. Assoc.
Oper. Millers Tech. Bull., Oct., p. 4577.
Rohner, A. W. 1989. Machine Manual for Millers. Buhler, Inc., Uzwil, Switzer-
land.
Tegeler, V. 1999. Eight-high roller mills vs four-high roller mills: The pros and cons.
Assoc. Oper. Millers Tech. Bull., Feb., p. 7229.
Wanzenried, H. 1991. Benefits and results with 8-roller mill, model MDDL. Assoc.
Oper. Millers Tech. Bull., Dec., p. 5977.
Ward, A., and Shellenberger, J. 1951. Grinding with controlled roll pressure. Assoc.
Oper. Millers Tech. Bull., Aug., p. 1907.
SUGGESTED READING
Dedrick, B. 1924. Practical Milling. National Miller, Chicago, IL.
Hibbs, A., Pence, R., and Shellenberger, J. 1947. Impact milling. Northwest. Miller
232(10):2a.
Kozmin, P. 1921. Flour Milling. (Translated from Russian) George Routeledge and
Sons, Ltd., London.
Mattson, D. 1984. Grinding with rolls, the use of temperature differences as an aid
in the control of roller mill operations. Assoc. Oper. Millers Tech. Committee
Proc., Jan., p. A-20.
McIntire, P. 1969. Roll corrugations. Assoc. Oper. Millers Tech. Bull., Oct., p. 3135.
GRINDING 221
Niernberger, F., and Farrel, E. 1970. Effects of roll diameter and speed on first break
grinding. Assoc. Oper. Millers Tech. Bull., Jan., p. 3154.
Posner, E. 1985. The technology of wheat germ separation in flour mills. Assoc.
Oper. Millers Tech. Bull., Oct., p. 4577.
Schneider, S. 1982. 1981/82 A.O.M. roller mill survey. Assoc. Oper. Millers Tech.
Bull., Nov., pp. 3986-3991.
Scanlon, M., and Dexter, J. 1986. Effect of smooth roll grinding conditions on
reduction of hard red spring wheat farina. Cereal Chem. 63:431-435.
Schumacher, F. 1966. Technical aspects of grinding with roller mills. Assoc. Oper.
Stanger, E. 1978. The implication of power costs and related factors in
contemporary mill design. Assoc. Oper. Millers Tech. Bull., Jul., p. 3726.
Will, F. 1984. Fundamental research of the milling process by means of Vario Roller
Mill. Assoc. Oper. Millers Tech. Committee Proc., Jan., pp. A 11-14.
Rollermills:
http://www.buhlergroup.com/vu/bmin/en/default.asp
http://www.ocrim.com
http://www.satake.com
http://www.gbsgropspa.com
Disc mills: www.ums.dk
Cutting mills: www.urschel.com
CHAPTER 6
The Sieving Process
The term sieving commonly refers to the separation of a ground mass of

material into various particle-size classifications. In the flour mill, sieving
after each grinding operation classifies the material for the subsequent step
(further grinding, purification, etc.) and removes the flour produced in the
grinding operation. Sieving machines separate particles by size. The most
common sieving machines in the flour mill are 1) a gyrating box sifter con-
taining as many as 30 stacked sieves and capable of making a maximum of
eight separations, 2) a reciprocating sieve capable of making two to four
separations, and 3) a reel-type machine consisting of a screen cylinder that
rotates or moves the material along the surface of the screen and usually
makes two to three separations.
Separation by a sieve is normally accomplished by the movement of the
material on the sieve screen, which causes the particles smaller than the
mesh opening to pass through by the force of gravity. Passage through the
apertures, or openings, also can be forced by rotating beaters on the
material or by air currents.
Principles of Sieving
Six principles govern the results obtained in the sieving separation.
These are 1) screen acceleration, the direction of the movement of the sieve,
which can be gyrating, reciprocating, a combination of the two, vibratory,
or rotating, as in a reel; 2) the rate of movement (velocity) of the material
relative to the sieve surface; 3) the size of the apertures between the meshes
of the sieve; 4) the amount of sieve surface allotted to make the separation
and the percentage of open area of the sieve (these affect the sieving time
factor in continuous-flow sieving); 5) the amount of material on the sieve
surface; and 6) the granulation of the material and shape of the particles
relative to the aperture of the sieve.
223
224 CHAPTER 6
Direction of Sieve Movement

The primary sifter used in the milling industry (Fig. 6-1) is the gyrating
sifter, a multiple-section square box containing up to 30 sieves each, which
gyrates in a horizontal plane to impart motion to the stock. One sifter can
have one to 10 sections, and each section is capable of making up to seven
or eight separations. The gyrating action is self-balancing and requires little
power to operate. The drive is shown in Figure 6-2. The sifter freely swings
in a circle, the radius of which is determined by the amount of weight in the
counterweight container that balances the weight of the sifter boxes. To
increase the circle of gyration, more weight is added to the counterweight to
increase the centrifugal force. Less weight is required for a smaller circle.
Reciprocating action is used in special operations where capacity and
flexibility are limited. These sieves can be driven by an eccentric or high-
frequency vibration; the frequency and amplitude can be varied to suit the
operation. This arrangement is often used to drive the purifier sieve. A
counterweight is required to balance the drive forces.
Fig. 6-1. Typical mill gyrating sifter. (Courtesy of Great Western Manufacturing
Co., Inc.)
SIEVING 225
The combination of gyrating at the head and reciprocating at the tail of the
sieve, shown in Figure 6-3, sometimes is used for break scalpers (Fig. 6-4),
sieves that remove the coarse bulky material, because they require very little
vertical space and can be installed above a sifter to increase the capacity.
Fig. 6-2. Gyrating sifter drive. (Courtesy of Great Western Manufacturing Co., Inc.)
Fig. 6-3. Combination reciprocating and gyrating sifter. The circles indicate the
motion of the sieve. (Courtesy of Rotex, Inc.)
226 CHAPTER 6
The reel sieve is a horizontal cylindrical screen, inclined from head to

tail, which rotates around its axis and conveys the material on the screen to
the discharge at the tail end (Fig. 6-5). The small particles pass through the
mesh aperture by gravity, and the oversized particles are carried on the
screen to the tail discharge. The material is in contact with the screen at the
bottom and is carried on the up side of the screen until the angle of repose is
exceeded and the material tumbles down to the bottom of the reel. Part of
the wall of the apertures in the screen is inclined from the center of gravity,
Fig. 6-4. Sifting action of a combination reciprocating and gyrating sifter. (Cour-
tesy of Rotex, Inc.)
Fig. 6-5. Round and hexagonal reels.

SIEVING 227
which prevents a free fall of the particle through the aperture. For this rea-
son, for a given screen aperture, a reel will not sift as much material as will
a flat screen in a gyrating or reciprocating sifter. The effective screen sur-
face in contact with the material is about 33% of the total surface. The cen-
trifugal reel (Fig. 6-6) was developed to improve efficiency by throwing the
material against the screen with a spiraled blade impeller to utilize the full
screen surface and to convey the oversized material to the discharge.
Rate of Sieve Movement

The movement of the sifter gyration is shown in Figure 6-7. The critical
factors in the operation of the sifter are the revolutions per minute and the
throw (diameter of the inscribed circle of gyration, i.e., the screen accelera-
tion), which impart movement to the material. The equation W1r1 = W2r2
shows that the centrifugal force acts from the center of gyration and the
drive weights (W2) counterbalance the sifter weight (W1). The critical speed,
Fig. 6-6. Centrifugal reel. A = drive shaft, B = beater supports, C = beaters, D =

conveyor blade, E = drive pulley for conveyor, F = support for cloth screen, G =
support for lap of screen, H = cloth screen, J = cloth support end, K = discharge
outlet of overtails, L = hopper, M = conveyor, N = cleaner brush, P = cloth holder
support, R = intel conveyor.
228 CHAPTER 6
which can be determined by observation of the material on the sieve as the

speed is gradually increased, is the speed at which the material slips or
moves relative to the sieve surface. Usually, the speed of the sifter is set at
125–175% of the critical speed of the material. A larger throw produces
more movement and is good for coarse stocks with high capacity, whereas
short throws are better for flour and fine stocks. The screen acceleration
should be lower for coarse stocks than for fine stocks. Figure 6-8 shows the
relationship of screen acceleration to the speed and throw of a gyrating
sifter and the recommended range of operation for different materials.
Fig. 6-7. Forces in gyrating sifter drives.
Fig. 6-8. Screen acceleration vs. revolutions per minute (rpm). (Courtesy of Great
Western Manufacturing Co., Inc.)
SIEVING 229
Screen Aperture Size and Percent Open Area

Aperture size and percent open area are very important factors affecting
the desired particle separation. The aperture varies in screens with the same
mesh number (i.e., threads per inch or centimeter) because of the diameter of
the threads. This also affects the percent open area of the screen, which is
critical in the separation of mill stock as it flows continuously over the surface
of the screen. A greater percent open area results in more fine material passing
through the aperture of a screen than would pass through a screen with less
open area. Screen manufacturers list the percentage of open area along with
the mesh and aperture numbers. Wire size usually is identified in mesh num-
bers and the apertures in synthetic sieve materials are expressed in microns.
Tables 6-1 and 6-2 show the percent open area, mesh, and aperture sizes of the
wires and cloths, respectively, commonly used in the flour mill industry.
TABLE 6-1
Comparison of Sifting Materials—Wire Cloth Sifting Mediaa
Mill Grade Stainless Steel
U.S. Test Wire
Opening Percent Percent
(µm) Mesh Diam. Mesh Open Diam. Mesh Open Diam.
2,030 10 64.0 0.020
2,000 10 US 0.0354
1,680 12 US 0.0319
1,678 12 60.8 0.018
1,410 14 US 0.0285
1,371 14 57.2 0.017
1,191 16 US 0.0256
1,190 18 70.2 0.009
1,180 16 55.4 0.016
1,041 20 67.2 0.009
1,030 18 53.4 0.015
1,000 18 US 0.0228
910 20 51.8 0.014
869 24 67.2 0.0075
841 20 US 0.0201
813 22 49.6 0.0135
730 24 47.4 0.013
716 28 62.4 0.0075
706 25 US 0.0177
698 26 51.1 0.011
682 30 64.8 0.0065
650 28 51.8 0.010
630 32 62.7 0.0065
610 30 51.0 0.0095
594 30 US 0.0154
581 34 60.7 0.0065
566 32 50.9 0.009
541 36 58.7 0.0065
(continued on next page)
a
Source: Sefar America, Inc.
230 CHAPTER 6
TABLE 6-1 (continued) a

Mill Grade Stainless Steel
Opening U.S. Test Wire Percent Percent
(µm) Mesh Diam. Mesh Open Diam. Mesh Open Diam.
520 34 48.1 0.009
503 38 56.7 0.0065
501 35 US 0.0134
478 36 45.8 0.009
471 40 54.8 0.0065
465 43 61.6 0.005
452 38 45.8 0.0085
437 46 62.9 0.0045
420 40 US 0.0114 40 43.6 0.0085
414 48 61.5 0.0045
368 54 61.5 0.004
353 45 US 0.0097
351
335 58 59.0 0.004
323 60 57.8 0.004
308 62 56.5 0.004
285 66 54.2 0.004
269 70 54.9 0.0037
259 72 53.8 0.0037
250 60 US 0.0071
249 74 52.7 0.0037
243 76 51.7 0.0037
224 80 49.6 0.0037
213 84 49.8 0.0035
212 70 US 0.0060
202 88 47.9 0.0035
180 94 45.0 0.0035
178 80 US 0.0052
165 105 46.9 0.003
150 100 US 0.0043
145 120 47.3 0.0026
130 135 47.4 0.0023
125 120 US 0.0036
120 145 46.4 0.0022
107 165 47.1 0.0019
103 140 US 0.0030
88 170 US 0.0025
86 200 46.2 0.0016
73 200 US 0.0021 230 46.0 0.0014
Sieve Material and Weave

Most of the screen media used in flour milling is smooth, to minimize
friction drag on the particles (to avoid attrition) and to increase the flow
capacity of the sieve. Thus, smooth wire (tinned mill or stainless steel mill)
is used in the break scalps (first separation of coarse material) to support
heavy loads, and light wire (stainless steel bolting cloth or durloy, a light
wire) is used in the sieves for aperture sizes of 1,200 µm and smaller. These
SIEVING 231
TABLE 6-2
Comparison of Sifting Materials—Synthetic Mediaa
Polyester (Pecap) Nylon (Nitex)
Opening Open Open
(µm) Mesh Designation (%) Mesh Designation (%)
2,380 7.8 7-2380/53 53 7.8 3-2380/54 54
2,000 10.2 7-2000/64 64
1,800 11.1 7-1800/61 61 11.0 3-1800/61 61
1,600 12.4 7-1600/61 61 12.4 3-1600/60 60
1,410 12.7 7-1410/49 49 12.7 3-1410/49 49
1,320 14.8 7-1320/59 59 14.8 3-1320/59 59
1,180 16.6 7-1180/59 59 16.6 3-1180/59 59
1,000 19.3 7-1000/57 57 19.2 3-1000/58 58
900 21.1 7-900/56 56 21.2 3-900/59 59
800 23.5 7-800/55 55 23.5 3-800/56 56
750 24.6 7-750/53 53 24.7 3-750/54 54
710 26.2 7-710/53 53 26.2 3-710/53 53
670 27.3 7-670/52 52 27.0 3-670/53 53
630 29.2 7-630/52 52 29.2 3-630/52 52
600 30.2 7-600/51 51 30.2 3-600/51 51
560 31.8 7-560/49 49 31.8 3-560/50 50
530 33.9 7-530/50 50 33.9 3-530/50 50
500 35.3 7-500/48 48 36.3 3-500/49 49
475 37.6 7-475/49 49 37.6 3-475/49 49
450 39.1 7-450/48 48 39.1 3-450/48 48
425 40.6 7-425/46 46 40.6 3-425/46 46
400 43.8 7-400/48 48 43.8 3-400/47 47
365 46.6 7-365/45 45
355 49.3 7-355/47 47 49.3 3-355/47 47
350 42.0 7-350/34 34 44.0 3-350/36 36
335 51.3 7-335/46 46 51.3 3-335/46 46
315 53.5 7-315/44 44 53.5 3-315/44 44
300 56.4 7-300/44 44 60.2 3-300/50 50
265 66.0 7-265/47 47 61.7 3-265/42 42
253 68.6 3-253/46 46
243 70.0 7-243/45 45 70.0 3-243/45 45
236 71.3 7-236/44 44 71.0 3-236/44 44
224 73.8 3-224/42 42
215 80.6 7-215/46 46
211 82.0 3-211/46 46
202 84/90 7-200/47xx 47 84/90 3-202/48xx 48
180 91/102 7-180/46xx 46 91/102 3-183/46xx 46
163 103/110 3-163/43xx 43
150 108/120 7-150/46xx 46
143 115/127 3-143/43xx 43
127 129/137 3-127/41xx 41
118 133/151 7-118/45xx 45 128/151 3-118/42xx 42
110 137/156 3-112/40xx 40
100 147/169 7-100/42xx 42 145/169 3-100/38xx 38
93 156/175 7-95/40xx 40 156/175 3-93/38xx 38
85 166/188 7-85/37xx 37 166/188 3-85/35xx 35
80 198.0 7-80/39 39
75 178/215 3-75/34xx 34
73 157.0 7-73/40 40
a
Source: Sefar America, Inc.
232 CHAPTER 6
wires have a smaller diameter so that, for the same aperture, they have more
open area than sieves made with heavier wire, such as tinned mill screens.
The screens for grading middlings and sifting flour once were made of
silk, but most sifting media now are made from synthetic nylon filaments.
The filaments are monofilament (one fiber makes a thread). The threads are
woven to make a fabric (screen) that is attached to the sieve frame. The
weaver’s term “warp” denotes the thread running the fabric’s length, and the
“weft” is the thread running the width of the fabric. Two types of weaves
(square and taffeta) are used to make a screen. The square weave is an
over–under weave with the warp and weft threads spaced evenly apart. The
taffeta weave is woven with two threads next to each other in the warp
direction only, spaced alternately with a single thread in the weft. Each of
the threads making up the double warp is smaller in diameter, allowing the
opening to retain the percent open area. The taffeta weave, known as double
X, is an excellent screen to replace silk, because the double-warp threads
create shearing action and increase retention time on the screen, giving
efficient sifting. The Leno weave is similar to the taffeta except that the
small threads in the warp are twisted to give the cloth surface a little more
shearing action and retention time.
Screens that are used on abrasive stocks, or heavy loads at high
tensions, are woven with the square weave. These are the milling Forte and
XXX screens. These screens provide maximum strength but, because of the
larger thread diameter, the percent open area and sifting efficiency are
reduced. Nylon grits gauze (GG) screens are used on coarse middlings,
while polyester GG is used for purifier screens because it is not affected by
moisture and provides more shear action on the surface.
Sieve Cleaners
Sieve cleaners are necessary to keep the apertures open and prevent
blocking, or blinding. Blocking occurs when near-size particles (those
slightly larger than the aperture) lodge in the aperture, very fine sticky parti-
cles adhere to the underside of the mesh and block the opening, or static
electricity acts between certain stocks and the screen. The static electricity
problem can be minimized by grounding the screen with a conducting wire.
The sieve cleaner rests under the screen on a wire mesh called a back-
wire, having about 2.5 meshes per inch, so that the sifted product can pass
easily and also impart agitation to the cleaner. The backwire mesh can be
intercrimped to impart more movement to the cleaner. Several types of sieve
cleaners are shown in Figure 6-9. The most common cleaner used to be the
cloth belt with a rivet to increase the cleaning action; however, as the cloth
wore, strings passed into the flour. The ball cleaner cleans the screen by
impaction from the bouncing action imparted by the backwire and sieve
SIEVING 233
frame. The balls can be made of polyurethane compound, which extends

the life of the cleaner and appears to be resistant to fumigants.
Cube-shaped cleaners clean by impact and a scraping action against the
screen. Sometimes, this action is severe and cuts the screen or lodges a cor-
ner into the mesh, eventually causing the mesh to break. The square corners
of the cube can be rounded to minimize this effect. The cubes can be made
from various materials, including ultrahigh molecular weight polyethylene
or polyurethane. The hard materials cause wear on the sieve frames, which
must be lined for protection. The cube is good for keeping the backwire
clean. Some millers use a combination of cubes and balls for sieve cleaners.
Cloth sieve cleaners sometimes are placed on top of the screen surface
to disperse sticky particles in very fine soft wheat flour and aid in keeping
the screen clean. It is necessary to install nails at the discharge of the sieve
to prevent the cleaner from discharging with the flow of material and to
throw it to the head of the screen. The space above the screen must be
sufficient to allow free flow of the material and the cleaners.
Cleaners are sometimes necessary to keep the pan clean. The pan col-
lects and discharges the throughs of the screen. Figure 6-10 shows the plas-
tic and leather cleaners used for this purpose. Leather is becoming hard to
obtain, while plastic cleaners are more sanitary and are becoming more
popular.
Fig. 6-9. Cloth, balls, cubes, and plastic triangle sieve cleaners. (Courtesy of
Great Western Manufacturing Co., Inc.)
Fig. 6-10. Plastic and leather pan cleaners. (Courtesy of Great Western Manu-
facturing Co., Inc.)
234 CHAPTER 6
Figure 6-11 shows a sieve-tightening device that can be used to install

screens on sieve frames. This device requires the stretching and gluing of
fabric from bolts of material to the sieve frame. Use of a sieve-tightening
device requires more cloth and takes more time than the hand method,
which uses ready-made cloth pieces that are stapled to the sieve frame. The
tension of the screen can be measured with an instrument, a tensiometer, in
Newtons (N) per centimeter. A tight hand-stretched screen measures about
4–5 N/cm, whereas a mechanical unit can stretch the sieve up to 20 N/cm.
Table 6-3 shows a chart of recommended screen elongation and tension lev-
els to use when attaching screens to sieve frames. Sieving action is more
efficient at higher tension. However, the type of weave is an important fac-
Fig. 6-11. Screen-tightening device. (Courtesy Sefar America, Inc.)
TABLE 6-3
Recommended Screen Elongation and Tension Levelsa
Technical Data for Stretching Screens (Polyamid-Nylon)
Mesh Minimum Tension
Opening Fabric Tension Before Gluing (3 hr or more after
(µm) (N/cm) initial stretch, N/cm)
≥630 15 ± 1 8
600–465 14 ± 1 7
450–315 13 ± 1 7
300–212 12 ± 1 6
200-112 11 ± 1 6
≤100 10 ± 1 5
a
Notes: 1) Higher room temperature leads to higher tension results. 2) Higher relative humid-
ity leads to lower tension results. 3) Polyester fabrics require an additional 2–3 N/cm before
gluing. 4) Wire mesh requires an additional 3–6 N/cm before gluing. 5) Keep the mesh for at
least 4 min under full tension before gluing.
SIEVING 235
tor; the taffeta and Leno weaves, which contain different-sized threads, can-
not withstand high tensions because the smaller threads tend to fail and
shorten the life of the screen. A mechanically stretched screen stays cleaner
than a hand-stretched screen, possibly because the threads have less flexing
that might allow an oversize particle to lodge in the aperture. Cleaners
bounce more effectively against a well-tensioned screen.
Sieve Surface
In a continuous-flow operation, the length of time the material is sifted
and the open area of the screen affect the granulation of the separated frac-
tions. The sifting time depends on the number of sieves the material passes
over and the open area of the screen. If these factors are insufficient (for
example, if there are not enough sieves for the separation), the material that
passes over the screen will contain particles smaller than the sieve aperture.
This condition is called “underbolted” or “undersifted.” The opposite
condition, too many sieves or not enough material, results in a condition
called “overbolted” or “oversifted.” Oversifting is not only inefficient in the
use of sifter capacity but also causes a condition known as “bare bolting,”
in which excessive abrasion of the particles on the sieve causes some reduc-
tion of particles, allowing them to pass through the aperture. This material,
which is intended for a coarser granulation and is often highly contaminated
with bran fiber, passes into the clean flour or separation, producing specks
and lowering the purity of the separation.
Load
The load, or amount of material on the sieve, is an important factor in
sieving efficiency. Material should be sufficient to cover the screen com-
pletely, without bare spots, and provide a bed of material that stratifies on
the screen according to particle size, shape, and specific gravity. The motion
of the sieve settles the fine particles and forces the large branny particles to
the surface, which improves screening efficiency. The load on the sieve
should not be excessive or it will impede the free travel of the material.
Granulation vs. Sieve Aperture

The sifting efficiency also depends on the relationship between the
mean particle size of the material and the size of the screen aperture. A ratio
of one to one is impossible, whereas four or five to one allows the material
to fall through very quickly. For example, if 95% of the material is smaller
than 132 µm, then sifting with a sieve aperture of 132 µm requires much
less sieve surface than would be needed if the sieve aperture were smaller
(e.g., 102 µm).
236 CHAPTER 6
Sifters
Gyrating Sifters
The typical U.S. gyrating sifter shown in Figure 6-1 contains square
sieve frames. The screen fabric is attached to the frame by staples or an
adhesive. Many types of sieves are available to make the desired separation
of material. The common sieve is shown in Figure 6-12 along with sieve
terminology. Basic sieve frame types are shown in Figure 6-13. A list of
Fig. 6-12. Square sieve terminology. Left-hand sieve is illustrated. (Courtesy of

Great Western Manufacturing Co., Inc.)
SIEVING 237
sieves can be found in suppliers’ catalogs and in the suggested readings at

the end of this chapter.
It is necessary to know the hand (left or right) of the sieve when “flow-
ing” a sifter stack. The hand of the sieve specifies the location of the tail-
over section of the screen in relation to the throughs section. Determine the
hand of the sieve by placing it so that the throughs discharge toward you.
The location of the sieve’s throat (opening for the discharge of the overs of
the screen, also called the tail) determines the hand.
Previous models of the European sifter, called the plansifter, had rectan-
gular sieve frames to increase the length of the screen surface in relation to
the width. The advantage was more efficient use of the screen surface
because of the increased length of material flow. These sifters usually had
drawer-type sieve frames that slid into grooved slots. A disadvantage was
that the sieve flow was fixed and could not be changed easily for different
capacities or numbers of separations. The sifter sections were more difficult
to clean and had more dead space for harboring insects. At the present time,
most European sifter manufacturers have changed to the square sieve.
A newly designed sieve called “Nova” is now offered by sifter
manufactures (Fig. 6-14). This sieve eliminates the backwire and uses a new
cleaner to clean both the sieve cover and pan. The cleaner is shown in
Figure 6-15. It is made of plastic with knobs or brush tufts to clean the
mesh. The elimination of the backwire reduces the sieve height, which
allows more sieves or deeper sieves in the box, increasing the sieve area or
capacity. This concept works best on head-end free-flowing stocks. The
cleaner does not work well on soft, sticky stocks in a humid, tropical
environment. An increase in the speed and throw of the sifter produces a
more vigorous action of the cleaner and is helpful in improving the cleaning
of the sieve. The speed (rpm) of sifters generally has been increased about
20% since the late 1990s to improve the performance. Some millers suggest
using the Nova sieve on the head end of the mill, where the load is heavy
Fig. 6-13. Basic sieve frame types. (Courtesy of Great Western Manufacturing
Co., Inc.)
238 CHAPTER 6
and granular, and conventional sieves on the tail of the mill, where the loads
are lighter and the stocks are less granular and tend to be sticky and hard to
sift.
Several factors influence the sieving action of sifters. The first is the
nature of the material (i.e., whether it is hard and free-flowing or soft and
sticky). The bulk density of the material also is important. The sieve must
provide sufficient space for the stock to flow freely. It can be built with
greater depth and a larger throat to handle bulky material; however, in addi-
tion, this material may require greater sieve pan slope and a larger outlet
opening. Another factor is the moisture content of the material. Ambient
conditions affect the sieving action of a material, which becomes more diffi-
cult to sieve as the temperature and the dew point increase. The roughness
of the surface and the coefficient of friction between the stock and sieve
influence the screening action. The tension of the sieve screen affects the
Fig. 6-14. Nova sieve. (Courtesy of Great Western Manufacturing Co. Inc.)
Fig. 6-15. Nova sieve cleaners. (Courtesy of Great Western Manufacturing Co. Inc.)
SIEVING 239
screening action of the sieve. The screen should be tight to provide a firm
surface for the movement of the stock. A surface that is loose will sag and
slow the stock, sometimes choking the flow.
A lightweight sifter that can adapt to a small space is the Crossyoke
sifter, made by Rueter. A similar sifter was manufactured by Great Western
Manufacturing 50 years ago. The sifter sections gyrate by the action of a
vertical crankshaft attached to opposing boxes. There are no counterweights
because the opposing sections counterbalance each other.
Reciprocating Sifters
Reciprocating sifters have less capacity to convey the material and
make multiple separations than do stacked sifters (Fig. 6-1) with gyrating
motion. The conveying action of reciprocating sifters depends on the
length and frequency of the stroke, the angle of inclination of the support
hangers, and the slope of the sieve from head to tail. The advantage of the
reciprocating action is that stratification of the material on the screen is
maintained along the length of the sieve. This action results in a cleaner
separation of endosperm from the less-dense bran particles that tend to
migrate to the top of the material as it moves to the discharge point. The
screen is cleaned with a brush traveling across the underside of the
surface. It also can be cleaned by composition rubber balls on a wire rack
under the screen.
Reciprocating sifters usually have one or two sieve decks that can
make two or three separations. They require little vertical space and can
be used to make separations on feed-in material or in limited operations
where space is at a premium. The “Bellera” mill, developed by General
Mills and Buhler in the 1960s, was based on a reciprocating sifting
system. The stacked milling system used four-deck and two-deck sifters.
One of the reasons the stacked mill was not popular was its limited
flexibility.
Combination Reciprocating and Gyrating Sifters

The combination reciprocating and gyrating sifter (Fig. 6-4) was
developed to take advantage of the high conveying capacity of the
gyrating motion at the head of the sieve and the stratification effect at the
tail of the sieve. The screens usually are cleaned by balls in compartments
below the screen surface. In flour mills, they are used in areas of limited
vertical space to make a separation ahead of the regular gyrating sifters;
for example, to scalp ahead of a gyrating sifter and increase the sifting
capacity.
240 CHAPTER 6
Reel-Type Sifters
The reel-type sifter (Fig. 6-5) was the one most commonly used in the
early stone mills. The ground wheat flowed through a rotating horizontal
screen cylinder and the flour passed through, while the bran tailed over the
end of the screen. The effective cloth area of a reel was one-third of the cir-
cumference where the stock made contact with the screen. The efficiency
was increased by installing rotating paddles inside the cylinder to distribute
the material completely around the circumference of the screen. This devel-
opment was known as a centrifugal reel (Fig. 6-6). The paddles had a slight
spiral toward the tail to advance the flow of the stock through the reel. It
was possible to have different apertures in the screen, fine at the head and
coarse at the tail of the reel, to obtain different size separations in the
throughs collected in hoppers or screw conveyors. A brush rotating on the
outer surface, usually near the top, cleaned the screen.
An advantage of the reel was the flexibility in the collection of the flour
along its length. The head-end flour was always the finest, with fewer
specks. As the stock moved toward the tail, the flour became coarser and
more specky. The quality of the flour could be controlled by adjusting the
tips (valves) to direct the flour to the collecting conveyors. It was easy to
Fig. 6-16. Break scalper reel. (Courtesy of Satake (USA) Inc.)

SIEVING 241
adjust for differences in the sifting action for different wheats or other mill-
ing variables. However, the reels required a lot of space and maintenance.
They harbored insects in the dead spaces in the conveyors and drive frame
and soon were replaced with gyrating sifters. Some specialized reels are
used today in the flour mill, as discussed below.
The break scalper sifter is a sifter that is located ahead of the gyrating
sifter to separate the coarse material, which can be 50–70% of the load in a
break operation. The break scalper makes two separations: the overs of the
reel that go to the next break roll and the throughs that pass to the sifter for
middlings classification and flour removal. The sieves that are normally
used for coarse bran removal can be utilized in the break sifter system for
additional capacity. Figure 6-16 shows a break scalper reel used for this
purpose. Note that the cylinder has a conical shape to aid in the flow of
bulky stock. It also exerts a beating action on the stock to loosen and
Fig. 6-17. Centrifugal vibrating dust sifter. A = material inlet, B = screen, C =

rotating vertical impellers, D = flour outlet hopper, E = coarse overtail outlet.
(Courtesy of Satake (USA) Inc.)
242 CHAPTER 6
separate endosperm attached to the bran pieces as the material is conveyed

through the machine.
The dust separator shown in Figure 6-17 is used on fine, sticky stocks
that are difficult to sift. These are fine materials recovered from bran dusters
and pneumatic dust, which are not free flowing and are sticky in consis-
tency. These machines usually have vibration on the sieve frame to keep the
screen clean. The vibration sometimes is induced mechanically or can be
the effect of the beating of the material against the cloth screen, which
flexes at the correct tension to keep the apertures open. These machines can
operate in either a horizontal or a vertical position.
Sieve Surface and the Flow

The sieve surface is the amount of effective sieve area used in the flour
mill. It usually is expressed in area per unit of mill capacity. In the United
States, it is expressed as ft2/cwt (100 lb) of flour produced in 24 hr or
m2/100 kg of wheat per 24 hr. The amount of sieve surface used for the mill
depends on the type of wheat and the products produced. Soft wheats,
which are hard to sift, require more surface than hard wheat. A mill that is
required to produce a variety of products or specialty flours requires more
sifter surface than a mill that produces only one standard grade of flour. A
mill that makes cake flour of fine granulation requires more surface than
one that makes a 100% cookie or standard pound cake flour. Sifter surface
can be utilized more efficiently in larger mills, making sifter operation more
economical.
As noted for roll surface, the amount of sifter surface used in flour mills
has decreased gradually in recent decades as the capacity of existing mills
has increased. New mills are more stringent in the use of sifters, to reduce
capital cost. The sifter surface for a hard wheat mill in North America
decreased from 0.8 ft2/cwt of flour per 24 hr (0.122 m2/100 kg of wheat per
24 hr) in 1960 to 0.5 ft2/cwt of flour per 24 hr (0.076 m2/100 kg of wheat
per 24 hr) in 1976. At the present time, many mills are operating with 0.3
ft.2/cwt of flour per 24 hr (0.046 m2/100 kg of wheat per 24 hr), not
counting the flour rebolters. Some recent compact mills using two-high
roller mills operate with 0.20 ft2/cwt of flour per 24 hr (0.04 m2/100 kg of
wheat per 24 hr) by combining sieving steps.
Sifters are sized to the capacity of the mill. The quantity of wheat going
to the first process step in the mill is divided by the capacity of a sifter
section area to determine the number of sifters sections for this operation.
The effective sieving surface varies according to the type of sieve. In the
past, many different shapes and sizes of sieve frames were used; however,
they have been standardized to a square frame. The dimensions and sieve
SIEVING 243
TABLE 6-4
Standard Sieve Specificationsa
Frame (Inches Square)
2411/16 28 3/4 30 7/8
2
Cloth-free bolting area, ft 2.6 3.7 4.2
Depth of standard sieve, in.
2¼ 2½ 3
Cloth tray type Demountable Demountable Solid or
demountable
Tailover channel, in. 1½ 1½ 15/8 to 3
Cloth slope, in. 1/16 3/32 1/8
Cleaner compartments Four Four or six Nine

Side channels, in. 15/8 1½ 1½
Pan material Bright tin (optional, stainless steel)
Pan slope Flat or ¼ in. Flat or 3/8 in. Flat (optional,
¼ to 1¾ in.)
Pan cleaners Two Three Three
Tray backwire 2½ in. mesh, 19 gal. galvanized
(optional, 2½ in. mesh intercrimp)
Tray liners White nitrile belt
Sieve seal Machinery plush
Exterior finish Moisture-resistant lacquer
a
All sizes of sieves can be furnished in single-channel or full-cloth types. All sieves can be
furnished lined with stainless steel.
area of the most common sieve frames are shown in Table 6-4. The
Nordyke and Marmon (N&M) sieve frame is 2411/16 in. (62.7 cm) on a side
and 2¼ in. (5.7 cm) in depth, and the Great Western is 28¾ in. (73 cm) on a
side and 2½ in. (6.35 cm) in depth. One N&M sifter section can process the
first break capacity of a 2,500 cwt/24 hr (150 t/24 hr) hard wheat flour mill,
whereas the GW sifter section can process 3,500 cwt/24 hr (212 t/24 hr) of
first break stock. The single-section sifter, Allis-Low Head, and the Tru-
Balance sifter have square sieve frames 307/8 in. (78.4 cm) on a side with a
depth of 2¼ to 7 in. (5.7–17.8 cm), depending on the type of separation.
These sifters are very versatile and can be used as scalpers, graders, or
rebolters. A scalper removes material much larger than the primary material
being sifted. A grader sieves the stock into particle size classifications for
further processing steps. A rebolter resifts the flour as a protection against
leaks in the process sifters.
Sifter Flowing
The sifter section is a box that contains a stack of sieves arranged to
separate the material flowing over and through the sieves into different
particle size fractions. The sieve arrangement is known as the “flow of the
sifter,” or the “stacking diagram,” and the arranging of the sifter sections is
called “flowing” the sections. A typical conventional sieve stacking diagram
244 CHAPTER 6
for second middling stock is shown in Figure 6-18. Square sieve frames can
be rotated in the stack to discharge the separated material out the channel
between the box and sieve frame or into the opening between the screen and
the frame.
A sifter section can be flowed to remove the coarse material first at the
top and the flour last at the bottom of the stack. It also can be arranged in
reverse, removing the flour first and the coarse material last, as shown in
Figure 6-19. The advantages of the latter are that the coarse material on the
Fig. 6-18. Typical conventional sieve stacking diagram for second middling stock.
C = standard press top, N = no-hand sieve, TO = tail-out sieve, L = left-hand
sieve, R = right-hand sieve, SS = stainless steel, NX = Nitex (nylon) cloth. (Cour-
tesy of Great Western Manufacturing Co., Inc.)
SIEVING 245
screen helps keep the screen clean and the fines pass through the aperture
sooner, requiring less screen surface. The disadvantages are that more sieve
depth is required for the flow and heavier loads are bearing on the screen
surface, increasing screen wear and causing greater contamination should a
break occur in the screen.
As a result, most break sections, which sift stock from the break rolls,
separate the coarse material first to remove the large quantity of bulky mate-
rial. After it is removed, sieve depth can be reduced to permit more sieves in
Fig. 6-19. Fine to coarse sieve stacking diagram for second middling stock. C =
standard press top, L = left-hand sieve, R = right-hand sieve, SS = stainless
steel, NX = Nitex (nylon) cloth. (Courtesy of Great Western Manufacturing Co.,
Inc.)
246 CHAPTER 6
the stack for subsequent separations. However, most break sections take
advantage of using coarse material on the flour screens to aid in sifting (Fig.
6-20).
Note that the flour cloths are not on the bottom of the stack, so the
material on the flour screen contains coarse middlings. Usually, the number
of flour sieves is limited and the break flour is high in moisture content and
sticky, making it difficult to sift. The coarse middlings mixed in the flour
disperse the flour particles and improve the sieving action. This practice
often is used in soft wheat milling, where the flour is difficult to sift.
Fig. 6-20. First-break sieve stacking diagram. B = full-cloth press top, N = no-
hand sieve, TO = tail-out sieve, L = left-hand sieve, R = right-hand sieve, SS =
stainless steel, NX = Nitex (nylon) cloth, TMS = tinned mill screen wire. (Cour-
tesy of Great Western Manufacturing Co., Inc.)
SIEVING 247
Most millers prefer to remove the coarse fraction at the top of the stack
when sifting material from the break rolls and also in the reduction system.
A cleaner stock on the flour screen reduces the chances of bran contamina-
tion in the flour by bare bolting or small leaks. However, if the stock is rela-
tively clean and hard to sift, it is an advantage to remove the coarse material
last, which is done in many flows.
More screen surface can be provided by using full-cloth sieves, as shown in
Figure 6-21. This is done in many flows to increase the sifting area. When using
full-cloth sieves, the throughs of the sieve are directed to the outside channel
Fig. 6-21. Full-cloth sieve stacking diagram for second middling stock. B = full-
cloth press top, L = left-hand sieve, R = right-hand sieve, SS = stainless steel,
NX = Nitex (nylon) cloth. (Courtesy of Great Western Manufacturing Co., Inc.)
248 CHAPTER 6
between the sieve frame and the box. As a result, the use of full-cloth sieves usu-
ally is limited to the top or bottom of the stack because the outside channel is
blocked by the full-cloth flow.
Sifters that are heavily loaded can be flowed with the flow of stock split
to separate sieves by directing the overs of the top sieve to both the next
sieve and the side channel to the sieves lower in the stack, as shown in Fig-
ure 6-22. The load of material on the No. 2 sieve and the amount of stock
passing to the No. 11 sieve are divided equally to reduce the load on the
screens. The advantage is that the sieves can have less depth, and therefore,
Fig. 6-22. Double-discharge sieve stacking diagram for break grader. B = full-
cloth press top, DT = double-throat sieve, N = no-hand sieve, TO = tail-out sieve,
L = left-hand sieve, R = right-hand sieve, SS = stainless steel, NX = Nitex (nylon)
cloth. (Courtesy of Great Western Manufacturing Co., Inc.)
SIEVING 249
more sieves are used in the section to increase the sifting area. The
disadvantage is that sometimes the load is not divided equally because of
the direction of flow of the material as it flows on the top sieve. It may be
necessary to split the load before the sifter to properly load sieves No. 1 and
No. 11. Valves to divide the flow of stock are not always accurate, and most
millers prefer to avoid them.
Some mills use a compact flow arrangement that combines processing
steps; for example, grinding first and second breaks on a two-high (four
pairs of rolls) roller mill. This changes the granulation distribution of the
stock to the sifter. Figure 6-23 shows a suggested stacking diagram for sift-
Fig. 6-23. 1-2 Break sieve stacking diagram. (Courtesy of Great Western Manu-
facturing Co., Inc.)
250 CHAPTER 6
Fig. 6-24. Vertical split sieve stacking diagram for fifth and sixth middling stocks.
C = standard press top, NT = no-throat sieve, TO = tail-out sieve, L = left-hand
sieve, R = right-hand sieve, NX = Nitex (nylon) cloth. (Courtesy of Great Western
Manufacturing Co., Inc.)
ing the ground stock. Note that full-cloth sieves are used for all the separa-
tions to obtain the maximum sifter area for the separations.
The sifter box can be divided to sift small loads. The sieve frames can
be divided for a vertical flow, as shown in Figure 6-24. This method is not
preferred because it requires special sieve frames that are dedicated to one
operation. The preferred arrangement is to divide the sifter section into two
sections horizontally, as shown in Figure 6-25.
SIEVING 251
Fig. 6-25. Horizontal split sieve stacking diagram for fifth and sixth middling
stocks. (Courtesy of Great Western Manufacturing Co., Inc.)
Granulation Control
The granulation of a material is the measurement of the particle size
distribution of the material. The granulation curve for a typical breaking
process is shown in Figure 6-26. It is measured by a test sifter and either is
expressed as the percentage of the sample that passes though a set of sieves
or presented in the form of a curve. The cumulative percent distribution is
shown on the vertical axis, and the particle size, expressed in microns or by
252 CHAPTER 6
sieve number size, is shown on the horizontal axis. The percentages can be
generated by weighing the separations from the sifter section for a short
time. In fact, this method is especially useful for determining the distribu-
tion of stock from the sifter.
Determination of the granulation of flour is discussed in Chapter 9.
Many factors affect the control of granulation in flour milling. As
mentioned earlier, the principles of sieving, as well as other factors, affect
the results. The main factor in granulation control is the aperture size of the
screen. This should be checked with a mesh counter to make sure that the
correct size screen is used, because sometimes the identifying number is
worn off the cloth. The number of threads per centimeter (or inch) can be
counted with a scaled magnifying glass or a Maschenzähler (mesh counter)
Fig. 6-26. Granulation curves of a flour mill breaking process. XX = Swiss silk,
GG = grits gauze, LW = light wire, W = wire, BK = break.
SIEVING 253
chart developed by Haltmeier (1964). The lines on the chart converge with
the mesh of the cloth and the mesh count can be determined in a few
seconds.
A test sifter is used to check the separations from the sifter to determine
the granulation of a sample. The granulation of the stock going to the sifter
can be compared with the amount of material in the sifter separations. This
indicates the sifting efficiency, which is the degree of sharpness of the
separation. In a continuous-flow operation, sieving time is critical to
obtaining sharp separations. Figure 6-27 shows the rate at which stock sifts
through sieves. The percentage of sifting surface is related to the number of
sieves allocated for the separations. If there is a problem with the efficiency
of the separation, it usually is because the number of sieves for the
operation is limited; however, the miller can adjust the aperture of the
screen to partially correct the problem.
It is common practice for the miller to adjust the mesh count (number) in a
sieving separation by installing sieves of slightly larger aperture size in the top
sieves where there is a heavy load and of smaller aperture in the bottom sieves
to prevent oversized particles and bran pieces from passing through. The
theory is that there are more fines on the top of the stack at the sieve surface
because of stratification, and the aperture can be larger to obtain passage of a
greater quantity of material through the sieve. Conversely, there are fewer
particles of the smaller size to pass through the aperture at the bottom of the
stack, and the smaller aperture prevents bare bolting, or the forcing of larger
particles through the aperture. Some millers use graduated apertures in all
separations, including those for flour separations.
Fig. 6-27. Rate at which stock sifts through sieves. (Courtesy of Great Western
Manufacturing Co., Inc.)
254 CHAPTER 6
The use of a large amount of sieve surface to remove flour from the
ground material can cause bare bolting problems. After the flour is
removed, further sieving permits larger particles and bran to pass through
the aperture, causing specky flour with oversized particles. It is better to
have a small amount of flour (no more than 5%) in the middlings stock that
is returned to the next reduction step than no flour at all. Oversieving also
can occur if the sieve surface has too large an area, which causes the stock
to be spread too thinly. This prevents stratification of the material on the
screen and causes bare bolting. Therefore, a small-capacity mill should use
a small sieve or split sieve sections to minimize this problem.
Reverse bolting is a technique to ensure granulation control by sieving
the flour from fine to coarse. This is done by determining the granulation of
the flour in the stock to the sifter and placing the sieves with small apertures
at the top of the stack, thus removing the fine flour at the top. This prevents
the oversized particles from passing through the aperture at the top of the
stack. The amount of screen surface and aperture of the subsequent sieves
are determined from the flour granulation curve. The apertures gradually
become larger and the screen surface smaller as the stock progresses down
the stack. This reduces the amount of screen surface having a larger
aperture at the bottom of the stack to make a close separation of the flour
from the middlings. Other advantages of this method are that it requires
only the change of one or two sieves at the bottom of the stack to change
the sieving for different wheat mixes or crop changes, and it avoids the
possibility of bare bolting.
Flour Rebolting
The final sieving operation in the flour mill is the rebolting of the fin-
ished flour. The total flour is collected from a large number of sifter sec-
tions, and these screens wear and develop leaks that contaminate the flour
with oversized particles and bran specks. Usually, the finished flour grades
are rebolted separately because there are differences in the granulations of
the flour streams. For example, patent flour consists mainly of the head-end
(low-ash) sifter streams, which have a coarser granulation than high-ash
clear flour. The rebolter sieves the flour through an aperture slightly larger
than the desired flour particle size; therefore, most of the material passes
through the screen. The sifter screens should be chosen so that some
material passes over the last sieve to prevent specky, oversized material
from bare bolting into the flour. A typical rebolter sifter section is shown in
Figure 6-28. Note the depth of the sieves and double discharge of the
throughs needed to handle the large volume of sifted material that passes
through the screen.
SIEVING 255
Fig. 6-28. Rebolt sieve stacking diagram. B = full-cloth press top, N = no-hand
sieve, DT = double-throat sieve, SS = stainless steel, NX = Nitex (nylon) cloth.
(Courtesy of Great Western Manufacturing Co., Inc.)
Future Sieving Developments

In the mill, gyrating sifters have become larger, with more sections or
boxes in the drive frame to save space and reduce cost. The largest sifter at
the present time has 10 sections, which is believed to be the economic limit
in size. For example, a larger unit would cost more in new drives and struc-
tural support than two smaller units. The sifter capacity can be increased by
auxiliary sieving machines such as scalping sifters, to remove the bulky
fraction in the breaks, and dust reel separators, to remove flour in the reduc-
256 CHAPTER 6
tions. The practice of combining the first and second breaks in one sifting
operation saves sifter surface. The same is true for combining first and sec-
ond reductions. The quality levels of these stock combinations are similar to
each other, which does not greatly compromise the flow diagram. Mills
have been designed to sift combinations of roll stocks that are similar in
quality. The advantages of these diagrams are that they use less sieve
surface and save energy. The disadvantages are that the flow is not flexible;
efficiency in operation or adjustments to the system is limited; and quality
and extraction can suffer.
It may be possible to separate and remove flour in the pneumatic lift
collectors to save space and sifters. The Roncaglia Milling System used this
idea in the pneumatic lifts. The system worked in small mills but had limita-
tions in larger mills. The separation of coarse material in the collectors
would save even more sifter surface. Air classifiers and electrostatic separa-
tors for use in the milling process have proven to be expensive. The present
sifters are considered inefficient because, often, the first two or three sieves
separate most of the fraction while the remaining sieves remove very little.
Future improvements in sifting efficiency may come from a better under-
standing of the sieving process. It may be necessary to divide the material
into smaller streams and change the flow configuration of the sieves to
improve sieving efficiency.
REFERENCE CITED
Haltmeier, O. 1964. Maschenzähler für Mehlgaze. Verlag Die Mühle, Detmold,

Germany.
SUGGESTED READING
A.O.M. Correspondence Course. Unit 3, Lesson 6. Association of Operative Millers,

Leawood, KS.
Baltensperger, W. 2001. State of the art of grain milling technology. Assoc. Oper.
Curran, S. 1994. The effect of cloth tension on sifting performance. Assoc. Oper.
Millers Tech. Bull., May, p. 6379.
Dedrick, B. 1924. Practical Milling. National Miller, Chicago, IL.
Eustace, W., Niernberger, F., and Ward., A. 1976. Economic models of flour mills.
Great Western Manufacturing Co. 1992. Sieves, Screens, Sifters. Great Western
Manufacturing Co., Leavenworth, KS.
Herodek, S. 1957. Balance of flour mills. Am. Miller Process. Oct., p. 64.
Jordan, S. 1996. Sifting material technology: Comparison and applications. Assoc.
Oper. Millers Tech. Bull., Mar., p. 6693.
Just, F. 1958. Operation of modern plansifters. Miag News Special Edition, Milling
Techniques in Modern Mills. Miag, Braunsweig, Germany.
SIEVING 257
Keller, Alois. 2000. New developments in plansifter design. World Grain, Sept.
Online: www.world-grain.com/ (Search article archives.)
Kuprits, Y. 1967. Technology of Grain Processing and Provender Milling. U.S. Dep.
Agric. and National Science Foundation, Washington, DC. (Translated by the
Israel Program for Scientific Translations)
Mason, W. 1991. Uncommon Conglomerates, Inc.’s technique of recovering the
demountable tray sieves. Assoc. Oper. Millers Tech. Bull., Feb., p. 5642.
Neel, D., and Hoseney, R. C. 1984. Sieving characteristics of soft and hard wheat
flours. Cereal Chem. 61:259-266.
Renaud, A. 1954. Static Electricity and Bolting. Tripette Renaud Manufacturing
Company, Paris.
Ricklefs, R. 2002. New NOVA sieve applications and equipment. Assoc. Oper. Mill-
ers Tech Bull., Aug., p. 7825.
Schroeder, J. 2000. The evolution of sifting media and its effect on sifter perfor-
mance and sieve frame design. Assoc. Oper. Millers Tech. Bull., May, p. 7451.
Scott, J. H. 1951. Flour Milling Process. Chapman and Hall Ltd., London.
Smith, L. 1948. Flour Milling Technology. Northern Publishing Co., Ltd.,
Liverpool, England.
Szasz, N. 1960. Method and apparatus for milling flour. U.S. patent 2,947,484.
Tesarek, G. 1956. Sifting and sifters. Assoc. Oper. Millers Tech. Bull., Nov., p.
2286.
Tkac, J. X. 1982. Reverse clothing. Unpublished data of sieving studies at Robin
Hood Mills Ltd., Port Colborne, Ontario, Canada.
Wichser, F. 1947. Relationship of the physical properties of wheat flour to granula-
tion. Cereal Chem. 24:381-393.
Wingfield, J. 1989. Dictionary of Milling Terms and Equipment. Association of
Operative Millers, Leawood, KS.
Wingfield, J., and Ferrer, A. 1948. Multiple sieve sifter performance using various
combinations of feed rates, circles and speeds. J. Food Process Eng. 7(2):91-110.
Wolters, P. 1971. Sifters and sieve frames. Assoc. Oper. Millers Tech. Bull., Feb., p.
3220.
Sifters
Great Western Manufacturing: www.gwmfg.com
Buhler: www.buhlergroup.com/vu/bmin/en/default.asp
Kice: www. kice.com or www.gbsgroupspa.com
Media screens: www.sefaramerica.com
CHAPTER 7
The Purification Process
In a general sense, purification is a term applicable to almost every

process in the milling system. Purification is any process that separates bran
particles and germ from endosperm. In particular, it is the gradual reduction
of middlings to reduce endosperm and flatten the germ and bran particles so
that they can be removed in the sifter. The residual tailing systems also
separate bran particles from endosperm by reduction of the endosperm and
sieving to remove the flattened bran. This chapter explains the process to
remove bran from middlings that are produced in the break system.
Although the objective of the break system is to remove the endosperm
from the bran without breaking the bran into small particles, some shatter-
ing of the bran occurs and results in a mixture of endosperm and bran in the
released middlings. The purpose of the purifier is to separate the middlings
into three fractions: pure endosperm, a mixture of endosperm with attached
bran, and bran particles. The purifier also grades the endosperm into parti-
cle size ranges, which can be more efficiently ground separately in the
reduction system. The clean separations from the purifier are sent to the
head end of the reduction system and the branny materials to the tailings
recovery system.
Purifiers can remove bran fiber and classify middlings by size and
purity for the reduction system. This is not possible with sifters alone.
Purifiers are versatile and, because they make the mill flow diagram more
flexible, are excellent tools for maintaining mill balance. The miller can
change the flaps on the collection trays below the sieves to direct the mid-
dlings to reduction rolls. Purifiers aid greatly in the production of patent
flour with low ash and good color. They are essential in producing granular
products, like farina and semolina.
However, in recent years, the role of purifiers in the mill flow diagram
has diminished as millers have evaluated their cost effectiveness. The trend
has been toward higher ash in bakers’ flour grades and less demand for low-
259
260 CHAPTER 7
ash patent flour, which decreases the need for extensive purification.
Purifiers require considerable air to operate. When purifiers are used in the
reduction and tailings systems, the air dries the material, which increases
bran breakage, thus increasing the ash content of the flour. Although in
mills that control the relative humidity such drying is minimized (see Chap-
ters 10 and 12), modern flow diagrams have eliminated the use of purifiers
in the reduction and tailings system. However, the moisture content is high
in the break system middlings, and purifiers can be used to clean the
middlings with little loss of moisture. Purifiers are used to clean the mid-
dlings from the break system in the flow diagram today. The skill of the
operator plays an important part in the successful operation of purifiers, and
with fewer personnel in the mills, monitoring and proper adjustment of the
purifiers is difficult. Poor milling results often are caused by purifiers that
are out of adjustment.
Principles of Purification
A modern purifier is shown in Figure 7-1 and the cross and longitudinal
sections in Figure 7-2. The purifier consists of a reciprocating sieve
enclosed in an airtight container with controlled air currents passing
through the screen to remove and float less-dense material to the tail of the
screen, while the denser middlings pass through the screen aperture. In
some new designs, the two parts of the machine are separated, allowing
observation at both sides of each section. The middlings enter at the head
Fig. 7-1. A purifier. (Courtesy of Buhler Inc.)

PURIFICATION 261
and are conveyed on the screen to the tail. The screen aperture is graduated
from fine at the head to coarse at the tail. A current of air is drawn up
through the screen to aspirate the material. The clean middlings are
collected at the head and the branny middlings at the tail of the purifier; the
material removed by aspiration contains fine particles of endosperm and
fiber.
A self-adjusting feeder distributes the entering feedstock across the
width of the sieve. The feeder also can be operated in a fixed position
when multiple sections are used. The motion of the sieve can be
controlled by sieve hangers to vary the inclination and the lift of the
stroke for different types of stock. Modern purifiers are driven by vibra-
tory motors or eccentric drives to oscillate the complete sieve and
collecting trays. The latest model (Marriott, 2000) oscillates the complete
machine (including the feed gate, sieve deck, aspiration hood, and semo-
lina collection trays) as one assembly, which is self cleaning and provides
improved sanitation. Each sieve deck is separately adjustable and capable
of treating two distinct stocks. Free-flowing middlings require less pitch
than more fibrous stocks. The tail discharge section has baffles to restrict
air entry and a flap arrangement to direct the stock to alternate flow
destinations. The middlings that fall through the screen are collected in
conveying troughs to maintain granulation segregation to the next
processing step.
Fig. 7-2. Sectional view of modern purifier. (Courtesy of Buhler Inc.)

262 CHAPTER 7
The factors affecting purification are 1) the dimensions of the particles

(i.e., size and shape) and 2) the specific gravity of the particles (i.e., resis-
tance to airflow). These two properties of the particles work together. Pure
endosperm middlings are directed through the screen aperture by the force
of gravity. On the other hand, the force of the upward air currents through
the screens, if the velocity is controlled properly, stratifies the relatively
equal-in-size stock to layers of quality. Lighter particles containing bran are
raised, while pure endosperm particles descend to the screen level.
Particle Dimensions
The particle size distribution of the materials to the purifier must be in a
rather narrow range, usually a 10-to-12 difference in mesh count for coarse
stocks and a difference of up to 30 for fine stocks. The break sifters often
lack a sufficient number of sieves in the sections to achieve good classifi-
cation of the middlings for the purifiers. Having a separate sifter section to
grade the middlings and obtain accurate size separations for the purifiers is
a good practice.
The aperture of the screen cover must be sized to allow the passage of
middlings through the screen from head to tail and, at the same time,
maintain a cover of material on the screen for uniform airflow through
the screen. If the aperture is too large at the head, branny middlings pass
through without being cleaned with aspiration. A large aperture at the tail
causes a bare screen with air turbulence and passage through the screen of
branny middlings that should be discharged at the tail. Therefore, the
purifier requires careful selection of screen mesh size because variations
in the amount of airflow (“floating effect”) and capacity (“load effect”)
affect the required mesh size. As a result of these factors, the best screen
selection is achieved after the initial setup, based on experience using trial
and error. This involves installing a set of screens, adjusting the airflow,
and observing the results. The procedure is repeated until the desired
results are obtained.
Particle shape also affects the work of the purifier. Spherical particles,
often called “sharp middlings,” are pieces of endosperm with less attached
bran fiber than flat middlings, and they offer less resistance to falling
through the aperture and to the floating effect of the air currents than flat
middlings do. The flat middlings usually have adhering bran fiber that
increases their air resistance and slows their fall through the aperture. The
purifier capacity is greater for sharp middlings because they move more
rapidly on the screen surface than the flat middlings.
The movement of the screen is an essential factor in the work of the
purifier. The sieve frame must be level from side to side to ensure uniform
distribution of the material on the screen. The frame also is pitched down a
PURIFICATION 263
small degree to facilitate the flow of material to the tail of the purifier. The
pitch can be varied to obtain the optimum movement of different stocks.
Granular middlings flow faster than small, fibrous middlings, which usually
require more sieve pitch. The reciprocating movement of the sieve, from
head to tail, tends to lift the particles on the top of the stroke and move them
downstream, whereas the return stroke moves the screen toward the head in
the low position to avoid contacting the particles and impeding their down-
stream movement. The length and frequency of the stroke must be coor-
dinated to achieve the proper movement of the material over the screen.
This is done by a rotating eccentric cam or a vibratory motor drive. Most
modern purifiers now use the vibratory motor drive because it produces a
circular motion without the jerking action of the eccentric cam, resulting in
a smoother flow of material on the sieve. The individual vibratory drives are
simple and clean, with no belts or drive shafts.
The screen must be tight, to prevent sagging, which disturbs the flow
of material and causes bunching or choking. The apertures of a screen
tightly stretched (see Chapter 6) to a tension of 4 N/cm2 are less likely to
clog with middlings than those of a looser screen. The screen usually is
cleaned with a self-powered brush that travels back and forth over the
length of the sieve on support rods below the screen, driven by the
reciprocating action of the sieve. Older purifiers often use a brush the
length of the sieve that travels across the width of the sieve by mechanical
means, such as a screw or a chain drive. Sometimes, rubber ball cleaners
on a carrier wire below the screen are used, especially for wire screens. A
rather hard reciprocating action is required to impart sufficient force to
the ball to clean the screen.
Particle Specific Gravity

The resistance of the particles to airflow causes particles of lower den-
sity and flatter shape to float over the aperture of the screen and toward the
tail of the purifier. Some of the lighter particles are lifted and carried away
by the air. The specific weight of endosperm particles ranges from 1.44 to
1.47 g/cm3, that of the bran particles from 1.37 to 1.39 g/cm3, and that of
endosperm particles with adhering bran from 1.39 to 1.43 g/cm3 in 66%
vitreous wheat (Kuprits, 1967). The differences in specific weight are 0.075
g/cm3 between endosperm and bran particles and 0.045 g/cm3 between
endosperm particles and endosperm particles with attached bran. The latter
difference in specific weight is small, but the bran and endosperm with
adhering bran have a geometrical shape that is more irregular and flatter
than that of the endosperm, which is more spherical. Thus, the bran and
endosperm with adhering bran present greater surface area to the lift of the
air currents, which aids separation in the purifier.
264 CHAPTER 7
When the screen is in motion, the particles on the screen are suspended
above the mesh on the tail-to-head portion of the stroke, which allows the
air to pass through the aperture and force the particles upward and to the tail
of the screen on the return stroke. The differences in specific weight, shape
of the particles, and ascending air currents accelerate the stratification of the
particles on the screen. Particles with lower specific weight and flatter shape
float on top of the layer of material on the sieve and are carried downstream
until the aperture is large enough to allow them to pass through it or until
they go over the tail of the screen.
Airflow is caused by differences in air pressure, which is adjusted for
each chamber with valves. The chamber is sealed by a flexible fabric
attached to the sieve frame support at the sides and to baffles at the ends
to restrict the air flowing to the screen. Uniform airflow is important, and
the resistance of the material on the sieve to airflow depends on main-
taining an even distribution of material on the sieve. The function of the
feeder is to spread the material across the width of the sieve to maintain
the even distribution of material on the screen to the tail. The air velocity
should be adjusted to avoid bubbles or turbulence in the middlings,
because they break the floating effect and allow branny material to pass
through the screen. The air adjustment greatly affects the amount of
material tailing over the sieve and must be considered when choosing the
aperture of the screen.
When more than one purifier is connected to an air manifold serving
several machines, changes in air volume of one purifier affect the static
pressure and air volume of the others. This problem usually can be con-
trolled by using magnehelic pressure gauges in each purifier air duct to
maintain the desired airflow. If changes in the airflow are observed, the
miller can readjust the air where needed.
The air requirements depend on the purifier and the type of stock it
receives. Normal air requirements do not exceed 50 m3/min (1,800 ft3/min)
per machine, and some stocks require only about half this amount of air.
Single-deck purifiers and single-sieve machines use smaller quantities of
air, about 23–28 m3/min (800–1,000 ft3/min).
The Purifier Surface

The purifier surface can be expressed as the width of the sieve and the
total area of the sieves. The width of the sieve determines the depth of mate-
rial on the screen at the entry. This is the critical factor in determining the
capacity of the machine. Loads to purifiers of 1.5–2.1 mm/100 kg of wheat
per 24 hr (0.038 in./cwt of wheat per 24 hr) are recommended, depending
on the granulation and origin of the stock.
PURIFICATION 265
Some purifiers have a single sieve, but most are divided into two sieve
compartments, with each deck containing four removable sieves. The
purifier shown in Figure 7-2 contains three stacked decks of sieves. One- or
two-deck purifiers are also in use. The middlings are distributed on the
multiple decks by falling from the top deck to the decks below. The screen
apertures are selected for this purpose, coarse at the top and finer on the
bottom. The apertures are smaller at the head end and larger at the tail end
of each deck, which grades the middlings by size and reduces the load on
the screen at the tail end. Aspiration is important at the tail in removing and
floating the branny particles to the discharge. The multiple-deck purifier
can grade the middlings more accurately than a single-deck machine
because it has more sieve area, with the middlings distributed over two or
three decks. A slight capacity increase is possible with the multiple-deck
purifier, not in proportion to the sieve area, but as much as 20% greater than
that of a single-deck machine of equal width.
The amount of purifier surface used in the mill flow diagram depends
on the type of wheat milled and the finished products produced. Durum
semolina mills require the most purifier surface and soft wheat mills the
least. The finished product from a durum mill, semolina, is granular, and the
bran can be removed only by purifiers, not by grinding and sieving as in
soft and bread wheat flours. Many soft wheat mills use purifiers only on the
coarse middlings, to remove the germ and bran particles, or not at all.
Hard wheat mills usually use purifiers on the primary middlings from
the break and sizings systems. Additional purifiers are required for repurifi-
cation of middlings to produce farinas.
Durum mills have extensive purification on the breaks, repurification of
grader stock, and an extensive sizing purification system. The bran particles
interfere with the quality of pasta and this is why, in durum mills, purifiers
are important. In summary, the number of purification steps required is
approximately one for soft wheat, six for hard wheat, and 20 for durum (see
Chapter 10).
The Purifier and the Flow Balance

As pointed out above, the load to the purifier is critical to its operation.
The aperture of the sieve, the amount of air, and the distribution of the stock
on the screen depend on the amount and type of material fed to the purifier.
The purifier section, one-half of a machine, is 30–55 cm (11.8–21.6 in.) in
width. The optimum load to a 40-cm (15.7-in.) purifier section varies from
360 to 1,180 kg/hr (800 to 2,600 lb/hr) depending on the stock. If the load is
above this range, multiple sections are used; however, equal division of the
load is often a problem. The purifier feeder gate can operate with a fixed-gap
266 CHAPTER 7
setting or by demand free flow. The load can be fixed to flow on all the
sections except the overflow section, which is then free to fluctuate with the
change in volume of the stream. If there is much fluctuation in the load, it is
better to divide the feed with valves or feeders to the sections.
If the load is too small for the purifier section, stock may be returned to
the purifier to build up the load. The term “repeat” refers to the transfer of
middlings that have been through a purifier to the same or a subsequent
purifier for repurification. The quality of the repeated stock should be equal to
or better than that of the original feedstock for the purifier to work well, and
this often improves the operation. Repeats (DaCosta and Bencomo, 1995)
often are used in farina and semolina purifier flows. A system of recirculation
that includes grinding, sieving, and purifying is the recommended method to
control the operation. For example, a purifier may produce coarse middlings
that are not clean enough for product but are too coarse in granulation to send
to the next sizing step. This marginal material is repeated to the roll for sizing
reduction and sifting for granulation classification and then purified again on
the same coarse middlings purifier. There should be extra capacity in these
processing steps to handle the repeated material. The grinding objective is to
separate the bran particles attached to the endosperm, while making a
minimum of fines. This repeating technique keeps the load of good-quality
middlings at the head of the sizings system and improves the quality or purity
of the product to and from the purifier.
The purifier is a versatile machine that can be adjusted during operation
to vary both the quantity and quality of the stock to subsequent processing
steps. The purifier is the main machine used for manipulating mill flow,
changing the load of material to certain processing steps. The flow balance
of the mill is fixed in the break roll releases of material to the sifters and in
the fixed sifter flow. The miller grinds to suit the sifter separations, and the
flow of the sifter is set to suit the grinding. The grinding can be changed to
alter the flow balance, but that could make the sifter inefficient and, by the
change in granulation, affect the balance of material in the flow. Small
changes in flow are the best approach to increasing efficiency in the milling
system, and the purifier is well suited for this work. The amount of
middlings directed to the head reduction system can be varied by changing
a few flaps in the conveying trough, by changing the aperture size of a sieve
in the purifier deck, or by adjusting the airflow to recover more or less stock
from the purifier. Of course, the quality of the purifier separations must be
evaluated when making adjustments in the purifier. When improving the
quality of the primary middlings, the miller must be sure that the tail stock
from the purifier does not contain too much endosperm for the tailings
recovery system because this results in poor extraction of flour.
The work of the purifier is a key checkpoint for the miller in evaluating
the performance of the mill. Observations of purifier separations indicate
PURIFICATION 267
how the wheat mix is reacting to the grinding and sieving operations. In a
well-operated mill, these separations are displayed on a sample board for
observation by the operators, helping to keep the mill in balance and
indicating the milling efficiency of a wheat mix.
The Future of Purifiers

For the reasons stated at the beginning of this chapter, there will be
fewer purifiers in new mills. Some of the disadvantages are that they require
monitoring by the miller, have high capital and operating costs, and have
low capacity per unit of floor space. These are not desirable features for a
computer-controlled, compact mill requiring supervision by personnel only
during the day.
Purifiers will be used to clean granular products such as farinas and
semolinas. The bran particles interfere with the quality of pasta, which is
why purifiers are necessary in durum mills. Purifiers are well-suited to
grade middlings by size for better grinding on the rolls.
Other types of purifiers have been used that separate by specific
weight and air resistance and by electrostatic force. The Purograder, a
round, beehive-shaped machine, separates the bran and branny middlings
by a counterflow of air through a curtain of stock thrown in a trajectory
from the center of the machine to the outside circumference. The clean
middlings are thrown the longest distance, and the light branny middlings
are retarded or carried toward the center of the machine by air currents.
These machines are difficult to keep in adjustment and generally have
been discarded.
The electrostatic purifier, a single-sieve purifier fitted with electrically
charged plates above the screen to remove branny particles, was operated in
a flour mill. The electrostatic plates did not improve the operation of the
purifier enough to justify the cost, and the concept was not successful.
The use of debranning machines (see Chapters 5 and 13) to remove
approximately 10% of the bran ahead of the first break results in less bran
in the primary middlings and decreases the need for purifiers.
REFERENCES CITED
DaCosta, P., and Bencomo, I. 1995. Durum mill flow calculation using Lotus 123.
Kuprits, Y. 1967. Technology of Grain Processing and Provender Milling. U.S. Dep.
Agric. and the National Foundation, Washington, DC. (Translated from Russian
by the Israel Program for Scientific Translations)
Marriott P. 2000. Purifier type GMP. Assoc. Oper. Millers Tech. Bull., Feb., p.
7406.
268 CHAPTER 7
SUGGESTED READING
AOM. Correspondence Course. 1950. Unit 3, Lesson 4. Association of Operative

Millers, Leawood, KS.
AOM. 1956. Purifier report. Assoc. Oper. Millers Tech. Bull., Jan., p. 2221.
AOM. Technical committee proposed purifier test. 1957. Assoc. Oper. Millers Tech.
Bull., Apr., p. 2314.
Gehle, H. 1968. Milling without purifiers. Assoc. Oper. Millers Tech. Bull., Apr.,
p. 3034.
Kunz, E. 1969. The purifier study. Assoc. Oper. Millers Tech. Bull., Mar., p. 3088.
Lockwood, J. 1946. Flour Milling. Northern Publishing Co. Ltd., Liverpool, UK.
Orr, S. 1985. Purifiers and purification. Assoc. Oper. Millers Tech. Bull., Dec.,
p. 4625.
Panter, A. 1989. Purifiers and their proper use. Assoc. Oper. Millers Tech. Bull.,
Nov., p. 5575.
Scott, J. 1966. Flour milling trends. Milling, Feb., p. 134.
Smith, L. 1944. Flour Milling Technology. Northern Publishing Co. Ltd., Liverpool,
UK.
Stanger, E. 1956. Purifiers. Assoc. Oper. Millers Tech. Bull., Feb., p. 2228.
Buhler, Inc.: www.buhlergroup.com/vu/bmin/en/default.asp

GBS, Group spa Italy: www.gbsgroupspa.com
Satake USA, Inc.: www.satake-usa.com
Ocrim S.p.A.: www.ocrim.com
CHAPTER 8
Mill Design
Many factors are involved in designing a mill, and they are affected by
location, demand, accessibility, and the owner’s objectives. As with any
engineering project, construction of a modern plant involves many disci-
plines, from landscaping and architecture to milling technology and cus-
tomer needs. A flour mill construction project can be executed with a “turn-
key” approach, in which an engineering company is responsible for deliver-
ing a complete mill according to the specifications and price agreed upon
with the customer. Alternatively, some flour-milling companies, (e.g., multi-
unit flour milling companies with an engineering office or experienced flour
millers) could execute the project as the main or general contactor and have
all other activities performed by subcontractors. However, in recent years,
with mills reducing staff and engineering services, most of the major con-
struction projects are “turn key.”
This chapter addresses only some of the many aspects of mill design
and construction. The execution of a successful project is the result of many
other aspects that should be studied, evaluated, and implemented. To a large
extent, many of the issues discussed here also relate to mill modernization
or the expansion of existing milling units.
Modern mill design and construction, or any modernization project,
should be assigned to a group of people with the appropriate skills. This
team should include a miller, a sanitation expert, and a maintenance
expert, who should discuss and evaluate the design at the planning stages
as well as during the construction of the mill. Any time spent on
discussion, exchange of ideas, and even small changes during the project
will pay back greatly in the future. This chapter touches on some of the
issues that should be considered by the miller involved in such projects.
Exposure to publications along with visits to different construction sites
and new projects add to this team member’s professional knowledge and
benefit the project.
269
270 CHAPTER 8
Planning
Planning and designing a wheat-milling operation must include consid-
erations such as mill capacity; mill building size; storage facilities for wheat
and final products; and areas for packing, shipping, offices, laboratory, and
maintenance shop. The experienced miller also must ensure that the mill
design is operator friendly and meets all required business needs. Easy-to-
use computer-aided design (CAD) software is extremely valuable in helping
with the design of small projects, project changes, or even controlling and
supervising new project construction. The three primary issues that deter-
mine the feasibility of a flour-milling project are the total estimated cost,
the return on investment, and the overall construction completion date.
The optimal efficient size of a flour mill has changed with time, technol-
ogy, and associated economic factors. A mill size of 180 tonnes (t) per day
(3,000 hundredweight1 [cwt]) was considered a relatively efficient size in
the United States during the 1960s. In the 1990s, a mill of about 400 t/24 hr
(6,600–7,000 cwt) was considered a relatively efficient size. Tembo et al
(1999) suggested an economic engineering-based, mixed-integer program-
ming model to be used to determine the optimal number, size, and location
of flour mills. Many constraints can affect the location of a flour mill: wheat
supply, mill capacity, flour-shipping locations, cost of transporting wheat
and finished products, ratio of wheat storage to mill capacity, market for by-
products, and many other subjective conditions.
Land Requirements
Land requirements for a milling operation should allow for various con-
siderations, including methods for transporting raw materials, methods for
shipping finished products, warehousing, wheat and end-products storage
facilities, and the mill building size. Long-range land requirement planning
should include considerations for future capacity increases and other
demands dictated by the mill location.
Mill Building
Building the mill facilities requires detailed communications between
mill owner, mill engineering company, and building contactor engineers.
Green (1989) follows the steps of constructing a mill building. A successful
construction project requires that sufficiently detailed specifications be cre-
1 Hundredweight (used in the United States) expresses capacity in terms of flour and tonnage
(used in European and other countries) in terms of wheat. A factor of 0.0605 is used to
convert hundredweight of flour per 24 hr to tonne of wheat per 24 hr, generally based on
75% flour extraction.
MILL DESIGN 271
ated that define all agreements, project details, project management steps,
and construction follow-up steps.
Different approaches exist today for the construction of facilities for a
flour-milling operation. Factors such as height, energy efficiency, and ambi-
ent temperature and relative humidity affect decisions related to the
construction of flour-mill buildings. Total building size and land require-
ment for a new facility should be based on planned requirements and any
future visualized expansion.
Higher levels of automation and the use of material flow sensors to
respond to variations in the system allow for a reduction in the total space
of the facilities. As automation levels increase, less space is required for the
miller to access many locations in the process. Hopf (1952) detailed various
dimensions related to the different processes in the flour mill. Since 1952,
the size, shape, and efficiency of equipment has changed drastically, result-
ing in mills being constructed in smaller buildings. The Association of
Operative Millers (AOM Technical Committee, 1968) proposed that mill
facilities be approximately 16.29 m3/t (26.1 ft3/cwt) of wheat processed.
The four mill floors represent an area of 3.34 m2/t of wheat processed (1.63
ft2/cwt). A model developed by Eustace et al (1976) concerning the capital
required to build a flour mill showed total space requirements for the mill-
ing operations to be about 43.89 m3/t (70.3 ft3/cwt), 37.83 m3/t (60.6
ft3/cwt), and 36.92 m3/t (59.14 ft 3/cwt) for 180 t/24 hr (3,000 cwt), 300 t/24
hr (5,000 cwt), and 425 t/24 hr (7,000 cwt) mills, respectively. In a sug-
gested model for flour production costs, Schneider and Usset (2000) noted
minor reductions in mill building size and machinery layout during the 25
years since the 1976 proposals.
Sanitary design of machinery, adequate aspiration, and housekeeping
allow the actual processing space in the mill facility to be constructed with-
out partition walls. Solid concrete walls and floors are preferable from a
hygienic point of view. Joints between walls, floors, and ceilings should be
rounded or coved to allow for good housekeeping and to avoid harboring of
insects and dust. If steel beams and columns are used, they should be
smooth, painted, and left exposed. Hidden or covered steel structures have a
tendency to harbor insects and they accumulate dust.
Qualified construction companies with experience in mill-building con-
struction should be approached to bid for the project. They should have
experience and be able to provide service and parts after the mill is in
operation. The preparation of the bid is based on many details involving the
process, equipment, and objectives. All contractors should have the same
basic understanding of what the owner wants to accomplish and submit
proposals to cover all aspects of cost, timing, and scheduling. Rueckert
(1986) described the specific approach to the construction or renovation of
a building for a flour mill construction project and the steps to be taken
from finding a contractor to the completion of the project.
272 CHAPTER 8
Windows
The type and size of windows selected for new construction should be
based on mill location and ambient conditions. Considerations in window
selection and design should include the elimination of condensation, ease of
cleaning, control of insect entrance, and sealability for plant fumigation or
other insect-control methods. Properly designed window sizes also contrib-
ute toward significant energy savings. The effect of natural or artificial light
should be considered in the building design so that operators can see well.
Some modern mill buildings reduce or eliminate window area in favor
of explosion panels on the mill floors. Explosion panels, which are designed
to blow out in case of a dust explosion within the mill building, replace part
of the constructed wall on each floor. Windows also are more expensive,
require cleaning, usually have a larger heat loss, and have no real function
in the actual milling process.
Mill Lighting
Flour mills usually operate 24 hr a day, which causes fatigue and stress
for operators. Factors such as age of the employee and the tasks to be
performed during the shift also play a role in operator stress. One of the
major elements in the working space that can improve operator perfor-
mance is good lighting. Painting building surfaces white can enhance this
lighting. Good lighting allows mill employees to be more comfortable and
contributes to feelings of safety and security. Proper lighting also allows for
better equipment inspection, maintenance, and machine adjustment. “Lights-
out” mills (fully automated mills where operating personnel are on call 24
hr a day) are in special need of good lighting because routine tasks such as
adjusting technological processes, maintenance, fumigation, and house-
keeping are performed on a 24-hr basis. Design engineers responsible for
building construction should study the mill equipment and understand the
miller’s activities to make the workplace a safe and friendly space.
Illumination of a surface is the amount of light falling on it, measured
in lumens per square meter (i.e., lux) or by foot-candle (1 ft-c = 10.76 lx).
The type of lamps and their position should be studied carefully in the
design of a facility. Annual costs for lighting have been estimated at about
0.8% of an industrial plant’s operating cost per square foot per year
(General Electric, 1987). Table 8-1 shows luminance ranges for light
levels at various conditions, based on recommendations from the
Illuminating Engineering Society. Light fixtures should be dust-tight with
a smooth exterior. Unprotected lights should be avoided in mill facilities
because of the presence of flour and grain dust, which, in fine suspension,
could cause a dust explosion.
MILL DESIGN 273
TABLE 8-1
Recommendations Light Levelsa
Lux Maintained
Location on the Taskb
Indoors
Repairs 5–20
Loading platform 4
Mill floors 300
Warehouse 200
Corridors, passageways 100
Boiler house 150
Lifts 150
Outdoors
Storage yards 4
Parking areas 30–50
External covered ways 30
a
Adapted from IES (2000).
b
1 ft-c = 10.76 lx.
Adequate outside floodlighting for the facility should be designed and

installed to ensure the safety and security of employees and to discourage
trespassers. Outside lighting should provide adequate light at the lowest cost
for the following functions (Falk, 1987): safety—permits identification of
obstacles and other hazards and provides safe travel along walks and road-
ways; security—prevents theft, vandalism, and sabotage and limits potential
liability by discouraging access of unauthorized persons; utility—permits
employees to find their assigned tasks at loading docks and outdoor storage,
work, and staging areas; and convenience—permits employees to find their
vehicles in parking lots and read direction signs and building identification
designation. Many different types of light sources are in use today for
floodlighting. Common types include incandescent (including quartz or
tungsten halogen), fluorescent, and high-intensity discharge (including mer-
cury vapor, metal halide, high-pressure sodium, and low-pressure sodium).
Table 8-2 compares the characteristics and effects of some of the different
light sources. Low-pressure sodium lamps are the most efficient type when
color perception is unimportant. Fluorescent lamps are feasible for outdoor
lighting only in mild climates.
Central Vacuum-Cleaning System

The advantages of a central vacuum-cleaning system in a flour mill are
enormous. A vacuum system picks up material from places where no other
tool can. However, it should not be used to pick up large chokes and spills.
Central vacuum systems help eliminate attempts by employees to use com-
pressed air to clean areas that are difficult to access in the mill. Use of com-
pressed air can create a potential explosion hazard by putting dust particles
in suspension and should be used only when the mill is not in operation.
274 CHAPTER 8
TABLE 8-2
Characteristics of Common Industrial Light Sourcesa
System Light Output
(lm/W, including ballast losses)
Lamp Type/ Initial Rated Lamp
Energy Light Lifetime At End Life
Requirement Output Initial Mean of Life (hr)
b
LPS
18 100 60 59 56 18,000
35 137 80 77 75 18,000
55 145 100 95 93 18,000
90 150 108 94 102 18,000
135 167 126 110 102 18,000
180 183 150 144 142 18,000
HPSc
70 83 66 59 50 24,000
100 95 73 66 56 24,000
150 107 85 77 62 24,000
250 102 82 75 60 24,000
400 125 104 94 76 24,000
Metal halide
175 80 67 51 48 7,500
250 82 70 58 49 10,000
400 85 75 56 50 15,000
Fluorescentd
4 ft (430 mA)e 79 69 61 57 20,000
8 ft (800 mA) 82 72 63 56 12,000
8 ft (1,500 mA) 70 67 52 46 10,000
a
Adapted from Falk (1987).
b
Low-pressure sodium.
c
High-pressure sodium.
d
Cool white.
e
Milliampere.
Equipment Allocation and Placement

Machines in the mill require access for adjustment and maintenance,
such as working sieves or changing rolls, and access must be taken into
consideration by the mill designer. Pieces of equipment from different
manufacturers have different space requirements. The designer should be
familiar with all aspects of the specific equipment being used and under-
stand the space requirements for normal adjustment, maintenance, and
disassembly.
The locations of wheat cleaning and milling equipment in the building
should be designed to minimize conveying stages and use gravity flow
whenever possible. Each additional conveying stage requires power, creates
fine bran dust, and causes wheat kernel breakage or abrasion of intermedi-
ate materials throughout the milling process. Gravity flow of materials
allows significant savings of energy in the long run. Accordingly, during the
MILL DESIGN 275
TABLE 8-3
Density and Suggested Minimum Spout Slopes of Wheat and Mill Products
Density Slope
Material kg/m3 lb/ft3 (degrees)
Wheat 800 50 35
First break 450 28 45
Second break 400 25 45
Third and fourth breaks 310 19 50
Sizings 500 31 50
Middlings 420 26 55
Bran 290 18 60
Flour 550 35 60
Screenings and dust 500 31 65
mill design, the location of each machine is decided based on its ability to
allow gravity flow of materials. This factor should be evaluated against
the cost of the additional floors and height necessary to facilitate the best
gravity flow. Spouting is the connection of machines to maintain a flow
of products from one stage of the milling process to the next. Spouting
that is smooth and of adequate diameter allows uniform, steady, and
choke-free flow of materials. Table 8-3 shows proximate densities as well
as minimum spout angles for a range of mill intermediate and final
products.
A professional, experienced miller should take part in the discussion
and design of any new installation or modification by millwrights to assure
the prevention of any problems in material handling and sanitation in the
operating mill.
Power Usage
In many countries, the cost of power in flour manufacturing ranks sec-
ond to labor costs. Energy costs and economics are important factors that
must be considered—as important as production efficiency, manpower utili-
zation, patent flour extraction, and yield (Stanger, 1978). The total energy
consumed varies widely and depends on many factors such as mill capacity,
number of motors used, type of wheat, complexity of mill diagram, number
of machines and layout, wheat cleaning system, conveying equipment, the
capacity of wheat and flour storage systems, and, especially, the design and
size of the pneumatic conveying system.
In the past, mill machines were driven by belts from line shafts. In some
cases, one motor was used to run all the machines in the mill. The energy
efficiency was much higher then than it is currently, with individual motors
used for each machine and, in some cases, more then one motor for a single
machine. This change came about as automation of milling increased.
276 CHAPTER 8
The AOM Technical Committee (1968) suggested that the installed

motor horsepower (hp) requirements in the milling section be equivalent to
3.52 hp/t of wheat processed (0.16 hp/cwt). Mill location, especially at high
altitudes, affects pneumatic conveying and, as a result, overall power con-
sumption. Data indicate that, just for the milling operation, power consump-
tion could range from about 71 to 103 kW⋅h/t (3.24–4.67 kW⋅h/cwt). Som-
mer (1986) reported energy consumption in a milling operation that
included wheat receiving, wheat cleaning, milling, flour blending and ship-
ping, a small packaging system, and feed blending and shipping for a 150-
t/24-hr mill to be 70.15 kW⋅h/t during summer months and 72.08 kW⋅h/t
during winter months.
The Mill Flow Sheet

The mill flow sheet or mill diagram is the actual “road map” of the
equipment and the flow of intermediate and final materials within the
process. Designing the flow sheet and determining machine locations in
the mill is based on accumulated data, specifications calculated from the
data, and subjective decisions by the designer. Types of wheat, types of
flours to be produced, experience, and collected data from previous
operations are the basis for the flow sheet design. Table 8-4 shows the
number of grinding stages generally used for mills designed to mill
durum, hard, and soft wheats. The names of these stages in the flour mill
vary among mill engineering companies, countries, and professional liter-
ature sources. Generally accepted standardized symbols are used in flow
sheet drawings to represent various machines in the operation (Balding,
1985). To show the details of the grinding process with the mill flow
sheet, machines are represented by squares, circles, or other symbols
along with the flow of the materials from one machine to the other during
their progress through the mill. Machine specifications, sieve aperture,
and other important information related to the milling process also are
shown on the flow sheet. Material direction is represented as lines or
arrows indicating the direction of the flow.
Table 8-5 shows an example of typical machine specifications for mills
processing different classes of wheat. Engineering companies have devel-
oped flow sheets and machine loads based on their experience and data
from mills that they have built. The final flow sheet and machine specifica-
tions usually are approved by a miller who has experience in milling the
type of wheat required to meet bakers’ flour specifications. Today, little
material related to mill flow sheet analysis is found in the professional
literature. Willm (2003) studied a French 300-t/24-hr mill flow sheet and
suggested steps for its improvement.
MILL DESIGN 277
TABLE 8-4
Grinding Stages in Milling of Different Kinds of Wheat
Durum Hard Wheat Soft Wheat
Breaks 5–6 4–5 4–5
Sizings 5–8 3 0–1
Middlings 5 6 5
Low grades 3 1 1
Tailings 3 2 2
TABLE 8-5
Machine Specifications for Mills Processing Different Classes of Wheat
at Two Machine Load Levelsa
Load Level and Variable Durum Hard Soft
100 kg of wheat per 24 hr
Roll surface, mm 16–20 10–15 10–13
Sifter area, m2 0.086–0.093 0.055–0.081 0.083–0.088
Purifier width, mm 8–12 3–7 0–3
1 cwt of flour per 24 hr
Roll surface, in. 0.381–0.476 0.238–0.357 0.238–0.309
Sifter area, ft2 0.56–0.60 0.48–0.53 0.54–0.58
Purifier width, in. 0.106–0.159 0.04–0.093 0–0.04
a
Adapted from Bass (1998).
The inherent differences in the physical characteristics of wheat, such as

bran thickness or kernel hardness, require different processing flows for
optimum milling. In typical U.S. wheats, spring wheat has the thinnest bran,
and the brans of hard red winter and soft red winter wheats are progres-
sively thicker. The typical milling hardnesses of wheats in the United States,
from the hardest durum to the softest white wheat, all require different flow
sheets.
Weather conditions that influence milling should also be considered in
the design of the mill processing flow. For example, locations with high
humidity face problems of material sieving as well as irregularities in the
moisture content of the different stocks. Necessary adjustments need to be
made in the flow, and in spout angles and sieving surfaces, to counter these
effects. Temperatures between 24 and 27°C (75 and 80°F) and relative
humidity levels between 50 and 55% are ideal for wheat milling.
Steps in Mill Flow Sheet Design

To a large extent, the flow sheet design is a road map for all the numer-
ous intermediate materials generated in the milling process. Decisions
concerning where to direct these intermediate materials are based on the
individual characteristics of the material. The decisions are affected by
factors such as differences in particle size, the amount of pure endosperm or
278 CHAPTER 8
other constituents of the wheat kernel, and the amount of particles that are
still made up of different constituents, such as endosperm that is still
attached to bran.
The initial steps in designing a typical mill flow sheet are to estimate the
number and size of the machines to be used, based on specific data. For
example, if a specific roll surface is utilized, such as 14.5 mm/100 kg of
wheat per 24 hr (Table 8-5) for a 300-t/24-hr mill, the estimated total roll
surface can be calculated as 43,500 mm. At this point, other factors inter-
vene, such as the option to have all roll stands standardized with a roll
length of 1,000 mm. In this example, a compromise will probably be made,
and the total roll surface will be set at 44,000 or 42,000 mm, using 22 or 21
machines with 1,000-mm roll lengths. Due to mechanical improvements in
grinding rolls, such as roller bearings and higher roll speeds, the specific
roll surface is about 30% lower in many current new mill construction pro-
jects than it was in the second half of the twentieth century. The specific roll
surface in a recently constructed mill grinding French soft wheat was 7.6
mm/100 kg of wheat per 24 hr, while the specific sifter area was 0.057
m2/100 kg of wheat per 24 hr. In general, specific roll surface needs are
greater in smaller-capacity mills than in larger-capacity mills.
The same approach is used to calculate the total sifter surface area and
the total purifier width (see Chapters 6 and 7). The appropriate models of
sifters and purifiers are selected depending on the available machine sizes
manufactured by a particular engineering company. Here again, some
compromises generally are made in the selection of machines in order to
achieve some standardization. Table 8-6 shows an example of a set of
data describing machine sizes in a 600-t/24-hr (about 7,500-cwt/24-hr)
flour mill. The data shown in Table 8-6, for a long-extraction mill, were
found suitable for a location where a certain wheat mix was processed,
and should be used only as an example. In addition to the main equip-
ment, bran dusters for the tail-end breaks and impactors and detachers
after reduction rolls are incorporated into the flow to increase flour
extraction. The terms “long” and “short” mill flow sheet refer respect-
tively to the incorporation of more or less machine surface. The length of
the flow sheet determines the specific load level to the different machines
in the mill. The level of similarity of the materials flowing to each stage
and their respective physical characteristics, size, and shape also are
determined. Longer flows, with greater quantities of grinding and sifting
area, can classify the intermediate materials more specifically. This
allows the miller to handle each classification separately to maximize the
separation of bran and germ from the endosperm and to produce the
greatest amount of flour. Such a long flow gives greater flexibility and
produces higher extractions, usually with lower quantities of bran and
germ particles in the flours. Shorter flows utilize less equipment in the
MILL DESIGN 279
milling system, which reduces the miller’s ability to handle large varia-
tions in wheat quality while still producing optimum results.
The mill designer estimates the loads to different machines within the
mill based on data for different wheats and different mill capacities. Know-
ing the specific loads to the machines allows the designer to allocate roll
surface and sifter area for each classification in the mill. Estimated granula-
TABLE 8-6
Machine Allocation in a 600-ton/day Wheat Milla
Corruga- Purifier Sifter
Roll tions Spiral Width Area
b
Stream (mm) per cm (%) Action (cm) (m2)
First break 5,000 3.8 8 D:D 29.04
Second break 5,000 5.4 10 S:S 38.72
Third break
C 2,500 7.3 12 S:S 29.04
F 2,500 9.2 12 S:S 29.04
Fourth break
C 2,500 9.2 12 S:S 29.04
F 2,500 10.5 14 S:S 29.04
Fifth break
C 2,000 11.0 14 S:S 29.04
F 2,500 11.8 14 S:S 29.04
Div. 1 4.84
Div. 2 4.84
Div. 3 4.84
Div. R1 4.84
S-1, I 90
S-1, II 90
S-1, III 90
S-2 270
S-3 90
S-4 90
R1 4,000 19.36
R2 4,000 19.36
R3 2,000 9.68
R3/germ 1,000 4.84
R4 2,000 4.84
R5 1,000 4.84
M1 6,000 19.36
M2 6,000 9.68
M3 4,000 4.84
M4 4,000 4.84
M5 2,000 4.84
M6 2,000 4.84
M7 2,000 4.84
M8 2,000 4.84
M9 2,000 4.84
M10 2,000 4.84
DF 4.84
Flour 1 14.52
Flour 2 4.84
Total 70,500 720 329.12
a
All corrugation angles are 45°/65°.
b
C = coarse, F = fine, R = sizings, S = purifier, M = middlings, DF = filter material redresser.
280 CHAPTER 8
tion curves (see Fig. 6-26) for a specific mill flow sheet can give the
designer the ability to estimate stream quantity as a percentage of the total
wheat being ground. Subsequently, the estimated granulation curves could
be used for comparison during mill commissioning, the period of fine-
tuning the mill. Accurate information on the estimated loads to the different
machines and stock classifications in the mill are critical for designing the
pneumatic conveying system. Some adjustments may be necessary during
the actual commissioning of the mill, especially in the sifting and purifying
areas, to adjust for any specific local conditions. Changing of sieve aper-
tures and sieving area also can regulate the quantity of material flowing to a
certain machine.
Some important facts always should be considered when designing a
mill flow sheet. In general, the flow sheet of the mill is constructed on the
principle that no stock should be returned to the machine from which it
came or to any machine preceding it. The distribution table (see Fig. 13-3)
can be used for the final analysis of this principle. However, in durum mill-
ing flows, materials sometimes are returned to purifiers to be repurified or
to aid in keeping a proper load on a particular purifier. The objective is to
produce maximum amounts of good middlings on the head of the mill and
then reduce them into flour in as few steps as possible. Some flows require
ample redusting, or resifting, area in a mill to remove all the flour and effi-
ciently separate the materials into specific particle size ranges before feed-
ing them to purifiers.
Many new installation or mill-remodeling projects use double-high rolls
for some or, in some cases, for all of the milling stages (see Chapter 5).
Using double-high rolls requires some adjustments with respect to the spe-
cific machine surface. Based on experience, the lower pair of rolls in such a
machine should be considered, in determination of specific machine
surface, to be 0.75 of their actual length. This is because regrinding material
made up of significantly different particle sizes and quality is less effective.
The effect of this reduced grinding efficiency is not significant in soft wheat
milling. However, in hard wheat milling, some adjustment of the load on
the mill may be necessary to achieve expected quality and extraction
performance. The double-high roller mills significantly reduce performance
in durum mills, especially where different types of durum wheat are
processed.
The miller must be familiar with the mill flow sheet, location of
machines, machine specifications, and qualities of the different mill streams
flowing from one stage to another. Experimental testing of materials and
adjustments allows the miller to visualize the proper action of each machine
and to operate the mill so that it will produce the best possible product from
each type of wheat.
MILL DESIGN 281
Combined (Swing) Mill Flow

The combined or swing mill flow approach is implemented in cases
where only one milling unit is available and economic requirements
demand the milling of different kinds of wheat. Alternate milling of soft
and hard wheat, hard wheat and durum wheat, or even wheat and rye on
the same unit sacrifices end-product extractions, capacity, and quality
compared with the milling of each kind of wheat on a specifically
designed system.
When operating a swing mill, the miller is required to go through a
procedure of careful mill readjustment when changing from one type of
wheat to the other. In addition, the mill might need to be shut down to
change the flow of some materials, change sieves, and make other milling
adjustments to minimize losses of quality or of milling efficiency.
The advantages and disadvantages of combined mills have been listed
(Anonymous, 2000). The advantages are mainly in mills with capacities that
range from 150 to 200 t of wheat per day (2,500–3,300 cwt/24 hr). The
combined mill is more flexible in supplying local market demands for
different kinds of flour and therefore gives the miller access to business that
otherwise would be lost. The disadvantages include the need for frequent
changes and equipment readjustment that may result in the loss of extrac-
tion and products of below-standard quality. Another disadvantage is the
need for additional bin capacity for exchange flour, wheat storage, wheat
tempering, and finished flour storage.
The combined hard and durum mill usually is more complicated than
the hard and soft wheat mill. Durum milling requires additional purification
steps and significantly more separation of intermediate materials by size
and quality, which requires a more elaborate flow. This usually requires an
additional section in the mill that is operated only for durum and contains
specialized equipment such as purifiers and sifters.
Bellera (Molinostar) Milling System

Some unique approaches to the milling process exist. One is the
Bellera milling system, which was developed by the Buhler Co. in
cooperation with General Mills, Inc. in the 1960s. Standardized units with
a capacity of 120 t/24 hr were assembled on a steel frame, with the
equipment stacked so that passages necessary for the milling process
were placed one below another in sequence. Wheat started at the top of
the mill and was processed as it flowed downward. Sifting occurred on
reciprocating rectangular sieves, called classifiers, that allowed good
segregation of the material. Conventional purifiers were not used in the
process. Each of the sifting stages followed a pair of rolls that fed the
282 CHAPTER 8
material directly to the sieve. Figure 8-1 (Szasz, 1966) shows an analysis
of the Bellera flow sheet and estimated percentages of material flowing to
each stage based on the wheat to the first break. Eggenberger (1961)
stated that space requirements for the milling system were about 14.6 m3/t
of wheat compared with a conventional U.S. mill of the same capacity,
which would require 20 m3/t. A significant reduction in energy consump-
tion, especially in pneumatic conveying, occurred; the Bellera mill
consumed about 3.8 kW⋅h/100 kg of wheat compared with 4.6 kW⋅h/100
kg in a conventional mill of the same capacity.
The primary advantages of the Bellera system were its portability and
the contractor’s ability to build a mill in a building without interior floors or
substantial structural strength. However, although some units of the Bellera
mill are still in use, the Bellera mill was not widely accepted in the industry
because of disadvantages similar to those of a short-flow mill (see below),
including limited flexibility of the flow diagram, limited flour grades, and
high maintenance.
Fig. 8-1. A Bellera unit analysis. (Adapted from Szasz, 1966)

MILL DESIGN 283
Compact Mill Flow

Different versions of compact, small-capacity mills have been used in
various places around the world. The designers and companies that produce
these milling units have stated various justifications. Koch (1964) promotes
the idea of short milling based on the introduction of high-performance
machinery of metal construction, pneumatic transport of materials, and indi-
vidually driven machines operating at higher-than-normal speeds. Compact
or short mills are designed with shorter roll surface and less sifting area.
The main advantage is relatively low-cost construction and the fact that
each mill is sold as a complete unit that includes the structure plus wheat
bins and finished-product bins. In many cases, the units can be pretested at
the manufacturing company. Such systems usually require only a large
warehouse-type space for installation. Kice (1999) stated that the Kice
“shortflow” milling unit of 240 t/24 hr (3,500 cwt) needs a space 13 m
wide, 13 m long, and 13 m high. Most of the compact mill versions are
fully automatic, with the process being controlled by programmable logic
controllers (PLC) and requiring minimal involvement of personnel. The
systems are modular and can be assembled side by side to increase flour-
milling capacity. It also is possible to have side-by-side modular units
where each is designed and adjusted to grind different kinds of wheat.
In the shortflow system, various grinding stages are not followed by
intermediate sifting. This reduces the number of pneumatic lifts and allows
energy saving. Curran (1993) stated that, in the shortflow milling system, 13
grinds with intermediate sifting are replaced by one flattening stage, four
grinding stages, and three sifting stages. Curran and Graef (1995) stressed the
advantages of lower levels of investment in facilities, shorter construction
time, and the operation of the shortflow mill with minimal operating per-
sonnel. The described shortflow mill, grinding 2.45 t/hr of a German wheat
mix, produced 72.5% flour no. 1, with an ash content of 0.56–0.58% (db), and
an additional 8% flour no. 2, with an ash content of 0.98–1.10% (db).
Another compact milling system is the Roncaglia system. This milling
system includes conventional grinding rolls, plus flour sieves that are inte-
grated into the pneumatic separating cyclones and could be installed on one
floor. The structure required for a 60-t/24-hr milling unit was stated
(Roncaglia Co., Modena, Italy, 1962) to be 498.7 m2 vs. 2,177 m2 and 2,913
m3 vs. 8,091 m3 for a Roncaglia milling system versus a conventional mill.
The compact mill produces a relatively small number of flour streams
compared with the streams from a conventional mill. This reduces the flexi-
bility to produce more than two final flours. In addition, variability in wheat
quality could cause a problem that needs significant professional involve-
ment in modification and adjustment. None of the compact milling systems
is suited for efficient durum milling to semolina because of the purification
requirements and the need to load purifiers properly.
284 CHAPTER 8
Debranned Wheat Milling System

The mill flow for grinding debranned wheat differs substantially from that
of a conventional mill (see Chapter 5). The milling method in the conventional
mill is to break open the kernel on the breaking passages and scrape off the
endosperm. In the debranned wheat milling system, the bran is removed from
the surface of the wheat kernel, exposing the endosperm. In this process, the
kernel crease still contains bran; therefore, the endosperm must be reduced in
such a way that the “crease structure” stays whole and is separated from the
endosperm. A lower differential and smaller spiral-on-the-roll corrugations
create relatively large amounts of sizings from debranned wheat. The first-
and second-break passages function more like sizing stages than like conven-
tional breaks. For this reason, this process has proved successful in durum
semolina mills, where the objective is high extraction of granular endosperm.
Milling of debranned hard and soft wheats has produced higher-
extraction flours of equal or better color than those of the conventional mill-
ing system. Higher ash content in the extracted flour has been attributed to
the colorless aleurone layer that is directed to the system’s flour streams.
This system also has a place in some operations with swing mills that mill
both semolina and hard wheat flour.
“Bob-Tail” or “Booster” Unit

A “bob-tail” or “booster” unit usually is constructed beside an existing
milling unit to increase the mill’s total production capacity. The system is
designed in parallel with an existing mill flow to increase the capacity of the
breaks and head-end reductions. The tail-end streams from this booster unit
converge with the main-unit streams to the different appropriate end stages in
the main unit. In general, the ends of the main-unit stages are usually
underloaded, which allows incorporation of the materials from the booster
unit. Flours from the added passages are blended with the flour from the main
milling unit. A short milling system of debranned wheat, as described above,
could be used as a booster unit.
Special-Purpose Mills
Stone Mills
Stone mills were the first means of grinding used by humans and still
are being used in many parts of the world because of taste and flavor prefer-
ence. Today, stone mills mainly are used for the production of whole-wheat
flours. However, in some countries, they are used ahead of sifting cylinders
MILL DESIGN 285
and produce coarse flour for local baking. A mill constructed relatively
recently in Egypt uses only stone mills and sifting cylinders. It has a capac-
ity of about 200 t/24 hr. The stone surface can be adapted to the type of
wheat and the granulation of products desired. The main types of dress (the
furrows on the stone surface) are the “quarter” dress and the circular, or
“sickle,” dress (Fig. 8-2). Modern stone mills from various manufacturers
range in diameter from 13.5 to 160 cm, and their capacity can range from
6.8 kg/hr (15 lb/hr) to 600 kg/hr (1,320 lb/hr). Stones are arranged in mills
in either vertical or horizontal position. Table 8-7 (Flechsig, 1955) shows
various data relating to stone mill diameter, the expected load of different
mill materials, and the related energy requirements. The mill capacity and
the fineness of ground materials vary depending on the stones’ diameter, the
revolutions per minute (rpm), and the horsepower of the motor furnished.
Ground material is sifted through various screens, generating relatively
coarse flour. Stone mills also are used in combination with conventional
rolls and sifters. Load, rpm, and gap cause a temperature rise in the ground
Fig. 8-2. Main types of grinding stone dress: A, “quarter” dress; B, “sickle” dress.
(Adapted from Howell and Keller, 1977)
TABLE 8-7
Stone Mills: Size, Load of Mill Materials, and Energy Requirementsa
Stone Diameter, mm
Material 900 1,000 1,250 1,400 1,600
Capacity, kg/hr
Coarse break 250–300 350–400 600–800 900–1,200 1,300–1,800
Fine break 150–250 200–350 400–600 600–900 800–1,300
Siz. and midds 170–230 220–300 450–500 650–800 900–1,200
Bran cleaning 150–200 220–280 400–500 600–750 800–1,100
Energy Requirements, hp
Coarse break 2.5–3.5 3.5–4.5 6–8 8–10 10–15
Fine break 3.5–4.5 4.5–6 8–10 10–13 15–20
Siz. and midds 2.5–3.5 3.5–4.5 6–8.5 8–11 12–18
Bran cleaning 2.5–3.5 3.5–4.5 6–8.5 8–11 12–18
a
Adapted from Flechsig (1955).
286 CHAPTER 8
material during stone milling, which can affect the baking quality of the
flour produced. Blechinger-Zahnweh (1996) studied the temperature rise
during stone milling of hard and soft wheats and determined that a rise in
meal temperature to 63°C reduced loaf volume by 15% compared with a
grinding temperature below 40°C.
Disc Mills
As the demand for whole-grain products has grown, stone mills, ham-
mer mills, and disc mills have been used to produce whole-grain flour. The
advantage of the disc mill is that shear forces reduce the grain with less heat
and energy than is possible with the stone and hammer mills; this saves
power and results in a cooler product.
Although the approach of the disc mills is similar to that of stone grind-
ing, the disc milling system was developed with an increased capability for
precise grinding and machine adjustability (see Chapter 5). Discs are
mounted in a vertical position with two circles of especially corrugated
segments on each disc. The 24 corrugated hard metal segments are attached
close to the periphery of each disc. The segments are placed at an angle on
the stationary disc and straight on to the surface of the rotating disc. The
material is fed through the center of the stationary disc and distributed by
the centrifugal force of the rotor (90 m/sec) to the corrugated periphery of
both discs. The material then is pulled into the grinding nip by the segments
on the stationary disc that are set at an angle. The distance between the
discs can be adjusted very accurately to a desired gap. Different kinds and
shapes of corrugations are available to accomplish the necessary grinding
effect. The corrugated segments also can be set on the stationary disc at
different angles to achieve the desired effect.
Various mills have been designed and constructed to grind wheat to flour
using disc mills. Most of the operations are for whole-meal or high-extraction
flours. Zwingelberg and Hoehendorf (2000) performed various tests with
different corrugations to optimize flour extraction and ash content from
Danish medium-hard wheat. The best results were attained with a gap
between the discs of 0.4 mm, with 4.1 corrugations per centimeter on each,
and segment angles on the stator of 2.5° and 12.5°. This arrangement resulted
in 82% total flour extraction with an ash of 0.89% (db). Figure 8-3 shows an
example of a flow sheet with a capacity of 150 t/24 hr (about 2,700 cwt,
providing 82% flour extraction) combining disc mills and a roller mill. The
equipment consists of six disc mills, one double-roll stand, and a sifter. The
corrugations on the discs as well on the roll stand (coarse and fine) were
selected to produce flour with a particle size of less than 200 µm.
To increase the capacity of existing milling units, disc mills may be used
parallel to the first-break roll, as well as on the first middlings, where the
MILL DESIGN 287
Fig. 8-3. Flow sheet of a 150-ton/day wheat mill using disc mills, producing 82%
flour extraction of 0.8% ash (dm). C = coarse, F = fine. (Adapted from
Zwingelberg and Hoehndorf, 2000)
endosperm is clean, with minimal bran contamination. In a system to pro-

duce flours with a reduced amount of bran, the disc mill may replace the
break rolls, and then smooth rolls are used to reduce the endosperm parti-
cles to flour. Conventional sifters are used to separate the ground material to
different size fractions. A disc mill positioned as the first break in a wheat
mill can handle about 1–2 t/hr.
Mills Integrated with Bakery or Pasta Plants

A significant economic advantage can result when small-capacity, com-
pact flour mills are installed in line with a finished-goods processing plant,
such as a bakery or a pasta plant. Significant savings can be generated
through the reduction in handling, transportation, and other expenses.
Another major advantage of an integrated plant is that it is possible to
288 CHAPTER 8
generate uniform-quality flour on a continuous basis because it is totally

dedicated to a single purpose.
The concept of an integrated plant that included a mill and a bakery was
described in the early 1960s (Anonymous, 1964). In recent years, the trend
was found to be advantageous in the construction of pasta plants.
Future Trends in Mill Construction

Future trends in equipment layout probably will result in mill concepts
different than the existing ones. Computer- and PLC-operated mills will
require minimal human intervention or actual machine observation. Accord-
ingly, machines of a particular kind may not be located on a specific floor
but may be distributed all over the building and positioned in the most
practical places. This trend could save on energy consumption in the trans-
port of intermediate materials as well as requiring less space per tonne of
wheat processed.
The ambient conditions in the wheat-cleaning and milling sections have
a major effect on the performance and results of a milling unit. Several mill
construction projects have been designed and executed with buildings of
slip-form construction. Milling facilities are being built with minimal num-
bers of windows and with building openings that include tunnels to collect
the air from the system and feed it back to various sections of the plant. The
circulating air temperature and humidity can be controlled and the air can
be washed before reentry into the mill space (see Chapter 12).
As consumers’ tastes change, meeting the demand for whole-grain and
specialty flours may require having smaller milling units to process differ-
ent grains and preserve their identity in the final product.
The nomenclature for the different stages in the milling process, as well
as the technical data, should be globalized. The capacity and performance
of mills also should be expressed on a common basis.
REFERENCES CITED
Anonymous. 1964. Die moderne Kombination Kleinmuehle und Baeckerei. Muehle

101:274-276.
Anonymous. 2000. Kombinierte Muehlen in der Praxis. Muehle Miscfutter
137:705-707.
Association of Operative Millers (AOM) Technical Committee. 1968. Mill Work-
shop. Association of Operative Millers, Kansas City, KS.
Balding, J. L. 1985. Feed mill process flow diagram. Pages 491-497 in: Feed Manu-
facturing Technology, III. R. R. McEllhiney, Ed. American Feed Industry
Association, Inc., Arlington, VA.
Bass, E. J. 1988. Wheat flour milling. Pages 1-68 in: Wheat: Chemistry and
Technology, 3rd ed. Vol. II. Y. Pomeranz, Ed. Am. Assoc. Cereal Chem., St. Paul,
MN.
MILL DESIGN 289
Blechinger-Zahnweh, M. 1996. Einfluss der Vermahlungstemperature in Haushalts-

Getreide Muehlen auf die Eigenschaften von Weizenvollkornmehl. Ph.D.
dissertation, Technical University, Muenchen, Germany.
Curran, S. P. 1993. Simplified method and apparatus for producing white flour from
wheat grain. U.S. patent 5,192,028.
Curran, S., and Graef, D. O. 1995. Eine moderne, unkonventionelle Vermahlung-
sanlage fuer Getreide. Getreide Mehl Brot 49:195-196.
Eggenberger, H. 1961. The new constructional types of the “Molinostar” compact
mill. Muehle 98:541.
Eustace, W. D., Niernberger, F. F., and Ward, A. B. 1976. Economic models of flour
mills. Part I—Capital requirements. Assoc. Oper. Millers Tech. Bull., Nov./Dec.,
pp. 3620-3696.
Falk, N. 1987. Selecting outdoor lighting. Plant Eng., Dec., pp. 42-44.
Flechsig, J. 1955. Fachkunde feur Mueller. Pub. Mortiz Schaefer, Detmold, Germany.
General Electric. 1987. Industrial Lighting. Lighting Application Bulletin, April.
General Electric Co., Cleveland, OH.
Green, L. G. 1989. Management of a construction project by the contractor and the
owner. Assoc. Oper. Millers Tech. Bull., Aug., pp. 5519-5527.
Hopf, L. 1952. Muehlentechnisches Praktikum II. Muehlenbau. Hugo Matthaes
Verlag, Stuugart, Germany.
Howell, C., and Keller, A. 1977. The Mill at Philipsburg Manor Upper Mills and a
Brief History of Milling. Sleepy Hollow Restorations, Tarrytown, NY.
IES. 2000. Illuminating Engineering Society of North America Lighting Handbook:
Reference and Application. M. S. Rea, Ed. Illuminating Engineering Society of
North America, New York.
Kice, T. 1999. History of Kice industry and new concepts of milling. Assoc. Oper.
Millers Tech. Bull., Sep., 7333-7337.
Koch, H. 1964. Muehlenplannung in Zeichen des MIAG-kurzdiagram, Muehle
101:715.
Rueckert, M. D. 1986. How to successfully manage your construction projects.
Assoc. Oper. Millers Tech. Bull., Jul., pp. 4773-4775.
Schneider, S. P., and Usset, E. C. 2000. Flour production costs at new and old
mills: Opportunities for capital improvements in existing facilities. Assoc.
Oper. Milers Tech. Bull., Sep./Oct./Nov., pp. 7527-7532, 7541-7544, 7555-
7560.
Sommer, R. 1986. Aspekte und Erfahrungen bei der Rekonstruktion und Kapazitaet-
serweiterung von Weizenmuehlen am Beispiel einer 150–t/d-Weizenmuehle.
Getreide Mehl Brot 2:41-46.
Stanger, E. A. 1978. The implication of power costs and related factors in
contemporary mill design. Assoc. Oper. Millers. Tech. Bull., Jul., pp. 3726-3729.
Szasz, N. 1966. Wheat milling without purifiers: General Mills’ process details
revealed. Am. Miller Process, June, pp. 6-7, 24.
Tembo, G., Holcomb, R. B., Kenkel, P., and Tilley, D. S. 1999. Using mixed-integer
programming to determine the potential for flour-milling industry expansion. J.
Food Distrib. Res., Nov., p. 12-21.
Willm, C. 2003. Studium eines franzoesischen Weizenmuehlen-Diagrammes.
Muehle Mischfutter 140:417-422.
Zwingelberg, H., and Hoehndorf, T. 2000. Die Disc-Muehle. Muehle Mischfutter
137:137-143.
290 CHAPTER 8
SUGGESTED READING
Dodd, T. 1991. Vertical integration of durum milling and pasta manufacturing.

Scott, J. 1951. Flour Milling Processes. Chapman and Hall Ltd., London.
CHAPTER 9
Flour Handling and Blending
The flour-handling system can be a very simple on-stream packing

operation; a simple load-out facility into bulk trucks and rail cars, with only
a surge storage bin to hold the flour stream from the mill between switches;
or an extensive storage and flour-blending system to ensure uniform quality
of the flour shipments and to treat the flour for special products. The flour-
blending department often has facilities for such treatments of the flour as
infestation control, enrichment and additives, flour stabilization, flour
drying, fine grinding, and air classification. The system can employ a
process computer for fully automatic operation of the flour blending, final
packing, invoicing, and loading for shipment to the customer.
The on-stream system requires that all the flour treatment and final
rebolt sifting be done in the mill. Special feeders (Fig. 9-1) are used to feed
very small amounts of ingredients and enrichments to the flour stream,
which is agitated at high speed in a nonmetal agitator (Fig. 9-2). There is no
room for mistakes, and coordination with transportation is critical. Uniform
wheat mixes and online quality control also are important. Variations in
flour quality that may occur from the wheat mix or the milling process are
passed on to the customer or are unloaded and rehandled at extra expense.
The advantages of the system are low capital costs and low operational
expenses.
Most modern mills have more extensive storage and flour-blending sys-
tems. They provide facilities for storing and blending flour to ensure uni-
form flour quality. Flour quality is analyzed as the flour goes into the stor-
age bins, and blending produces a flour of known quality characteristics
before shipment. Some mills manufacture basic flour grades for storage and
blend from these bins in the proper percentages to meet the flour specifica-
tions of the customer. This provides the maximum flexibility for producing
flour grades without mill adjustment, where length of run and other factors
could make it impossible to change the milling system for a short run of a
291
292 CHAPTER 9
Fig. 9-1. Ingredients feeder. (Courtesy of Elf Atochem North America, Inc.)
Fig. 9-2. Flour agitator. (Courtesy of Great Western Manufacturing Co., Inc.)
FLOUR HANDLING AND BLENDING 293
given grade of flour. It also improves milling efficiency by optimizing the

mill adjustments over a longer period.
Many mills also provide sufficient flour storage capacity to pack or
load on the day shift only in order to save labor costs and better control
the operation while the laboratory and management staff is present. This
operation can be expanded to include special treatment of the flour for
certain customers, such as flour drying, air classification, stabilization of
enzymatic action, and addition of ingredients. An extensive flour-
handling system adds to the cost of the operation, but it gives millers
more control of the final flour quality and, thus, provides better service to
the mill customers.
Flour Sieving
Flour always should be rebolted (resifted) before being transferred from
the production section to storage bins or packing. Sieve apertures of the
rebolting sifter in the mill generally are an issue of discussion among mill-
ers. In general, U.S. mills use sieves with an aperture of 135 µm. The ranges
of specific surface areas for rebolting sifters are for hard wheat flour about
0.164 m2/100 kg per hour (0.8 ft2/cwt per hour) and for soft wheat flour
about 0.328–0.410 m2/100 kg per hour (1.6–2.0 ft2/cwt per hour).
In different parts of the world, where flour is coarser, sieve apertures of
200–250 µm are used. Flour also should be sifted before delivery to custom-
ers. The usual load on a rebolt sifter before load-out to packing or shipping
is through 200- to 300-µm sieves at a load of 0.031 m2/100 kg per hour
(0.15 ft2/cwt per hour) for hard wheat flour and 0.061 m2/100 kg per hour
(0.3 ft2/cwt per hour) for soft wheat flour.
In-line sifters that are part of the pneumatic conveying system are effi-
cient for final flour sieving. Rotary-type sieves using impellers to force the
flour through the sieves are at least three times greater in capacity than con-
ventional sifters. Rotary-type sifters are not recommended as rebolters
because they break insects to fragments.
Impact Machines
Impact machines for insect destruction are used in the flour handling
system (see Chapter 5). Where impactors or infestation destroyers are used,
they should always be positioned following the sieves to prevent reduction
of insects to fragments that would pass through the flour sieves with the
flour. Fragments of live or dead insects, if allowed to enter the flour,
increase the fragment count (see Chapter 2).
294 CHAPTER 9
Flour Storage and Blending

A typical flour storage and blending operation is shown in Figure 9-3.
Pneumatic lines conveying the flour from the mill can be directed through
electronically activated valves to the appropriate bins according to quality.
Mills chill the positive pneumatic conveying air to reduce the flour tempera-
ture after milling and before storage; cooling reduces condensation on the
exposed inside surface of the bin.
Flour storage capacity in the mill is related to operational issues, regula-
tions, and economic feasibility. The number and capacity of flour bins
depends on the mill size, the number of flour types produced, and the
expected storage time after production. However, from the operational
viewpoint, more and larger flour storage bins, more flour conveyors and
Fig. 9-3. Flour blending system out of bins. 1 = Inline sterilators, 2 = samplers,
3 = flour storage and component bins, 4 = minor component bins, 5 = micro-
component bins, 6 = minor component scale, 7 = flour batch scale, 8 = micro-
component scale, 9 = batch mixer, 10 = control sifter, 11 = magnet, 12 = sampler,
13 = sample collector. (Courtesy of Buhler Inc.)
accurate feeders under each bin, and the ability to blend flour from any bin
with any other bin all add to the operators’ flexibility. The ability to send
flours or blends to different destinations at the same time that the mill
production is binned allows the mill operators flexibility in running the mill
and in producing different flour types. However, budget and space usually
require some compromises in flexibility. In countries where oxidizing and
bleaching chemicals are allowed in flour, these are blended in just before
direct shipment to customers. In countries where additives are not per-
mitted, flour is stored for up to 14 days so that natural aging can occur. The
natural aging of flour takes longer for “strong” flours, i.e., those with high
protein content and high-quality gluten (Ziegler, 1965). Accordingly, a mill
should have flour storage bins or space in a warehouse of sufficient capacity
to hold enough bagged flour to satisfy customer requirements. Hoisington
(1968) stated a general rule that flour storage in a mill should be about three
times the daily plant capacity. He suggested that a mill capacity of about
300 tons (t)/24 hr (5,000 cwt) requires a minimum flour storage capacity of
about 680–700 t (15,000 cwt). The bin capacity is a compromise between
the economy of large bin size and the need to segregate different types of
flour. Another criterion to be considered in bin size selection is the size of
the normal bulk shipment of flour. In comparison with a large mill, a family
flour mill needs a larger number of smaller bins.
The storage bins can be metal or concrete. The type of material depends
on cost, maintenance, length of useful life, and size of each bin. Special
attention must be given to a smooth surface on the inside of the bin walls
and properly shaped hoppers to provide good discharge of the product from
the bin. Flour bin outlets must be large enough to prevent arching. The hop-
pers should have a minimum slope angle of 75° on the side and sufficiently
low friction to allow the material to flow along them. The inside wall sur-
faces of concrete bins usually are coated with epoxy to give them a smooth
finish. Air-exhaust systems are necessary on top of the flour bins to prevent
flour dust from escaping (causing housekeeping problems) and condensa-
tion from forming on the interior walls. The exhaust system is engineered
so that flour bins that are not being filled are sealed to conserve the amount
of air required for the system.
The flour-blending system can be continuous blending or batch blend-
ing. The continuous-blending system provides facilities to meter the flow of
flour from each bin to any other bin or to the blending system, where differ-
ent flours are blended into a final homogeneous mix. This requires appro-
priate bin dischargers and feeders that guarantee a uniform flow of flour
from the bins. The bin dischargers are usually screw conveyors modified to
draw material evenly from across the full diameter or cross-section of the
bin with either variable-diameter flights (tapered) or a variable-pitch screw.
Other dischargers are the blendvane type (Fig. 9-4), pocket type, and sweep
296 CHAPTER 9
arms. Figure 9-5 shows the vibra-hoppered bottom for round bins. Fluid-
bed bottoms also are used because they are free flowing, with sanitary
drives and fewer infestation harbors.
The feeders usually are a volumetric type when the accuracy can be in
the 10% range; however, if better accuracy is required, the gravimetric type
of feeder is necessary. The simplest volumetric feeder arrangement is a vari-
able-speed drive installed on the bin discharger to operate as a feeder.
There are two types of gravimetric feeder systems: continuous weigh-
ers and batch weighers. The gravimetric feeder must be independent of the
bin discharger and should be interlocked electrically with it so that the bin
Fig. 9-4. Blendvane discharger. (Courtesy of Premier Pneumatic, Inc.)
Fig. 9-5. Vibra-hopper bin bottom discharger.

discharger operates only when the feeder calls for material. The most
common continuous weigher is the belt weigher (Fig. 9-6). The material is
weighed by load cells as it is conveyed over the sensor. The rate of flow is
calculated and controlled by a combination of the belt velocity and the thick-
ness of the material on the belt, which is controlled by a feeder gate. It is
essential to feed the belt weigher with a small surge bin to ensure a proper
head of material above the feeder gate.
In the batch-mixing system, flour is fed directly into a scale hopper
(Fig. 9-3, no. 7) with two-speed screw conveyors until the desired set-point
weight for each flour component making up the mix is reached. Minor and
microcomponent ingredients can be added to the batch mixer through the
appropriate scales. The time and ratio of materials in the process of dry
mixing of flours should be controlled for optimum uniformity. Kuakpetoon
et al (2001) stated that a mixture containing smaller, smoother, more spheri-
cal flour particles achieved a higher degree of uniformity (P < 0.05) but
required longer mixing time than a mixture containing bigger, rougher,
more irregular flour particles. Samplers and sample analysis systems should
be integrated into the system to optimize blending for uniformity.
Batch mixing usually is controlled with a process computer that
instructs and monitors the operation. Mixed batches are directed to load out
bins or packers. With automatic operation of the scales, mixer, and surge
bin, the flow is almost continuous and operates very reliably. In fact, these
operations can be scheduled with the computer to fill customers’ orders
without operators in the plant.
Fig. 9-6. Schematic diagram of a belt weigher. Y = Power source, q = weigh

signal, v = control signal, M = motor, WZ = load cell. (Courtesy of Elf Atochem
North America, Inc.)
298 CHAPTER 9
Quality Control and Analysis

A good sampling system is important for obtaining an accurate analysis
of the flour and providing information for blending the components of the
final product. Figure 9-7 shows an online automatic sampler that can sam-
ple a flour stream entering the storage bin. Sampling systems provide repre-
sentative samples of mill products for the laboratory or for online instru-
mentation.
In the laboratory, routine testing of quality includes determination of
ash, protein, moisture, color, starch damage, and particle size distribution,
as well as baking and other dough rheology testing as indicated in custom-
ers’ specifications. Statistical process control using laboratory results, which
is the technological link between the flour producer and the end user,
guarantees the consistency of the product.
Online instant quality control of mill products becomes a necessity in
large-capacity milling units. Near-infrared reflectance analysis is used for
online determination (Fig. 9-8) of parameters such as moisture, protein, and
ash. In such cases, the instruments are calibrated daily with values deter-
mined in the mill laboratory. In addition to the above values, flour color
also is determined online in the modern mill.
Infestation and Pest Control

Infestation of wheat flours is a major issue in all flour mills around the
world. Pests in the flour mills are insects, rodents, and birds. Figure 9-9
shows several kinds of insects that can be harbored in a flour mill. To sur-
vive, pests require proper combinations of temperature, food, and moisture.
In addition, pest multiplication requires time and harborage. Removal of
one or more of these survival and propagation requirements reduces the
threat of pest contamination. This can be done by nonchemical or chemical
means. Nonchemical means are preferred because fumigants may leave a
residue.
Insect infestation control depends upon good housekeeping practices,
evaluation of raw materials for the presence of insects, and control of
insects found there. Good housekeeping practices include not only cleaning
and removal of material in the building and on the exterior of the equip-
ment, but also removal of material in the dead spaces inside of the equip-
ment and bins with a frequency that interferes with the insect’s life cycle.
The interior of flour bins should be cleaned on a regular schedule to remove
accumulated flour and condensation on the walls or any nonmoving mate-
rial in the bin. In a well-designed bin, this requires little time.
Fig. 9-7. Online automatic flour sampler. (Courtesy of Satake (USA) Inc.)
Fig. 9-8. Online near-infrared reflectance analysis. (Courtesy of NiroTec Satake

(UK) Ltd.)
300 CHAPTER 9
Fig. 9-9. Pests in flour. Cadelle—Tenebroides mauritanicus, granary weevil—

Sitophilus granaries, confused flour beetle—Tribolium confusum, lesser grain
borer—Rhyzopertha dominica, Indian meal moth—Plodia interpunctella, flat grain
beetle—Cryptolestes pusillus.
Since insects enter the mill with the wheat and other materials, includ-
ing returned flour, inspection programs with guidelines for acceptable levels
of insect contamination should be followed (FDA, 1987). The acceptable
number of live insects may be zero, or it may be a more tolerant level that
can be managed in the grain elevator and cleaning house. Returned flour
should be treated to destroy all insects by fumigation or other means as it
enters the mill building to prevent insect entry from this source.
Physical Control
Insects can be controlled by physical means: 1) separation, 2) impact, 3)
temperature, and 4) irradiation.
Separation is done by sifting the flour through an aperture that separates
the insect from the flour. This works well for adults and larvae, but eggs can
pass with the flour. The tailings from the sifter should be examined for
insects on a regular basis for evidence of infestation in the system. In gen-
eral, rebolt sifters at the end of the milling process where the flour stream is
relatively small should be covered with finer sieves (down to about 135
Fig. 9-10. Impact machine infestation destroyer. A = rotor bottom plate, B = rotor
top plate, C = impactors, D = product inlet. (Courtesy of Satake (USA) Inc.)
µm). On the other hand, larger flour quantities that usually flow out of the
storage bins should be rebolted through coarser sieve apertures.
Impact machines (Fig. 9-10) are effective in destroying all insects,
including their eggs, if the load to the machine is not exceeded and the
impact velocity is at the recommended level. These machines often are used
in tandem with sifters as a final treatment of the flour before packing or
bulk loading to ensure insect-free products. The impact machine usually is
positioned in the flour-handling section following the sifters. This allows
the removal of any whole live or dead insects in the sifter before the impact
machine fractures them to very fine particles. In the United States, Food and
Drug Administration (FDA) guidelines (CPG 7104.06) specify that no more
than 75 insect parts or an average of 1.0 or more rodent hair per 50 g of
flour may be found. The filth test (see Chapter 2) details procedures for
separating insect fragments from flour and counting them under the
microscope.
High or low temperature extremes kill insects (see Chapter 14).
Although excessive heat or freezing temperatures can be used in the mill,
this approach is not practical in the flour storage area because of the insulat-
ing properties of the flour.
Irradiation, while effective, is not used to treat flour because of the capital
cost and expense of the facility. Pastore (2000) described three types of
irradiation technology that currently are used to treat food: electron beam, X
302 CHAPTER 9
ray, and gamma ray. The dose level for grain approved by the FDA Center for
Food Safety and Nutrition is ≤1 kilogray (kGy). Milner (1957) stated that
treatment with dosages above 1.25 kGy produce inferior results in wheat
products. Lai et al (1959) determined that gamma irradiation in dosages from
1 to 10 kGy applied to hard red spring and hard red winter wheats resulted in
drastic damage to the starch fraction of flours milled from these wheats.
Flours showed a decrease in gelatinization viscosity and starch content, with
an increase in maltose value. Protein hydration capacity decreased. The
carotenoid pigment content of the flour was reduced, yet flour color was
darker. Baking trials indicated progressive damage to loaf volume and crumb
grain, texture, and color with increasing irradiation. Improvement in baking
characteristics of irradiated flour could be observed by using reduced sugar
and malt levels in the baking formula.
Some physical deterrents and attractants for insects and other pests are
mechanical traps for rodents; light to attract flying insects or to repel birds;
sound to repel rodents, birds, and insects; automatically activated doors; and
plastic curtains.
Chemical Control
Chemical and biological means of pest control include 1) fumigants, 2)
modified atmospheres, 3) sprays, 4) baits, 5) insect-growth regulators, 6)
pheromones, and 7) microorganisms.
Fumigants are formulated and packaged as solids (aluminum phos-
phide, magnesium phosphide, calcium cyanide), liquids (combinations of
ethylene dichloride, carbon bisulfide, sulfur dioxide), or liquids under
pressure (methyl bromide, chloropicrin, ethylene oxide). The killing
action of all fumigants takes place in the gaseous state; therefore, success
depends on maintaining a sufficient concentration of gas for a sufficient
time. Fumigants are effective, but because they are expensive and hazard-
ous, they are used to deal with problems that cannot be controlled by
other means.
A “modified atmosphere” is one in which a high percentage of the
oxygen in an enclosure is displaced with inert gases such as carbon dioxide
or nitrogen. Insects are killed by asphyxiation. Because of regulations that
forbid the use of some chemical fumigants, this method may become more
prevalent in the future.
Insecticide sprays are of two general types: contact and residual. Con-
tact sprays have very little residual effect and aid in control of insects that
cannot be dealt with by cleaning or other means. They generally are applied
by fogging or spraying entire floors. Residual insecticides more often are
used for spraying crevices or small areas that will not be in contact with
food products.
Baits used in plants consist of a food attractant that contains a poison

lethal to the pest. Baits or traps are used for monitoring cockroaches and
other insects. They commonly have been used for rodents and birds.
Insect growth regulators prevent insects from maturing to reproductive
adults. This approach may have an important role in the future.
Pheromones are chemical secretions that allow insects to communicate.
Sex pheromones can slow the mating and reproduction process, while
aggregation pheromones attract insects into a trap, which generally is used
as a monitoring tool.
Microorganisms can have lethal effects on certain insects (Reichmuth,
2000). One insecticide containing microorganisms has been registered for
control of certain moth species in grain, and further developments can be
expected in the future.
Air Classification and Fine Grinding

Flour Characteristics
In an average kernel of wheat, the endosperm contains approximately
30,000 cells. Endosperm cells are composed of a mass of starch granules
embedded in a protein matrix and enclosed in a tough wrapper of cellulosic
material. When flour is produced in a mill, a wide range of endosperm
particles results. Depending on the milling system, local requirements, and
numerous other factors, the size of the largest particle in the flour is set by
the aperture of the flour sieves in the mill. For example, in the United
States, flour cloths seldom are coarser than 135 µm (10XX). In general, the
average size distribution of the particles in flours produced from soft wheats
is finer than in those from hard wheats. The inherent characteristics of the
endosperm structure are responsible for this fact. Flours from soft wheats
tend to agglomerate more readily and are much smoother than those from
hard wheats, which are coarse. Flour milled from newly harvested hard
wheat usually is finer in granulation than flour from wheat that has been
stored for several months (Posner and Deyoe, 1986).
Flour water absorption during baking is related to particle size, or parti-
cle surface, only insofar as the starch granules are damaged during the mill-
ing and thus have enhanced absorption capacity. If particle size is reduced
in flour in such a way that starch damage is not increased, absorption
remains unchanged. The characteristics of water absorption that can be
shown with the farinograph do increase with finer particles. Farinograph
arrival time shortens with finer particles.
Flour particle size distribution affects mixing time in the bakery and is
responsible for water absorption and dough-handling characteristics
304 CHAPTER 9
(Gracza and Norris, 1961). Based on data generated by a laser instrument,

utilizing a low-angle forward light-scattering principle, the particle size
distribution of commercial flour was studied for particle swelling. Gorton
(1977) showed that flour from shipments with particles of smaller size
swelled only 3.8% rather than the 10.8% seen in flour from standard ship-
ments. Because of the lower swelling of the flour with finer particles, the
flour required a longer mixing time, showed poor water absorption, and
yielded sticky sponges. The bread-baking potential of the coarser fractions
was superior to that of the finer fractions. Park et al (2001) and Wang and
Flores (2000) studied the effect of the size of hard red winter wheat flour
particles on the quality of pup-loaf breads and tortillas, respectively.
Although finer flour (<53 µm) showed better bread loaf volume, fractions
between 53 and 75 µm showed better tortilla qualities, such as longer
rupture distance and better foldability. In commercial mills that supply
bakeries, it is not economically practical for the miller to segregate flour
into different fractions based on granulation. Accordingly, the miller must
identify the best particle size distribution of the total flour from a given
wheat in order to satisfy customers that require uniformity of raw materials.
If other flour characteristics (e.g., protein, gluten, and amylase activity)
show the same values among loads, then, in many cases, flour granulation,
which is affected by the milling procedures, is what causes fluctuations in
baking quality.
There has been a trend among flour users to add specifications related
to particle size because its effect on the processing and end-product quali-
ties has become apparent. Particle size distribution affects various physi-
cal and chemical qualities of the flour. The baker of the future will spec-
ify flour particle size distribution more accurately, which might affect
water absorption and tolerance to the automatic baking process. The
operative miller will use additional fine grinding of flours to a larger
extent to reach specified granulation distributions and to shift protein by
air classification to make fine adjustments in the protein levels required
by the customer. However, flours pretreated with powdered chemicals in
the mill never should be fractionated by air classification.
The protein content of wheat has a direct bearing on price. The miller
continuously struggles with the need to buy at the lowest cost and the need
to use a certain percentage of high-protein flour to reach minimum flour-
quality specifications. The expertise of the successful miller always has
been the ability to judge wheat economically and physically and so make up
least-cost grist for the mill that will satisfy the customer and leave a profit
(see Chapter 3). Air classification of finished flours is designed to help the
miller simplify some of these problems.
The fine-grinding and air-classification systems are expensive in both
capital cost and operating expenses. The power requirement is in the
range of 125–150 hp/t of flour processed. The moisture loss in the proc-
essed flour fractions can be from 4 to 5%. It may be possible to justify the
system on the basis of being able to use lower-cost wheat to produce a
premium product. However, the value added to the product fractions often
is not sufficient to justify the system, especially in the United States,
where ample supplies of a variety of soft wheats to produce specialty
flours are available at reasonable cost. Air classification of flour is eco-
nomically and technologically practicable in cases where the miller is
producing specialized products, such as specialty mixes, that require
accurate protein content and a narrow distribution of particle sizes.
Protein in flour is of two kinds. The wedge (interstitial) protein is the
matrix in which the starch particles are embedded. The adherent protein is
that protein covering the starch granules (Hess, 1954). Microscopic
examination of high-protein fractions after air classification shows that they
contain a large amount of wedge protein, whereas the low-protein fractions
contain very little of the wedge protein.
Figure 9-11 shows the different particle sizes found in flour. The small-
est particles, less than about 17 µm in size, consist of wedge protein or
matrix fragments (i.e., interstitial protein) and small starch granules—this is
usually the high-protein fraction. The intermediate-sized particles, about
17–35 µm in diameter, are primarily starch granules. The largest size parti-
cles, greater than 35 µm in diameter, are mainly agglomerates, or chunks of
endosperm cells containing both starch and protein in about the same
proportion as the parent flour, with some large starch cells (Graham, 1965).
The average mesh aperture for flour is approximately 100–150 µm.
Starch granules may vary in size from 0.5 to 35 µm and the protein particles
from 1 to 12 µm. There also are differences in shape of the granules. Pure
Fig. 9-11. Size distribution of soft wheat flour components. (Source: Elias, 1958)
306 CHAPTER 9
TABLE 9-1
Protein Distribution (%) in Air-Classified Flour Fractionsa
Comanche (HRW) Mayflower (SRW) Omar (Club)
Flour High Low Flour High Low Flour High Low
Total 12.2 26.1 6.9 8.6 28.2 3.1 6.5 18.4 1.7
Water soluble 1.3 1.8 1.2 1.1 2.0 0.6 0.9 1.5 0.5
Glutenb 10.9 24.3 5.7 7.5 26.2 2.5 5.6 16.9 1.2
a
Source: Jones and Dimler (1962).
b
By difference.
starch granules are almost round, whereas the shape of protein particles
varies, having the form of a leaf or pyramid (Speight, 1959).
Table 9-1 shows the protein distribution in air-classified flour. It indi-
cates the amount of gluten versus soluble and total protein in flours from
different wheats.
Objectives of Air Classification

The main objective of air classification is to shift the protein of a flour
to make two fractions, one richer in starch and the other in protein. Hard
wheats of low protein content can be fractionated to remove a low-protein
fraction and thereby make improved flour for bread; soft wheat of high pro-
tein content can be fractionated to the desired composition for use as cake
flour. Another benefit gained by air classification, which narrows the particle
size distribution of flour, is demonstrated in ready mixes, where increased
tolerance to water addition and to oven temperature can be achieved.
Advanced air classification machines achieve very accurate segregation
of particle sizes in between the two fractions. The flour qualities derived by
this process are less dependent on variety, location, and grinding condition
of the wheat. Flour fractions not previously available to the baking industry
can be produced by air classification. Ponte et al (1967) pointed out that the
coarser fractions of hard wheat had better baking properties than finer
flours. Bean et al (1965) produced low-protein flours suitable for cookies
and layer cakes from hard red winter wheat. Shons and Majors (1964),
using air classification and hard red winter flour of 9% protein content,
produced a flour of 7.4% protein suitable for cakes and an all-purpose flour
of 8.0% protein.
The term air classified, or air separated, means that the flour has been
processed by an air-separation technique to control granulation in the subsieve
particle size range, mainly smaller then 75 µm. Figure 9-12 shows a schematic
flow of materials in the air-classification system. Soft wheat flour can be
fractionated into particle size groups that differ in basic quality, starch content,
and protein content, based on the physical characteristics shown in Figure 9-
Fig. 9-12. Schematic flow of an air-classification system. (Reprinted, with

permission, from Shellenberger and Ward, 1967)
11. The fine fraction (<17 µm) is composed of small and broken starch
granules, but mainly of protein material; the middle fraction (17–35 µm) is
composed of starch granules; and the coarse fraction is mostly whole
endosperm. To improve the yield of fine and medium fractions, it is necessary
to break the endosperm particles apart by further grinding. Air classification
usually implies that the flour will be further reduced in particle size by
mechanical means to increase the yield of subsieve-size particles.
The air classifier separates by a combination of centrifugal force to
move the heavier, larger particles in one direction and an opposing force, air
velocity (air-drag force), to remove the lighter and finer particles in the
opposite direction. Figure 9-13 shows the basic principles of the air classi-
fier. The flour-air mixture enters the separation zone tangentially; then, the
small particles are carried through the chamber by the air drag force and
discharged out the central exit. The wall friction effect on the air velocity is
minimized by the rotation discs to obtain a uniform cut-off point for the
particle size. The cut-off point at which the separation takes place depends
on the dimensions of the chamber, the air velocity, and the density of the
stock, all of which can be controlled. Figure 9-14 shows the air path and
308 CHAPTER 9
Fig. 9-13. Principles of air classification. A = opposing forces; B = separation by

mass; C = means of circulation. (Source: Bass, 1988)
Fig. 9-14. Air path and interior of typical classifier. (Courtesy of Bauer Bros. Co.)
TABLE 9-2
Typical Separation of Unground and Ground Soft and Hard Wheat Floursa
A/C Particle Size Yield Protein
Flour Fractionb (µm) (%) (%)
Soft wheat 100 8.3
Unground flour Fine 0–17 9 15.9
Medium 17–35 34 3.9
Coarse Over 35 57 9.7
Impact-milled flour Fine 0–17 20 18.8
Medium 17–35 68 5.7
Hard wheat 100 11.3
Unground flour Fine 0–17 3 17.4
Medium 17–35 14 9.8
Impact-milled flour Fine 0–17 14 20.6
Medium 17–35 51 8.6
a
Values for hard wheat flour, laboratory milled from hard English (Svenno) wheat, are from
unpublished data of C. R. Jones and D. J. Stevens. Values for soft wheat are from Jones et al
(1959).
b
Air-classified fractions.
interior of a typical classifier. Note the adjustable baffles to control the criti-
cal particle size and the discharge conveyor for the large particles.
The efficiency of the operation can be improved by reducing the flour
agglomerates into free starch granules and protein-rich particles. This is
done with impact grinders to minimize damage to the starch. Other grinders
(using shear, pressure, and attrition) are not as effective as impact grinders
in this particle-size range and tend to produce more damage to the starch
granules. The yield of the flour fractions is shown in Table 9-2 for air-
classified fractions from conventional and impact-milled soft wheat flour
and hard wheat flour. The yield of low-protein cake flour is increased 100%
from 34 to 68% by impact grinding of the flour before air classification.
Fine Grinding
Heavy roller grinding for fine regrinding of flour is not satisfactory
because of the damage to starch granules. Ball mills also are not a good
solution, because they are more damaging to flour than any other machine.
Flour mill operators prefer pin mills (Fig. 9-15) for fine grinding of flours
and do not exceed a rotor tip speed of 17,000 ft/min. Because of the differ-
ent rotor diameters of manufactured pin mills, it is suggested that, among
other engineering specifications, performance should be established based
on the tip speed or the differential speed of the outer two rows of pins.
310 CHAPTER 9
Experiments with pinned-disc mills proved that, at a speed of impact of

about 107–122 m/sec (350–400 ft/sec), the starch damage was remarkably
small in relation to the degree of reduction of the parent stock (Graham,
1965). At this speed, however, a certain amount of proteinaceous material
(15–25 µm) remained that was not broken up and that passed into the low-
protein stream during air classification. Impact speeds up to about 230
m/sec (750 ft/sec) broke up the protein but caused too much starch damage
(Graham, 1965).
Although the pinned-disc mill fractionates by impact, some secondary
grinding takes place in the vortices created by the counterrotating pinned
discs. This secondary action is attrition grinding of particle against particle.
This form of attrition grinding is the principle of another type of mill, in
which it is the main grinding medium, although impact does play a part.
The vertical model of this mill may incorporate a classifier such as the
Alpine Mikroplex (Hosokawa Micron Powder Systems, Summit, NJ).
A more successful separation between the endosperm constituents is made
by the “jet mill,” which is not commonly used. The machine is based on the
principle that solid materials can be pulverized successfully by the head-on
collision of materials against themselves at extremely high speeds. In effect,
Fig. 9-15. Pin mill. (Courtesy of Hosokawa Alpine Aktiengesellschaft & Co. OHG)
the jet mill creates thousands of these so-called collisions every second by
directing the materials to an intersecting zone under high velocity.
Overly severe grinding also can denature the proteins and damage
starch. Farrand (1969) suggested a rule of thumb about the relationship
between acceptable starch damage in flour and its protein level: starch dam-
age equals (protein)2 divided by 6. The objective in fine regrinding of the
flours produced in the classical milling system is to break the endosperm
chunks, release the starch granules, and reduce the wedge protein.
Soft wheats are distinctive among wheat kinds because they have unique
performance characteristics during grinding and unique final products.
These differences are related to wheat variety. When soft wheat flours are
reduced further in average particle size, such as by means of a pin mill (Fig.
9-15), the varietal differences in average particle size persist.
Measurement of Fine Particles

To measure particle size in flour milling, various methods have been
adapted from other industries. Wichser and Shellenberger (1948) listed
methods for determining size and distribution of particles in flour. However,
new methods and instruments using light-scattering techniques with laser
beams have been developed since that time. Factors such as time, cost,
analyzer performance, industry standards, and service of the instrument
are issues that mill operators face in selecting a suitable method. Pohl
(1990) described methods of particle size analysis and factors that should
be considered before selecting a particle size analyzer. The following are
some of the methods used in the flour-milling industry with satisfactory
results.
Sieving to an end point is a very simple and handy method of determin-
ing particle size distribution in a flour sample (Wichser et al, 1947; Wichser
and Shellenberger, 1948). Batches of 100 g of flour are sieved on different
sieves of a known weight. The procedure is repeated with each sieve in
increments of 1 min. After each minute of sieving, the weight of the sieve,
including the remaining material over it, is recorded. The stage at which 1 g
or less passed through the sieve is the “end point.” The material that passed
through the sieve before the end point is expressed as a percentage of the
original weight put on the sieve. Jones (1962) described a different version
of this method to determine the degree of flour particle fineness.
The Alpine air sifter, in which the finer fraction of the material is forced
through the sieve with a negative-pressure airstream, is another simple but
more accurate dry method for particle size measurement. Using 50 g of
flour, the sample could be separated through sieves as fine as 5 µm. The
results of flour particle size distribution determinations by one of the above
dry-sieving methods can be expressed as a granulation distribution curve.
312 CHAPTER 9
The Coulter Counter originated for counting blood cells. In the range
between 30 and 2,000 µm, it can determine volume and number of particles.
The principle of this instrument is that the particles are suspended in an
electrically conductive liquid. The suspension flows through a small aper-
ture having an immersed electrode on either side. The concentration is such
that the particles traverse the aperture essentially one at a time. The passage
of each particle displaces electrolyte within the aperture, momentarily
changing the resistance between electrodes and producing a voltage pulse
of a magnitude proportional to particle volume. The resultant series of
pulses is electronically amplified, scaled, and counted. Voltage pulses are
displayed on the oscilloscope screen as a pattern of vertical “spikes.” The
pulse pattern serves as a guide for measurement and as a monitor of instru-
ment performance. Pulses also are fed to a dual-threshold circuit having
adjustable screen-out voltage levels. Pulses exceeding or falling between
these levels are counted. The electrolyte in the aperture forms the principal
resistance between electrodes.
The Microtrac particle size analyzer uses a laser beam to illuminate a
representative sample passing through the sample cell (AACC, 2000). Parti-
cles in the sample scatter some of the light from the beam, which is col-
lected by lenses and projected through a filter chopper, the fixed sector disc,
and the rotating Compumask optical filter.
The Fisher subsieve sizer measures particles in the range of 0.2–50 µm.
The average size of a sample can be determined with a relative accuracy
that depends on the uniformity of the product. Average particle size is deter-
mined by porosity or permeation of a fixed weight and volume of the sam-
ple material.
The Hegman grind gauge is an instrument used to read the size of the
coarsest particles in the flour. A machined, steel channel tapered from 200
to 0 µm is used to reveal the largest particles in a sample. Flour is mixed to
a batter with mineral oil at the dipper side of the channel. The batter is
scraped along the channel with a special steel scraper. The largest particles
disrupt the smooth surface of the batter. A scale on the banks of the channel
indicates the size of the largest particle in micrometers.
Particle size and distribution can be determined using the sedimentation
principle based on Stoke’s law, which states that the time of fall of a particle
is inversely proportional to the square of the diameter. One of the methods
using the sedimentation principle is the Andreasen pipette method (ICC,
1976). A sampling pipe is inserted into a volume of the liquid in which the
material is dispersed and, at time intervals, samples are withdrawn, dried,
and weighed. This method measures the sediment above a certain particle
size by taking the ratio of residue recovered from the withdrawn sample to
the initial amount at a first reading. The lapsed time for each reading of
sediment taken with a two-way tap is used in a Stoke equation to determine
the diameter. This method is very time consuming, taking up to 2 hr.
Another sedimentation method that uses the relationship between parti-

cle size and settling velocity based on Stoke’s law was adapted by Whitby
(1955, 1961) to measure the particle size of flour. The method (AACC,
1983) is no longer officially recognized by the AACC. The device for meas-
uring size distribution of small particles originated in the coal-mining indus-
try and was developed by the Mine Safety Appliances (MSA) Co. (Pitts-
burgh, PA). In this system, the particle is measured statistically in three
dimensions (number, area, and volume). The instrument uses the relation-
ship between particle settling velocity and particle size, derived from
Stoke’s law. Based on the above-mentioned Stoke’s sedimentation law, new
instruments have been developed. The Horiba CAPA-300 (Horiba, Ltd.,
Kyoto, Japan) automatically determines the particle size distribution using
controlled centrifugal speeds to enhance sedimentation.
Whole Wheat, Meals, Blends,

and Reconstituted Flour
According to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (Code of
Federal Regulations, 1991, 2003; see also website CFR), whole wheat
flour is produced from wheat kernels and includes bran and germ. Under
Part 137 (Cereal Flours and Related Products, Subpart B: Requirements
for Specific Standardized Cereal Flours and Related Products), specifi-
cations are given for cracked wheat, crushed wheat, and whole wheat
flour. Whole wheat flour (also called graham flour) is prepared by
grinding cleaned wheat, other than durum wheat and red durum wheat, so
that not less than 90% passes through a 2.36-mm (no. 8) sieve and not
less than 50% passes through a 850-µm (no. 20) sieve. For commercial
whole wheat flour, based on specifications by bakers, millers typically
prepare different blends of endosperm, germ, and bran. Products vary in
granulation and percentage content of the whole kernel. The size of the
bran particles affects the baking quality of the mix. Pomeranz et al (1977)
stated that fine bran decreases bread volume slightly less than coarse
bran. Coarse bran places more strain on the wheat flour gluten in the
dough than fine bran, resulting is a weaker dough cell structure and less
gas-retention capacity. Therefore, some millers prepare ready mixes of
whole wheat flours with additives such as baking improvers, vital gluten,
and required enrichment.
Whole wheat flour products can be produced by grinding the wheat
with stones or rolls to a specified granulation. Such a system includes a
small sifter to handle the ground meal. Oversized particles are sent back to
the grinding system for reduction.
314 CHAPTER 9
Flour mixes containing bran can be blended by the miller using straight-
grade flour and adding material from the break system. At the end of milling,
some millers make flours that reconstitute the components of the wheat
kernel. The total wheat bran is reground by a hammer mill equipped with a
3/64-in. screen. The fine reground material is blended with straight-grade flour.
At this point, some of the wheat germ may be removed from the mix, which
extends its shelf life before baking. However, without the germ, the flour is
not a whole wheat product. With the current emphasis on health foods and
whole-grain products, accurate controls are needed for reconstituted whole
wheat flours to ensure that such products represent the entire wheat kernel.
Enrichment and Ingredients

Flour commonly is treated with additives in the blending department to
meet final grade specifications. The flour-blending operation usually is
done at a higher rate of flow than that used in the mill during production to
accommodate rapid bulk load-out and packing. The advantages of flour
treatment at the blending stage are the flexibility of producing many grades
of flour without having to make frequent changes of treatment to small
orders at the end of the milling process. A disadvantage is the greater
chance for error because of the higher flow rates and the frequent changes
in both the flours being blended and the treatment additives. This problem
is solved with a fail-safe system that controls formulas and flow rates of the
flour and treatment ingredients by a computer, as described in the section
on blending with continuous or batch systems.
Treatments commonly consist of 1) a bleaching agent to remove the
natural color; 2) a maturing agent to age, or improve, the baking quality of the
flour; 3) an enzyme preparation to supplement the α-amylase activity; 4)
enrichments to supplement vitamins and minerals in the flour; and 5) vital
gluten to strengthen flour baking quality. Chlorine treatment to modify cake
flour is best done in the mill for better control of gas application. Not all
countries around the world permit addition to flour of nutrients or improvers.
Millers should be familiar with local conditions and learn about options using
the Internet, where regulations are published and easy to access.
Flour pigments bleach out by natural oxidation during storage in about
three to four weeks, but millers sometimes deliver the flour to the baker the
next day and need to speed up the process. Benzoyl peroxide at a level of
32%, diluted with starch and tricalcium phosphate, is one of the bleaching
agents that can be used by the miller. The FDA (see website) states that one
part of benzoyl peroxide may be mixed with not more than six parts by
weight of one or any mixture of two or more substances from a list of
materials, among them tricalcium phosphate and starch. Application of the
benzoyl peroxide mixture at a level of 1 g per 100 kg of flour can bleach

out most of the color in 24 hr.
The process of flour oxidation is achieved by the addition of chemical oxi-
dants. Azodicarbonamide, which acts as both a bleaching agent and flour
improver, can be added at rates up to 45 ppm. Azodicarbonamide is a fast-acting
oxidant that has its effect during mixing by improving the gluten characteristics.
Potassium bromate, the use of which now is being discontinued in many
countries, is added at rates up to a maximum of 50 ppm and affects dough
rheology during fermentation. Ascorbic acid can be added at rates up to 200
ppm. It has both a rapid and a time-dependent reaction on dough rheology.
Flour from sound wheat may require amylase supplementation in the
form of malted barley flour, malted wheat flour, or commercial enzyme
preparations. Commercial preparations are gaining favor because they are
more uniform and easier to store and blend.
Vitamins and minerals commonly are added to flour to replace those
substances lost in the milling process. Flour is a main staple of the diet;
therefore, supplementing flour with vitamins and other minerals is considered
a good way to improve the diet of consumers. The United States requires all
flours intended for family usage, baker’s bread, and pasta products to be
enriched. Some optional ingredients such as calcium and vitamin D can be
added, too. The flour’s natural level of vitamins and iron is considered when
calculating the amount of enrichment to add to a particular grade of flour.
Commercial vitamin blends of various ratios are available for enriching flour
in the mill, and the miller selects the appropriate mix to comply with the
official regulations. The vitamins and iron usually are blended with a carrier to
improve flow properties and are applied as an enrichment powder. One
kilogram of enriched flour contains about 6.4 mg of thiamin, 3.9 mg of
riboflavin, 52.9 mg of niacin, 1.5 mg of folic acid, and 44.1 mg of iron. A
minimal level of 2,116.4 mg of calcium per kilogram of flour must be present
to meet a claim on the flour label for calcium as a nutrient (Code of Federal
Regulations, 2003). The exact amounts of these ingredients can be determined
quantitatively in the laboratory, but a quick test for the presence of the
enrichment mixture in the flour can be made using an ultraviolet light in a
dark room to indicate the presence of riboflavin.
Flour Stabilization
The term flour stabilization refers to inactivation of the enzymes and
microbial populations in flour to prevent their action in flour-based products
used in convenience foods. These products include cereal-based mixes, frozen
or refrigerated doughs and batters, cream sauces, and soups.
Chlorine treatment of the water for wheat conditioning helps in decreas-
ing microorganisms in flour. Doty (1961) described the reduction of bacte-
316 CHAPTER 9
rial count in flour by a chlorine solution in the conditioning water. During

the wheat-conditioning process, addition of 150 ppm of chlorine in the first
water addition and 100 ppm in the second water addition, just before mill-
ing, gave the most significant reduction of bacterial count in flour.
Gustafson (1965) stated that chlorine treatment of conditioning water can
bring the bacterial count in flour down to a level of 5,000–10,000 per gram
from a geometric mean of 394,000 per gram on the original wheat.
Some millers have stabilized the flour by raising the temperature of the
wheat before it goes to the mill, but the heated flour usually is of poor color
and its baking quality is impaired. Production of flour with low enzyme
activity and microbial population also requires precautions to avoid cross-
contamination from residual mill stock in the milling system. The best alter-
native is to treat the flour in the storage area.
Flour can be “stabilized” by raising the temperature and reducing mois-
ture content to inactivate the enzymes and microbial populations. This is
done under controlled conditions of temperature, time, moisture content,
and pressure in a batch mixer. The process, operating at the optimum
parameters, can effectively stabilize the flour, semolina, germ, and bran
fibers that are used in convenience foods. Certain mixers (Fig. 9-16) operate
at high pressures and inject steam to heat the flour at lower temperature-
moisture parameters to avoid drying problems when the products are dis-
charged from the mixer. The activity of water in foods is much more impor-
tant than the mere water content of the foods, because the chemical, bio-
Fig. 9-16. Flour mixer with steam injection. (Courtesy of Littleford Day, Inc.)
chemical, and microbiological reactions occurring in the foods depend on

the water activity rather than the water content (Yano, 1990). The activity of
water (water activity) is defined conveniently as
P
aw =
P0
where aw = the water activity, P = an equilibrium water vapor pressure over a
given food, and P0 = the saturation vapor pressure over pure water at the same
temperature and atmospheric pressure. The right-hand side of the equation is
the relative humidity at the equilibrium of the ambient atmosphere. The ratio
P/P0 also is the measure of the water activity contained in the food.
Flour Drying
Flour for cake mixes requires drying to around 10% moisture to improve
the quality and shelf life of the mix. Drying is not practical in the milling
operation and is done in the storage and blending area. Pneumatic flash dryers
commonly are used for this drying operation. Figure 9-17 shows a schematic
of the flash-drying process. The conveying air temperature is raised to 100°C
(212°F) or higher, and the moisture evaporates from the flour particles upon
contact with the air. The evaporation of water cools the flour to prevent
excessive rise in flour temperature. The volume of air must be sufficient to
hold the moisture picked up from the flour without reaching the dew point,
which would cause condensation in the filter and other discharge areas. The
Fig. 9-17. Flour dryer. A = inlet air filter, B = fan, C = heater, D = drying column,
E = feed hopper, F = flour inlet, G = filter, H = airlock, I = dust filter, J = suction fan.
318 CHAPTER 9
moisture content of the flour can be controlled by adjustment of the conveying

air temperature. This process requires good control of the flour feed rate and a
constant volume of conveying air. The control is a feedback adjustment of the
air temperature, based on the dew point of the exhaust air.
Packaging
Flour intended for home use or for small orders is packaged for distribu-
tion and storage. Small bags usually are overpacked to contain more flour
then the printed weight, so that when the consumer purchases the bag, the
weight will match the printed amount, even if some moisture has been lost n
storage. Almost all packaging uses laminated paper bags to prevent mois-
ture loss, keep the flour free from insect penetration, and present a clean,
dust-free container. Sometimes polyethylene or cellophane bags are used in
small consumer bags to display the product for marketing. The bag is closed
with a heat-sealing device or sewn with a sealing strip to prevent leakage
Fig. 9-18. Packing system flow diagram. 1 = Flour storage for packing, 2 =
bagging scale, 3 = automatic bag presenter, 4 = carousel packer with bag-closing
station, 5 = bag palletizer. (Courtesy of Buhler Inc.)
and entry of contamination. Valve-filled bags sometimes are used for bakery
flour that is stored for a very short time; these are closed with a flap that is
not leak proof. Because of possible insect infestation, the use of this
packaging is not recommended.
The final blend of flour is sifted to remove any possible con-
tamination from bin walls, conveyors, mixers, and other handling equip-
ment. The flour then is passed through a mechanical insect destroyer to
kill any possible eggs or small larva that may pass through the prepacker
sifter. A typical flow diagram for packaging is shown in Figure 9-18. The
Fig. 9-19. Carousel-type packer. 1 = Double-screw feeder, 2 = high-capacity

bagging scale, 3 = four-spout bagging turntable, 4 = two lateral bag shakers, 5 =
sewing line, 6 = sewing station, 7 = sweep, 8 = automatic bag attacher, A =
attachment, B = filling, shaking, C = shaking, D = ejection, E = aspiration
connection. (Courtesy of Buhler Inc.)
320 CHAPTER 9
packer controls the package filling by either volumetric or gravimetric

means. After filling, the weight of the package is checked automatically.
Some check weighers can be programmed to adjust the filling cycle to
maintain package weights within a specific range. Packages should be
passed through a metal detector to check for possible metal contamina-
tion. Small packages can be bundled automatically or put in a case and
palletized for storage or shipment. Large bags also are palletized auto-
matically and can be stored in a warehouse with a computer-controlled
automatic system.
Packers usually are manufactured in three sizes: for bakers’ flour (50
kg), convenience mixes—often as prepared mixes (10–25 kg), and family
flour (0.5–1 kg). The most popular packer is the carousel type, shown in
Figure 9-19. The weight control by load cells can be completely
automatic. Other packers are the open-mouth bag (Fig. 9-20) and valve
(Fig. 9-21) packers, which have volumetric fill control. The medium-
sized bag packer is shown in Figure 9-22. These machines have multiple
filling tubes to increase the filling rate and may have either volumetric or
Fig. 9-20. Bemis open-mouth bag packer. (Courtesy of Bemis Packaging

Machinery Co.)
load cell control. Family-sized flour packers can be bag-forming or use

prepared bags that are filled by volume or gravimetric technique (Fig. 9-
23).
Fig. 9-21. Valve packer. 1 = Net weigher, 2 = bag clamp, 3 = adjustable feed gate,
4 = bag supporter, 5 = mechanism to distribute and compact product in bag, 6 =
conveyor belt. (Courtesy of Chronos Richardson, Inc.)
Fig. 9-22. Medium-sized bag packer. (Courtesy of Fawema Packaging Machinery

Inc.)
322 CHAPTER 9
Fig. 9-23. Family (small-size) packer. A = First filler, B = second filler, C = third
filler, D = top-up filler (optional), E = first weigh cell for automatic trend control
and control of the top-up filler (optional), F = check weigher with trend correction
of the last filler, G = rejector for incorrect weights, H = calculator/printer for
statistical data. 1 = Paper reel, 2 = adhesive application, 3 = length cutter (four
slits), 4 = cross cutter (one slit), 5 = bottom forming, 6 = length seam and bottom
pressing, 7 = stripper, 8 = bag transfer, 9 = long-vibration section with amplitude
and frequency adjustment, 10 = level control, 11 = height-adjustable transport
track, 12 = prefold station, 13 = trimming station, 14 = folding station, 15 =
adhesive application station, 16 = compression station, 17 = ejector. (Courtesy of
Fawema Packaging Machinery Inc.)
Loading and Shipping

Packaged products are stacked on pallets and loaded into trucks or rail-
cars with a forklift truck. The stack can be on a slip sheet, which permits
sliding the load off the pallet to avoid shipping the pallet. Slip sheets reduce
risk of physical contamination, moisture uptake through the base of the pal-
let, and odor uptake from pallet wood. The stack also often is shrink- or
stretch-wrapped in polyethylene to increase the stability of the stack and
keep the load clean during shipment.
Large bakers receive flour in bulk containers for economic efficiency. A
typical bulk-flour load-out system is shown in Figure 9-24. The flour is
transferred to a bin on load cells to control the amount of flour before it is
Fig. 9-24. Bulk-flour load-out system. A = Vibra bin discharger, B = bulk truck
loading. (Courtesy of Buhler Inc.)
loaded into the bulk car or truck. The rate of flow of a bulk load-out system
is higher than that of a packaging system, and high-capacity equipment is
required to handle the flow. The bulk container is loaded rapidly (in 5 min
or less), usually by gravity to minimize condensation inside the container
and reduce the waiting time for the truck.
Bulk containers experience condensation on the interior walls above the
flour and on the ceiling when the surface reaches the dew point temperature
of the air inside the car. This causes a buildup of material on the exposed
surfaces, enabling mold, bacteria, and fungus growth. The problem is most
severe when the car is loaded by pressure pneumatic conveyance. Many
loading techniques to reduce condensation have been tried, with limited
success. Some of these measures are drying and cooling the conveying air,
covering the container with an electrically heated blanket while loading,
and exhausting the air in the car while filling. The most successful loading
method is to load the car by gravity and ventilate the car after it is loaded to
dry the interior surfaces with ambient air. Pressure pneumatic conveying
324 CHAPTER 9
tubes can be fitted with small cyclones that discharge the flour into the car
hatch by gravity, exhausting the conveying air to a filter to prevent it from
entering the car.
While in transit, fluctuations in ambient temperatures can cause conden-
sation problems. Some solutions are insulation of the roof and upper walls,
venting of the car in transit, and/or introduction of a desiccant such as silica
gel into the car to absorb moisture from the air and thereby lower its dew
point temperature (Howard, 1960). The last method has been the most suc-
cessful. An established method and schedule for cleaning cars is essential to
the successful movement of bulk flour.
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AACC, 8th ed. Method 50-10. The Association, St. Paul, MN.
American Association of Cereal Chemists (AACC). 2000. Approved Methods of the
AACC, 10th ed. Method 55-40. The Association, St. Paul, MN.
Bass, E. J. 1988. Wheat flour milling. Pages 1-68 in: Wheat: Chemistry and
Technology, 3rd ed, Vol. II. Y. Pomeranz, Ed. Am. Assoc. Cereal Chem., St. Paul,
MN.
Bean, M. M., Erman, E., and Mecham, D. K. 1965. Baking characteristics of low-
protein fractions from air-classified Kansas hard red winter wheats. Cereal
Chem. 47:35-43.
Code of Federal Regulations. 1991. No. 21, Part 137.200. Whole wheat flour. Food
and Drug Administration, Washington, DC.
Code of Federal Regulations. 2003. No. 21, Part 137.165. Cereal flours and related
products. Food and Drug Administration, Washington, DC.
Doty, J. 1961. Bacteria control in the flour milling operation. Am. Miller Process.
Dec., pp. 20-21.
Elias, D. 1958. The protein displacement process. Am. Miller, Aug., pp. 15-19.
Farrand, E. A. 1969. Starch damage and alpha-amylase as bases for mathematical
models relating to flour water-absorption. Cereal Chem. 46:103-116.
Federal Drug Administration (FDA). 1987. Wheat flour—Adulteration with insect
fragments and rodent hairs. Online: www.fda.gov/ora/compliance_ref/
cpg/cpgfod/cpg578-450.htm
Gorton, L. A. 1977. Laser sizes flour particles, solves mixing mystery. Baking Ind.,
Jan., p. 24.
Gracza, R., and Norris, C. G. 1961. Flour strength and particle size. Bakers Dig.
35(June):56-64, 92.
Graham, J. C. 1965. The use of air classifiers in the flour milling industry. North-
west. Miller, May, pp. 22-32.
Gustafson, C. B. 1965. Effects of water chlorination on the microbiological flora of
wheat flour. Assoc. Oper. Millers Tech. Bull., Feb., pp. 2837-2838.
Hess, K. 1954. Protein, Kleber, und Lipid in Weizenkorn und Mehl. Kolloid Zeit.
136(2/3):84-99.
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Tech. Bull., Mar., p. 2500.
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Determination of particle size distribution in flour by the Andreasen pipette
method (approved 1976). The Association, Vienna.
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16) Part I(15):362, 364-366; Part-II(16):390-392, 398.
Jones, C. R., Halton, P., and Stevens, D. J. 1959. The separation of flour into frac-
tions of different protein contents by means of air classification. J. Biochem.
Microbiol. Technol. Eng. 1:77.
Jones, R. W., and Dimler, R. J. 1962. Electrophoretic composition of gluten from
air-classified flours. Cereal Chem. 39:336-340.
Kuakpetoon, D., Flores, R. A., and Milliken, G. A. 2001. Dry mixing of wheat
flours: Effect of particle properties and blending ratio. Lebensm. Wiss. Technol.
34:183-193.
Lai, S. P., Finney, K. F., and Milner, M., 1959. Treatment of wheat with ionizing
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Milner, M. 1957. Some effects of gamma irradiation on the biochemical, storage
and breadmaking properties of wheat. Cereal Sci. Today 2:130-133.
Park, S. H., Chung, O. K., and Seib, P. A. 2001. Effect of particle size on loaf vol-
ume and internal characteristics of experimental pup-loaf bread. Poster 371
(abstr.). (http://www.aaccnet.org/meetings/2001/Abstracts).
Pastore, P. 2000. Irradiation processing technologies. Cereal Foods World 45:289-
292.
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Pomeranz, Y., Shogren, M., Finney, K. F., and Bechtel, D. B. 1977. Fiber in bread-
making—Effect on functional properties. Cereal Chem. 54:25.
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tion of commercial bread flours. Bakers Dig. 41(Aug.):24-28, 79.
vested hard wheat during storage. Cereal Chem. 63:451-456.
Reichmuth, C. 2000. Possibilities of control of stored product pest insects in milling
with biological methods. Muehle Mischfutter 137(9):278-282.
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Wheat and Wheat Improvement. K. S. Quisenberry and L. P. Reitz, Eds. Ameri-
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Shons, V. E., and Majors, K. R. 1964. Cost of fractionating selected hard and soft
wheat flours. Am. Miller Process., July, pp. 6-9.
Speight, J. 1959. Protein displacement and classification. Milling, May, pp. 466-
467.
Wang, L., and Flores, R. A. 2000. Effect of flour particle size on the textural proper-
ties of flour tortillas. J. Cereal Sci. 31:263-272.
Whitby, K. T. 1955. A rapid general purpose centrifuge sedimentation method for
measurement of size distribution of small particles. Part I. Apparatus and
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Whitby, K. T. 1961. Particle sizing in the milling industry. Cereal Sci. Today
6(2):49-56.
326 CHAPTER 9
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SUGGESTED READING
Atkinson, F. 1950. Bulk flour storage—The operator’s viewpoint. Assoc. Oper.

Code of Federal Regulations. 1991. No. 21, Part 137. Cereal flours and related prod-
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Assoc. Oper. Millers Tech. Bull., Nov.-Dec., pp. 3626, 3690.
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Food Protection Committee. 1973. Airslide car unloading procedure. Assoc. Oper.
Millers Tech. Bull., Apr., p. 3356.
Food Protection Committee. 1974. Procedures to be followed when cleaning, loading
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Graham, J. C. 1965. The use of air classifiers in the flour milling industry. North-
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Mar., p. 3162.
Howard, R. 1960. Condensation in bulk transport cars. Assoc. Oper. Millers Tech.
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Jones, C. R., 1960. New developments in milling processes. Milling 135(19, 20,
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Rousseau, A. 1945. Enrichment application. Assoc. Oper. Millers Tech. Bull., Feb.,
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Watanabe, A. 1991. The automation warehousing system of Nisshin Flour Milling
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653.
Federal Drug Administration (U.S.) Office of regulatory Affairs:

http://www.fda.gov/ora
For insect fragments and rodent hairs, search for Insect fragments and go to cpg
578-450.
Federal Drug Administration (U.S.) Center for Food Safety and Nutrition:
http://www.cfsan.fda.gov
Code of Federal Regulations: http://www.gpoaccess.gov/cfr/
Search 21CFR137.200, Whole wheat flour and 21CFR137.200, Cereal flours
and related products
CHAPTER 10
Milling of Durum Wheat
Durum wheat is milled to flour or to a granular endosperm product

called semolina, which is used for the production of pasta products. Semo-
lina differs from farina in that the latter can be produced from any wheat but
semolina is made only from durum. Regulations by the U.S. Food and Drug
Administration—FDA (2003) define farina as
Food prepared by grinding and bolting cleaned wheat, other than durum
wheat and red durum wheat, to such fineness that it passes through a No.
20 sieve, but not more than 3% passes through a No. 100 sieve. It is free
from the bran coat, or bran coat and germ, to such an extent that the per-
cent of ash therein, calculated to a moisture-free basis, is not more than
0.6%. Its moisture content is not more than 15%.
Semolina is defined similarly, except that it is made only of durum wheat,
and its maximum dry ash content is 0.92%.
Durum wheat, which originated in the Mediterranean Basin, is also used
in many of the surrounding countries for other local foods. Table 10-1
shows some major uses of durum wheat.
The durum kernel is usually vitreous and much harder than that of com-
mon hard wheat. When reduced to flour, the percentage of damaged starch
from the endosperm is higher than for kernels of other wheats. This can be a
very important factor in quality control, especially where durum flours are
blended with other wheat flours.
It is more critical to achieve balance of the load to the different
machines, especially the purifiers, when milling durum than when milling
other varieties of wheat. Therefore, the miller must have a thorough under-
standing of the following basic factors: the pasta manufacturer’s specific
requirements; good wheat selection and handling procedures; efficiency in
the cleaning house, conditioning and blending; grinding techniques;
efficient stock classifications, sifting, and purification; and control of the
329
330 CHAPTER 10
TABLE 10-1
Major Uses of Durum Wheata
Middle East and
North Africa Europe Americas
Consumer Use (%) (%) (%)
Pastas 15 97 99
Local bread 50 2 …
Couscous and bulgur 19 … …
Others 16 1 1
a
Source: Bozzini (1988).
environmental conditions in the milling facility. While these factors are

important in processing all wheat flour, they are especially so in milling
durum.
Durum Wheat Quality

Durum wheat quality plays a significant role in mill performance. Qual-
ity has a strong bearing on the final pasta product, which contains only
durum semolina and water. Feillet (1984) stated that semolina with protein
levels below 11% could result in processing and cooking problems in
manufactured spaghetti. Therefore, durum wheat protein levels for semolina
milling should be between 13 and 16%, taking into account an estimated
loss of about 1% in protein between wheat and semolina. The above
difference between wheat and semolina protein content should be deter-
mined for each mill. Other wheat characteristics such as test weight and
1,000-kernel weight, sprout damage, gluten strength, kernel color, and
kernel vitreousness or discoloration are important factors in the deter-
mination of durum quality. White spots in the pasta are the result of using
yellow berry kernels; the endosperm particles of such kernels cause
inadequate hydration and mixing of semolina. The percentage of vitreous
kernels in the wheat is negatively related to fine flour (through 100 U.S.
mesh) produced during milling and is positively related to the protein level.
Mahler et al (2002) suggested a computerized scanning technique to
determine the percentage of vitreous kernels in a sample. Correlation
coefficients of 0.88 and 0.76 were determined between semolina extraction
and hectoliter weight and 1,000-kernel weight, respectively (Dexter and
Matsuo, 1978). Studies have shown that differences in raw material do not
affect the quality of the final product when the process is optimized for that
raw material.
Various studies have described the effect of enzymes on durum and
wheat semolina and on pasta characteristics (Matsuo, 1987). Brownness in
pasta can be attributed to a water-soluble copper-protein complex (Matsuo
DURUM WHEAT 331
and Irvine, 1967), to peroxidase and polyphenol oxidase (PPO), to ash con-
tent, and to the level of semolina extraction from durum wheat (Kobrehel et
al, 1974; Fillet et al, 2000). Technological measures described below, such
as optimal conditioning, debranning, and mill adjustment, can overcome
such variability in durum wheat and produce first-rate semolina extraction
and pasta quality.
Cleaning House
Durum products are granular, and impurities cannot be removed in the
normal sieving operation in the reduction system or in the rebolter (the final
sifting operation in the mill). Therefore, it is very important to remove
foreign material and black or discolored kernels in the cleaning operation. If
ignored, their fractions will be mixed with the endosperm and cause serious
quality defects in the semolina. The most troublesome impurities are those
that are similar to wheat in density. Among such impurities are ergot, mud
balls, heat-damaged kernels, black point, and smudge-infected kernels. The
black point and smudge-infected kernels result from fungi, which cause the
germ to discolor and later progress along the crease until the whole kernel is
blackened. The blackened kernels, if not separated in the cleaning system,
show up as specks in both the semolina and the pasta.
The size of the durum wheat kernel, specific contaminants, and diseases
related to this type of wheat determine the set of machines used in the
cleaning house. Sieves should be selected to accommodate the larger size of
the durum kernels. Sieves separating unmillable material larger than wheat
should be in the range of 10–12 mm. Also, sieves that separate broken and
fine material from the bulk should be selected with larger apertures than
used for other wheat varieties Kernel size is a variable that must be continu-
ously monitored by the miller when making screen aperture selection.
Changes in the mill mix could cause loss of a significant percentage of
sound whole kernels if sieves are not changed to accommodate wheat kernel
size. Broken durum kernels are detrimental to the miller’s objective of
manufacturing vitreous semolina because they absorb water readily during
tempering and result in mealy endosperm chunks.
A very important principle in cleaning is separation by specific gravity.
Stones the same size as wheat are separated as heavy material with the grav-
ity table. Stones should be removed before beginning the milling process.
During durum milling, ground stones (grit) within the granular semolina
product could become lodged in the extruder die of the pasta machine,
damaging the products and the die. The Carter disc separator is one of the
most effective machines for separating wild seeds, other cereal grains, and
broken kernels that are different shapes and sizes than the sound durum
332 CHAPTER 10
Fig. 10-1. Flow for durum, with paddy table. (Courtesy of Satake (USA) Inc.)
Fig. 10-2. Color sorter. (Courtesy of Satake (USA) Inc.)

DURUM WHEAT 333
kernels. Disc pockets should be adjusted to maximize the shape and size
separation between the durum kernel and unmillable materials.
Early rains in certain areas can cause sprout damage, resulting in black-
ened tips and low falling-number values. However, most of the damaged
kernels, ergot, mud balls, etc. that cannot be removed with normal cleaning
techniques can be concentrated in a fraction consisting of 15–20% of the
wheat and the light material. This small fraction can be cleaned by special
low-capacity machines that separate by differences in hardness (paddy
tables), a color sorter, an electrostatic separator, or additional specific
gravity tables. Figure 10-1 shows a flow with a paddy table used on the
small fraction. Blackened-tip germ, or otherwise discolored kernels may be
separated from the bulk by using color sorters. Ergot, the sclerotia of the
fungus Claviceps purpurea, is occasionally found in the bulk of the durum
wheat and also may be separated by a color sorter (Fig. 10-2). The color
sorter includes an electronic eye that is activated by the darker shade of the
ergot and initiates the controller to divert it out of the stream.
Metal detectors are preferable to magnets in durum wheat cleaning
because they remove both metals and alloys, preventing metal from entering
the grinding process. Metal remaining in semolina can cause quality
deterioration and actual hazard in pasta.
Wheat Conditioning
Conditioning of durum wheat for semolina milling has slightly different
objectives than that for flour milling. Whereas the objective in flour milling
is to soften the endosperm and toughen the outer pericarp, the objective in
durum milling is to toughen the bran and keep the endosperm vitreous. The
different factors involved in conditioning are controlled to prevent the
endosperm from becoming mellow and mealy. The durum miller adjusts the
conditioning parameters, including the amount of water added and temper-
ing time, to the specific requirements of the milling system. Durum wheat is
tempered for a short time (2.5–3.5 hr) to about 16–16.5% moisture content
to keep the bran coat flexible and prevent it from breaking into small frag-
ments that are difficult to remove from the semolina. Treatment of the
durum wheat after the tempering stage (see Chapter 4) usually causes some
moisture loss and changes the physical conditions of the kernels. A short
second tempering of 30–60 min with 0.5% added water to adjust the mois-
ture to 16%, or any other optimal level, ahead of the first break keeps the
bran layers tough. During the few hours of tempering, the water penetrates
only to the outer layers of the endosperm. However, tempering is controlled
to produce a moisture content of about 15% in the final products. The water
is distributed to the rest of the endosperm by equilibration during milling.
334 CHAPTER 10
Broken endosperm particles are hygroscopic and absorb water from

adjacent particles.
The amount of water added to the wheat before milling depends on the
evaporative moisture loss expected during the milling process. The large
amount of air used in the purification system greatly affects the moisture in
the final products. Accordingly, the semolina mill is much more susceptible
than the flour mill to fluctuation in relative humidity. Figure 10-3 shows the
influence of relative humidity on the moisture content of the flour. Mills
may stabilize process air at a given dew point to minimize moisture loss
from the product to the process air. Many millers feel that a relative humid-
ity of 60% at about 22°C (72°F) is ideal. An air stabilization system is
shown in Figure 10-4. The system is made more efficient by recycling the
mill exhaust air and using a heat exchanger to recover heat from the
exhausted air if the ambient temperature is significantly above or below
22ºC.
The temperature of the wheat going to the first break rolls should be
above 21°C (70°F). High-temperature conditioning is detrimental to the
color, and steam or hot water is not used except in cases where the wheat is
cold (5°C, 41°F) and below 10% in moisture content. In these cases, it is
better to raise the wheat temperature with heaters before tempering and to
Fig. 10-3. Influence of relative humidity on moisture content of flour. (Source:

Shollenberger, 1921)
DURUM WHEAT 335
avoid direct application of steam. Very-low-moisture (6–8%), irrigated

durum wheat such as Desert Durum (grown in Arizona, New Mexico, and
California) and durum grown in other hot, arid regions should be condi-
tioned in stages. In such cases, the first tempering stage could be to 12%
moisture in the grain storage area for at least 12 hr. The second temper
stage, after the cleaning step and after the water content has been raised to
about 16–16.5%, should also last about 12 hr. A short tempering period of
about 30–60 min with the addition of 0.5% water ahead of the first break is
used to keep the bran layers tough.
Optimization of moisture content and temper time should be based on
the particle size distribution of the first-break meal and the fractions’ ash
content in relation to the whole-kernel ash content. Optimal distribution and
quality should be determined for each specific milling unit, and moisture
content and temper time should be adjusted accordingly.
Fig. 10-4. Air stabilization system in a durum mill. (Reprinted, with permission,
from Kice, 1990)
336 CHAPTER 10
Milling
The milling system of the durum mill differs from other wheat grinding
systems. Table 10-2 depicts the main differences. Shorter systems for
durum milling decrease the level of high-quality semolina extraction.
Usually, the breaking and purification stages are substantially increased in
size and number in semolina milling compared with common wheat flour
milling. Differences in mill design result in different extraction levels from
durum milling systems designed in Europe and the United States. Duchi and
Mecke (1986) described typical European durum milling flow-sheets that are
significantly longer than those used in the United States and produce different
final-product characteristics. Millers operating longer-system mills that
include more process stages reach an extraction of about 72% semolina and an
additional 7–8% flour; millers with shorter systems get about 67% semolina
and about 8–9% clear flour with about 1.3% ash. Table 10-3 shows an
example of specifications for machines in durum and hard wheat commercial
mills. Although the differences are small between roll surface and sifter area
allocated to each of the wheats, the durum system reduces the endosperm only
to relatively coarse particles. If it were ground to flour, about 40% additional
roll surface and adequate sifter area would be allocated to the durum semolina
regrind system. The previously described eight-roller mill reduces the ability
of the miller to control the grinding and reduction of equally sized material
TABLE 10-2
Grinding Stages in Milling of Different Kinds of Wheats
Durum Hard Wheat Soft Wheat
Breaks 5–6 4–5 4–5
Sizings 5–8 3 0–1
Middlings 5 6 5
Low-grades 3 1 1
Tailings 3 2 2
TABLE 10-3
Typical Machine Specifications in Durum and Hard Wheat Millsa
Durum Wheat Hard Wheat
cwt/24 hr 100 kg/24 hr cwt/24 hr 100 kg/24 hr
Roll surface 0.357 in. 15 mm 0.346 in. 14.5 mm
Sifter area 0.423 ft2 0.065 m2 0.503 ft2 0.077 m2
Purifier width 0.100 in. 4.2 mm 0.038 in. 1.5 mm
Purifier airb 5.72 cfmc 0.162 (m3/min) 1.45 cfm 0.041 (m3/min)
a
Adapted from Bass (1988).
b
Commercial mills.
c
Cubic foot per minute,
DURUM WHEAT 337
and therefore limits the amount of higher extraction of granular semolina. On

the other hand, newly developed pasta processes and high-temperature drying
systems allow use of semolina products with a particle size below 250 µm.
These drying systems have caused some gain in popularity of eight-roller
mills in some durum mills.
Breaking Stages
The objective in the break system is to release large pieces of endo-
sperm from the bran, while producing a minimum of fine material (<260
µm). All rolls should be run as slowly as possible to avoid breaking up the
bran. The size of the durum kernel is the main consideration in deciding on
the pitch of the corrugation. The corrugation profiles are sharper and deeper
than those of hard wheat flour mills. Corrugation specifications for durum
semolina milling have smaller front and back angles (25°/60° to 30°/65°)
than those found in flour milling (35°/65° to 30°/70°). The land on the
corrugation is, at a minimum, about half of that used in a flour mill to
increase the cutting action and reduce the production of fines. The higher
spiral in semolina milling (8%) with the sharp-to-sharp (S:S) action causes
a larger percentage of sizing and coarse middlings in the breaks than in
flour milling (4%). The tail break corrugations are sometimes run dull-to-
dull to avoid cutting the bran and to produce cleaner fine middlings. The
sharp action cuts up the bran, which makes the coarse break scalps smaller
than in flour mills. Table 10-4 shows an example of differences in averages
of break release of durum milling compared with those of a hard wheat mill
as practiced in two commercial mills. Optimization of break release adjust-
ment is discussed in other chapters of this book.
The initial breaking stages in the semolina mill are adjusted to a much
lower break release than in the flour mill. In particular, the first three breaks
TABLE 10-4
Percentage Break Release of Hard and Durum Wheat Mills
Durum Wheat Hard Wheat
Breaka (Through 18LW) (Through 20LW)
1st 9 30
2nd C 39 35
2nd F 67 50
3rd C 54 30
3rd F 69 45
4th C 37 20
4th F 75 35
5th C 33 20
5th F 86 30
6th C 71 …
6th F 95 …
a
C = coarse, F = fine.
338 CHAPTER 10
play an important role in total amount and quality of extracted semolina.

According to Lempereur et al (1997), it is advantageous to adjust the roll
gap of the first break according to the durum kernel size. European mills,
with a target of higher semolina extraction levels (about 72%) and finer
particle size, operate the first three breaks at different releases than Ameri-
can mills. As an example, for two mills using the same corrugation cuts
(25°/65°) and S:S action, the total release of the first three breaks would be
about the same (68%). However, the release for the first, second, and third
breaks would be 2, 10, and 65%, respectively, for the European mill and 8,
36, and 45% for the American mill. The Deep Getchell or Getchell cuts
used in some American durum mills would be set for releases of about 14,
35, and 42% for the first, second, and third breaks, respectively. Hareland
and Shi (1997) studied the interaction of the effects of five variables
(namely, corrugation angle, number of corrugations, corrugation orientation
[action], grinding roll differential, and wheat moisture) in the first-break
system of durum milling. Dull-to-dull action resulted in the highest break
release and highest semolina and flour yields when corrugation angle
profiles were 45º/60º, with 3.14 corrugations per centimeter (8 per inch) of
roll surface. In comparison, S:S action resulted in the highest break release
and the highest semolina and flour yields when the corrugation angle
profiles were 25º/65º. Roll spirals were 10.4%. Sharp-to-dull and dull-to-
sharp actions of the first break roll were not significantly different in
throughput of finer granular material but were different in coarse material
through an 8W sieve.
Debranning of durum kernels ahead of the first break (see Chapter 5)
accentuates the yellow color of semolina and allows higher semolina extrac-
tion as well as a significant reduction in the number of mill machines. It also
improves the falling number values of durum wheat, as shown by Willis and
Giles (2001). The previously mentioned advantage of reducing the microbial
count by debranning the durum kernel ahead of the first break is especially
significant in the quality of fresh pasta produced from semolina.
Sizings System
The objective of the sizings system is to scrape off bran fragments
attached to the endosperm and gradually reduce the large primary sizings to
the final granulation requirement, while making a minimum of flour and
fine middlings. The corrugation profiles are sharp and deep and have a
small land. To maximize the cutting action, the spiral is large and the
differential high. The grinding action is gentle, with low releases. Millers
decide on the gap adjustment and release from the sizing rolls based on trial
and error by observing the load of different granulations to the purifiers and
amount of flour produced. Figure 10-5 compares grinding releases for
DURUM WHEAT 339
Fig. 10-5. Comparative grinding releases of durum and hard winter wheat.
(Reprinted, with permission, from Abercrombie, 1980)
340 CHAPTER 10
durum and hard winter wheat. The sizings roll releases are set by test
sifting, as for the break rolls. This is very important for maintaining an even
load distribution on the purifiers and in subsequent process steps. The
material to the last sizings stages contains bran fragments, and the rolls are
therefore sometimes set for dull-to-dull action or smooth rolls are used to
produce cleaner fine middlings.
Sieving Area in Sifters

The necessity of sieving the ground material to narrow particle size
ranges demands a significantly larger specific surface area, especially in the
sieving of break materials. The longer flow of durum milling results in a
larger sieving surface area in breaks, redusts, and classification sections
than for other varieties of wheat. Durum stocks are difficult to classify,
because the sharp surfaces of the particles tend to make them skip over the
apertures of the screen. The sifter should be run as slowly as possible so that
the granular particles can fall through the apertures, yet fast enough to
activate the sieve cleaners to keep the apertures open. (Figure 6-8 illustrates
the relationship between the speed and throw of a gyratory sifter.) In some
cases, the sifter speed could be reduced as much as 20% for some granular
stocks. The extensive use of purifiers demands a very narrow particle size
range of the material from the sifters to perform an efficient separation.
Accordingly, there are more separations in the sifter sections than would be
found in a flour mill. Redust or grader sections are used to accommodate
efficient separations of the material to narrow particle size ranges for
efficient purification.
Purification
In the design of the durum mill flow, the material after each grinding
stage is classified to much narrower particle size ranges than in conven-
tional hard wheat flour milling. This is to produce uniformly sized material
directed to the purifiers. The principles utilized in the purifiers are sieving
and air currents.
The larger number of purifiers used and the accurate air adjustments
require a significantly larger amount of air to be used in semolina milling
than in flour milling (Table 10-3). As stated earlier, stabilization of the proc-
ess air is important to keep the stocks from drying out and to provide ample
air for the purifiers.
The purification process is the heart of the semolina mill. Semolina
extraction is determined by the operation of the purifiers. The miller must
be careful to make as much purified sizings and middlings as possible;
every malfunction of the purifier results in the loss of semolina extraction.
DURUM WHEAT 341
The rolls are set to a fixed release in the breaks and sizings to obtain the
proper granulation distribution for the separate sifter sections. The sifter
flow is fixed to classify the ground material to a narrow particle size
distribution to go to the purifiers. Large-capacity milling units have the
advantage that amounts of separated fractions of purifier stock are adequate
to cover the purifier sieves. In small units, the miller compromises to a
certain extent and uses a larger granulation distribution of particles in the
material going to the purifier. Practically, the purifiers are the primary
adjustable machines in the durum mill. The miller must use good judgment
to minimize the removal of good endosperm attached to bran during
purification stages, thus affecting the quality of subsequent process steps. In
balancing the load to the semolina mill purifiers, the miller adjusts the sys-
tem to ensure that all the purifiers are adequately loaded.
Both the cleanliness and the quantity of the separations from the purifier
can be changed by the miller during operation. This is done by adjusting the
sieve apertures, the air volume, and the tips (valves) to obtain the best
Fig. 10-6. An example of repeats (runaround) in a small durum mill. Bk = break,

P = purifier, Gr = grader, Nx = Nitex, SS = stainless steel, Fl = flour, Siz = sizing,
Semo = semolina. (Reprinted, with permission, from Abercrombie, 1980)
342 CHAPTER 10
result. The purifier separations are usually set out on a display board for
observation to check the work of the purifiers. A change in a sample’s
appearance can signal a change in the wheat mix, tempering, grinding, or
sifting, but it is most likely a change in the purifier operation (a stuck
cleaning brush, loose sieve cover, or improper feeding) that needs attention.
The miller must take as much clean endosperm product as possible from
each purifier because, with each grinding, more fines are produced, lower-
ing the ability to extract semolina at a specified granulation.
The durum purification system contains repeats (runarounds) of material,
which are situations where materials are sent back to the same purifier or to a
subsequent purifier for repurification. The material can be sent to the purifier
via grinding and sifting steps. Purifier repeats can be classified as 1) loading
the purifier in small-capacity mills; 2) cleaning coarse material in the primary
sizings; and 3) recovering coarse branny middlings in the tail purifiers.
Figure 10-6 shows an example of repeats in a small durum mill. Note
that P1 and P2 send good middlings back to the break rolls, where they can
Fig. 10-7. A typical tail-end repeat (runaround) system in a durum mill. Bk =

break, P = purifier, Nx = Nitex, SS = stainless steel, Fl = flour, Gr = grader, Siz =
sizing, Semo = semolina, red. = reduction. (Reprinted, with permission, from
Abercrombie, 1980)
DURUM WHEAT 343
return to the purifier. Sizings are also repeated to 2 Sizing to improve the
operation.
Coarse middlings that are not clean enough for semolina, but are too
good and too large to pass down to the next process step, should be
returned to the roll for grinding with the proper corrugations and
classified for return to the purifier. The quality of the repeated stock
should be equal to or better than that of the original feed stock. This
improves the cleanliness of the stock from the purifier. The repeats are
planned in the flow diagram, and roll, sifter, and purifier surfaces are
provided for the increased load. In large mills, a separate pair of rolls is
usually allocated for the repeat stock, providing an easy way to check the
operation.
A typical tail-end repeat system is shown in Figure 10-7. Middlings not
good enough for semolina are recycled for further reduction and classifica-
tion. They are sent back into the purification system for recovery of semo-
lina.
Extraction
Achieving high extraction levels is a more complicated task with semo-
lina than with flour milling. Whereas in flour milling the objective is to
separate the endosperm from the bran and germ and subsequently reduce
the still-coarse endosperm to fine white flour, in semolina milling the
objective is to separate the bran and germ from the endosperm while trying
to keep the chunks of endosperm as large as possible. Subsequently, the
miller reduces the endosperm chunks to the granulation distribution
specifications of the customer. The extraction of semolina in a well-
balanced mill can reach 68–72%, based on the weight of the wheat entering
the first break. An additional 7–10% is separated as clear flour. Extraction
rate affects color, ash, and starch damage, which are all factors important in
pasta manufacturing, especially when the granulation of the final product is
in the range of flour. Pasta quality is affected if fluctuations occur in some
of the above factors.
Product Quality
The pasta manufacturer usually writes specifications for the material

purchased from the miller based on some of the following factors: moisture,
granulation, color score and appearance, speck count, sand or grit, protein,
gluten quality, falling number test, and cooking test. However, the most
important of these are specks, sand, and color.
344 CHAPTER 10
Moisture
The moisture content of semolina should be 14–15%. Low-moisture
semolina does not absorb water easily in the continuous-extrusion press.
High-moisture semolina does not have good keeping qualities, and the
product tends to stick and to flow with difficulty. For these reasons, uni-
formity in semolina moisture content is important in pasta manufacturing.
Granulation
Semolina of medium granulation is found to a large extent in North
America. However, European semolina is generally finer and includes up to
25% flour as a requirement. To achieve such differences in granulation, the
number of corrugations on the first break rolls varies from 14 to 20 per inch
to produce the coarse and fine semolina, respectively. Rolls in a semolina
mill are usually run with a disposition of sharp to sharp and at a larger
(about 16% or 2 in.) spiral than in the flour mill (up to about 7% or 7/8 in.)
to generate a cutting action rather than compression and shearing actions.
At a given temperature and moisture, coarse and fine semolinas have
different hydration times because of their different particle surface areas
and particle volumes per unit weight. Finer endosperm particles have a
higher moisture absorption rate per unit weight than coarser endosperm
particles. Semolina particles with wide size distribution do not hydrate
uniformly and, as a result, adversely affect end-product quality. Those with
a fairly narrow size distribution attain uniform water absorption after a short
time. In general, mixing of semolina and water requires 15–20 min. Manser
(1985) showed mixing time requirements for different semolina particle
sizes. With narrow particle size distribution and intensive mixing machines,
this stage can be reduced to 20 sec. The objective in pasta production is to
avoid hydrating the endosperm completely to a stage where the gluten starts
to develop. Mere surface hydration can accommodate the moisture needed
to agglomerate the endosperm (under pressure) into a firm dough that is
dried to pasta. Coarser particles tend to give white specks in the pasta
products. When fine particles are combined with quantities of coarse
particles, more kneading time is required for the dough. Any temperature
fluctuations during kneading also have a detrimental effect on the pasta.
These are some of the factors that affect both production rates and the
quality of the final product.
The flour content of semolina products (that portion going through a
100-mesh wire [W]) should never exceed 3.0% (Abercrombie, 1980; FDA
2003). Traditionally, the pasta industry believed that only coarse semolina
was good semolina, but the industry is increasingly processing semolina
with finer granulation and higher extraction rates (70–72%). Table 10-5
DURUM WHEAT 345
shows various commercial granulation distributions for semolina milling.

Several descriptions of typical semolina granulation ranges have been made
in the literature (e.g., Kuenzli, 2001). Differences can be attributed to the
experience of authors with various processing lines and methods. Some
pasta manufacturers believe that particle size does not affect spaghetti
quality at all. On the other hand, Manser (1985) claims that the optimum
granulation range is between 125 and 350 µm, and good-quality pasta can
be made with particle size ranges of between 250 and 0 µm and between
350 and 0 µm. In any case, to have uniform water pickup and uniform
dough development, semolina particles should be as uniform in size as
possible.
Spaghetti manufacturers have their own optimal granulation distribu-
tions, which they keep as guarded secrets. Some achieve this optimal
granulation by blending semolina from different suppliers. The following
information suggests pasta manufacturers' specifications. Semolina with a
granulation of through 594 µm (30W) and over 250 µm (60W) is suitable
for extruding long goods with a batch process. Semolina with a granulation
of through 429 µm (40W) and over 178 µm (80W) is suitable for extruding
long goods with an automated process. In general, finer granulations are
used today compared with 15 or 20 years ago. Very fine semolina
granulation makes good pasta products, although they are not as resistant to
overcooking as products made with coarser semolina. Numerous variables
such as variety, origin, gluten content, yellow pigmentation, mill flow, and
pasta manufacturing systems affect the miller’s decision about which
granulation distribution to use in the production of semolina. The
knowledgeable durum miller modifies and adjusts the milling process to
achieve the required specifications as variables change. Seibel and
Zwingelberg (1997) showed that, by additional grinding of certain varieties
of semolina, the loss of yellow pigments during cooking can be reduced.
TABLE 10-5
Semolina Granulation Distribution (%)
Overs, Screen No.
30 Wa 40 W 45 W 60 W 80 W 100 W
(594 (420 (353 (250 178 150
µm) µm) µm) µm) µm) µm) Throughs
Mill no. 1b 0 20–28 10–30 30–40 … 10–15 3
Mill no. 2b 0–1 0–1 15–25 15–25 … 15–25 1–3
Mill no. 3c … 20.1 … 62.2 15.1 1.7 0.4
Mill no. 4d … 2.88 8.68 51.78 … 33.52 3.14
a
W = wire.
b
Abercrombie (1980); used by permission.
c
Matsuo and Dexter (1980).
d
Commercial mill, personal communication to first author (2001).
346 CHAPTER 10
They further showed that winter durum loses less yellow pigment than sum-
mer-grown durum.
Some manufacturers claim that, in general, granulations below 350 µm
are easier to process into translucent and homogeneous end-products of
high quality than are coarser granulations.
Semolina is also used for the manufacture of couscous, which is a staple
food in the North African or Maghreb nations. Coarser granulation is
required for couscous. Kaup and Walker (1986) described semolina
granulation distribution for couscous as 1.8, 51.4, 26, 6.6, 1.8, and 2.8% for
overs of sieves 841 µm (20W), 420 µm (40W), 250 µm (60W), 178 µm
(80W), and 150 µm (100W) and through 150 µm (100W), respectively.
Guezlane et al (1986) made couscous from a granulation distribution of 29,
38, 7, 13, 4, 2, and 7% for overs of sieves 800, 630, 560, 500, 380, and 250
µm and through 250 µm, respectively.
Color
Durum wheat endosperm has a high level of pigmentation, double the
level found in bread wheat. The durum wheat varieties are high in carote-
noid pigments, which are responsible for pasta’s yellow color. These pig-
ments in the semolina and subsequently in the pasta can be destroyed by
oxidation if the lipoxygenase enzymes in the germ are not removed during
milling. An optimal conditioning level and proper grinding accentuate the
bright yellow color of the semolina. The particle size of the semolina also
affects color; larger particles result in more yellowish color. Optical
reflectance can be used for color reference.
Specks and Grit

Typical commercial samples can show several types of wheat particles
(Table 10-6) as specks in the semolina. Semolina manufacturers and their
customers usually set up procedures for speck counting. Traditionally a ¼-
in. clear Plexiglas sheet or a glass plate with 1-in.2 blocks etched onto the
TABLE 10-6
Origin of Specks in Semolinaa
Material Percent of Total Specks
Discolored germ 30–65
Discolored endosperm 15–40
Pericarp 10–25
Minerals (sand) 8–15
Other materials 0–8
a
Source: Fritsch (1964).
DURUM WHEAT 347
surface is used in this test. The Plexiglas is placed over the semolina, and
the operator then counts the brown and black specks in a given number of
squares (El-Bouziri and Posner, 1988). Good light is essential for speck
counting. Specks come from germ, diseased wheat, seeds, discolored wheat
kernels, stones, and bran contamination. Black and brown specks are
undesirable to the pasta manufacturer because they are noticeable in the fin-
ished pasta. Brown bran particles cause spaghetti to break after drying. Bran
particles in the semolina usually originate from poor purifier adjustment or
from improper conditioning of the durum kernels, causing the bran to split
excessively during milling. Specks also originate from kernel pigment
strands and are distinct in their dark color compared with the rest of the
pericarp and seed coat. Recently, more objective systems have been devel-
oped using computer imaging to determine specific speck particle size and
darkness (see Chapter 2).
Grit in semolina is another important contaminant of concern to the
pasta manufacturer. It originates from ground stones, coal, or metals that
reach the milling process. Grit in the semolina may stick in the pasta die
and cause streaking or tearing of the dough as it is extruded. It also might
tear the Teflon-coated surface of the die. Grit in semolina can be detected
according to AACC methods 28-06 and 28-07 (AACC, 2000).
Speck origin varies from mill to mill and depends on the wheat quality.
Grit or sand content in commercial semolina can vary from 0.0008 to
0.049%, depending mainly on wheat origin, the handling system en route
from the farm to the mill, and the milling process.
Discolored Germ and Heat Damage

Black-tipped kernels in which the germ is discolored are major prob-
lems to the miller. Discolored germ might end up in the semolina and show
up as specks. Extensive germ discoloration influences the grade of the
wheat. However, all the other physical characteristics of the kernels with
discolored germ are the same as those of sound ones. This makes it very
difficult for the miller to separate kernels with discolored germ, even to a
very limited degree.
Absorption
It is critical for the pasta manufacturer that the semolina particles reach
uniform hydration during the short mixing before extrusion. Low absorption
results in dry dough. On the other hand, a high concentration of water in the
dough means more and longer drying, which may result in more brittleness or
fragility. In general, water absorption results should be in the range of 27–
35% to reach a peak of 500 Brabender units using the farinograph.
348 CHAPTER 10
Protein
Semolina with 11.5–13.0% protein is desired by the pasta manufacturer.
Pastas produced from lower protein levels are usually fragile and break
more easily; also, more problems exist with hydration during the mixing
process and during drying of the finished products.
Gluten
The amount and strength of gluten in the durum wheat has a direct
bearing on the quality of the pasta. Dry gluten in semolina can range
between 8.7 and 14.0%, with an acceptable mean of 11%. The sodium
dodecyl sulfate sedimentation described by Dexter et al (1980) is an effec-
tive indicator of durum wheat gluten strength. The gluten index, determined
with the Glutomatic system (Perten Instruments, AB), can also be used as a
small-scale method for evaluating the strength of semolina.
Falling Number
Durum wheat, which is generally a spring wheat in North America, is
harvested in many areas of the northern hemisphere during the months of
August and September. Summer rains can cause the wheat to have sprout
damage, which is measured by the falling-number test. A minimum accept-
able falling number for durum wheat is 250, which includes 60 sec of agita-
tion time. Severe sprout damage may cause higher cooking losses, decreased
firmness, and lower spaghetti stickiness values (Grant et al, 1993). According
to Matsuo et al (1982), semolina proteins do not appear to be affected by field
sprouting, nor do semolina yield and spaghetti color. Some effects of sprout
damage can be decreased by high-temperature drying of pasta.
Cooking Test
The cooking test for semolina involves weight gain, tenderness of
cooked product, volume increase, and resistance to disintegration (residue
in cook water). Cooking quality characteristics are determined according to
AACC method 16-50 (AACC, 2000) and usually are adjusted to local plant
conditions.
Temperature
The temperature of the semolina has an influence on water absorption,
the pasta manufacturing procedures, and final-product quality. The range of
optimum semolina temperature is 21–24°C (70–75°F).
DURUM WHEAT 349
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Feb., p. 6001.
Perten, H. 1990. Rapid measurements of wet gluten quality by the gluten index.
Rocca, S. 1986. Satake’s new electronic color sorter. Assoc. Oper. Millers Tech.
Bull., Sep., p. 4827.
Scott, J. 1951. Flour Milling Process. Chapman and Hall Ltd., London, England.
Wanzenried, H. 1991. Cleaning house and wheat cleaning flow. Assoc. Oper. Millers
Wellman, W. 1992. Wheat milling process. U.S. patent 5,089,282.
CHAPTER 11
Milling of Soft Wheat
Soft wheat flour is used mainly for the manufacture of baked goods not
requiring a developed structure during fermentation. Milled products of soft
wheat are used for cookies, cakes, angel food cakes, cookies, biscuits,
household flours, noodles, pretzels, and cracker sponge or doughnut flours.
As shown in Figure 1-13, flour protein can range from 7.0–7.5% for cookies
to 10.5% for doughnuts. Soft wheat is milled on designated units, where the
flow sheet is designed specifically for that purpose. However, in many other
cases, soft wheat is milled in blends with hard wheat at different ratios or on
“swing” mills where hard and soft wheat are milled alternately. Swing mills
are less efficient in regard to load, extraction of products, and quality. Such
combined mills are installed mainly in cases in which relatively small
quantities need to be processed from each kind of wheat. Set-off bins are used
to divert off-grade flours during wheat change-over and adjustments. This
chapter covers characteristics and methods specific to soft wheat milling.
Wheat Quality
The segregation of soft from hard wheats, as practiced in the trade, does
not always correspond to the miller’s concept. The main differences
between the milling characteristics of hard and soft wheats are discussed
below. Endosperms of soft and hard wheats fracture differently during mill-
ing. Hard wheat is more crystalline, breaks with intercellular fractures, and
makes larger chunks of endosperm. Soft wheat endosperm is friable, breaks
with intracellular fractures, is amorphous, and crumbles into smaller parti-
cles. The bonds between the wedge proteins, adherent protein, and the
starch granules are not as firm as in hard wheat (see Chapter 9).
Accordingly, a soft-mill flow sheet is designed to handle these differences
in endosperm characteristics. Nemeth et al (1994) compared milling
353
354 CHAPTER 11
performance and flour qualities of soft wheat varieties from Canada,

Australia, and the United States. In milling experiments performed on an
experimental mill, U.S. soft red winter wheat yielded the most flour of all
varieties, followed by the Australian and the Canadian wheats. The quality of
cookies made from Canadian soft wheat flour was comparable to that of
cookies made from the U.S. soft wheat flour. The Australian soft wheats had
good starch-pasting characteristics, which is important for noodle quality.
The quality of soft wheat varies, and the flour user can detect the differ-
ences. Varieties and rainfall affect the protein content of soft wheat. Some
users of soft wheat flour prefer wheat grown in the eastern United States to
that grown in western states, and some prefer blends. With the increase of
soft wheat varieties, the flours made from them fluctuate considerably.
Therefore, the miller is required to blend different kinds of wheats and
flours to produce the uniform characteristics demanded by his customers.
Today, soft wheat flours are used in highly automated bakeries, and
uniformity in flour quality is of prime importance to the baking process.
Bakers demand flour uniformity for the production of brand name products
such as pie crusts, biscuits, cones, and crackers that are characterized by flavor
and texture. Flour uniformity affects the spread and expansion of dough after
it is cut to size, and if the flour quality is not uniform, the final products might
be too small or too large to fit into the packaging (Downs, 1963).
Wheat Preparation for Milling

Soft wheat kernels are usually thicker than hard wheat kernels, with a
lower specific weight. This difference in kernel size, and in other physical
characteristics of soft wheat, requires appropriate sieve apertures and air
velocities as well as machine adjustments in the cleaning house. Cleaning
machinery must be adjusted for the physical characteristics of the new
wheat after mix changeover, especially in a combined milling operation.
A special cleaning problem occurs with soft red winter wheat in some
years because of contamination by seed heads of the garlic plant (bulblets).
The wheat will be graded “garlicky” if there are more than six bulblets (up
to 50) in a 1,000-g portion or “light garlicky” if the sample contains two but
not more than six bulblets. Garlicky wheat causes problems in the grinding
operations and can impart an odor to the flour. The bulblets are very sticky
and fill the roll corrugations, which inhibits the performance of the break
rolls. The corrugations must be washed to remove the garlic, which forms a
ring of ground stock on the roll. This problem is found mainly in the second
and third break stages. Sometimes the roll can be cleaned by directing a
small stream of water onto the surface, causing the ring of stock on the roll
to fall off by centrifugal force and physically removing the garlic from the
SOFT WHEAT 355
corrugations. A method of scraping the garlic from the roll and removing it
by special aspiration has also proven to help the problem. The bulblets are
very difficult to remove in the cleaning house because many of them have
the same size and specific gravity as the wheat kernel. The green garlic
bulblets usually have about twice the moisture content of wheat. Some of
them can be separated by specific gravity separators, but separators are
more effective in removal of dry bulblets. Accordingly, drying of the
garlicky wheat by aeration or other means could aid in the cleaning process.
One other solution is to blend garlicky wheat with uncontaminated wheat to
keep the bulblet count low.
Wet weather during maturation causes occurrence of scab, a disease
caused by the fungus Fusarium graminearum. Occurrence of 4-deoxyniva-
lenol (DON), a metabolite of F. graminearum is also common in the scabby
wheat. the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has established a
guideline level of 1 µg/g (1 ppm) for DON in finished wheat products that
may be consumed by humans. Seitz et al (1985) determined the distribution
of DON in soft wheat mill streams. Cleaning of the scabby wheat reduced the
DON content of wheat by an average of 16%, and screenings had 4.7-fold
higher DON contents than cleaned wheat. Scab-infected wheat kernels
are shriveled (i.e., tombstone kernels), soft, light in weight, and ivory or
light gray with occasional pink or red patches. Accordingly, the scab-
infected kernels are concentrated in the least-dense fractions for all
wheats. Tkachuk et al (1991) showed that a specific gravity table can be
used effectively to remove tombstone kernels and associated mycotoxins
from Fusarium-infected wheat.
Soft and hard wheats do not differ in the path of water entry to the inte-
rior of the kernel, which is mainly through the germ side. However, soft
wheat endosperm is not vitreous and dense. Spaces between the endosperm
starch granules can be seen with a scanning electron microscope (Fig. 11-
1). Water can penetrate through these capillary spaces in the endosperm.
The softer endosperm structure allows conditioning water to be absorbed by
soft wheat at a faster rate than by hard wheat. Accordingly, tempering time
to reach a milling moisture is very short for soft wheat, usually about one-
half of the time required by hard wheat. To enable the miller to have more
control of the time element, the first tempering stage should be flexible. The
tempering bins should be large enough to hold up to about 16 hr of grinding
capacity. When the natural moisture of the wheat is high, a limited amount
of water is sprayed on the wheat about 30 min before milling to toughen the
bran. Some mills follow this method for specialty flours, as do mills located
in areas of high relative humidity. Decisions regarding the conditioning
parameters (e.g., time and amount of water) for a certain mill should follow
a trial and error approach until optimal endosperm readiness before the first
break is determined.
356 CHAPTER 11
Fig. 11-1. Scanning electron microscope micrograph of soft wheat endosperm.

(Courtesy of Satake (USA) Inc.)
Milling Procedure
Because of its endosperm structure, soft wheat disintegrates during mill-
ing with less pressure than is necessary to break hard wheat. As a result, soft
wheat produces finer average flour particles with lower levels of starch
damage. With proper impact force, it is possible to break apart the starch
granules from the protein matrix in which they are embedded.
Table 10-2 shows the lower number of grinding stages in a soft wheat
mill compared to hard and durum mills. The endosperm of soft wheat
breaks down almost immediately into flour, and prime flours are therefore
obtained in the head breaks. Since soft wheat endosperm breaks down
readily, the amorphous particles tend to be softer and smaller in size. While
the average particle size of hard wheat flour is 50–70 µm, that of soft wheat
flour is in the neighborhood of 25–35 µm. The particles tend to adhere to
the sieves and, as a result, the effective sifter area in a soft wheat mill is
relatively larger than in the hard wheat mill. In some cases, use of a
centrifugal sifter is advantageous compared to regular gyrating sifter boxes.
The action of a centrifugal machine, in which a counterrotating rotor throws
the stock against a cylindrical sieve, allows efficient separation, especially
in the poorly flowing stocks of the soft milling flow.
The amorphous structure of the soft wheat endosperm produces fewer
small sizings than hard wheat does. As a result, purifiers are not always
SOFT WHEAT 357
TABLE 11-1
Milling Results from Hard and Soft Wheats: Percent of Wheat to First Break
Hard Wheat Soft Wheat Durum
Sizings, % 49.8 44.7 77.4
Break flour, % 5.7 10.5 2.0
TABLE 11-2
Suggested Break Releases for a Soft Wheat Mill
Break
1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th
Sieve, µm 1,000 774 774 678 678
(Number) (18W) (22W) (22W) (24W) (24W)
Break release, %a 32 30 12 7 6
a
Based on amount of wheat to first break.
used in the soft wheat flow sheet. When the bran is cleaned in the break
system, more endosperm (white caps) is attached to the bran, which indi-
cates that it is more difficult to remove the endosperm next to the bran.
Some mills operate the tail-end break roll corrugations in a sharp-to-dull
mode to clean the bran off the endosperm. The fast, sharp roll scrapes the
bran while it is held by the slow, dull roll. Impact dusters are also used
between the third and fourth breaks to remove the endosperm from the
bran. Impactors are used ahead of the redust sifter sections in many cases.
This increases the flour extraction and reduces the amount of material going
to purifiers and rolls. Impact machines can also be used on products before
the fourth and fifth breaks to avoid cutting up the bran with rolls.
Table 11-1 shows results from grinding soft, hard, and durum wheats on
the same experimental unit, using the same roll gap. More break flour and
fewer sizings are the main differences between hard and soft wheats during
milling. Break releases in the soft wheat mill are relatively higher compared
with those in a hard or durum mill. Table 11-2 suggests break release values
for soft mill breaks that add up to a cumulative value of 87%, based on the
amount of wheat to the first break.
A survey of U.S. millers listed the primary differences in the flow dia-
grams of soft and hard wheats (Wingfield, 1983). Soft wheat flow diagrams
had about twice the number of bran dusters and flake detachers in the grind-
ing system, about 10% more centrifugal sifters and 12% more break sifter
surface, and about 50% less purifier surface than hard wheat flow diagrams.
Soft wheat millers used about 35% more air classifiers that hard wheat millers.
Different opinions exist regarding the shape and action of roll corruga-
tions used in soft wheat milling. However, in the United States, the “modi-
fied Dawson” shape is preferred because the corrugations are rounded at the
358 CHAPTER 11
bottom, preventing the soft wheat materials from lodging in and filling the
groove. Soft wheat flour densities are significantly lower than those of hard
wheat flour (averages: soft flour 480 kg/m3, hard flour 560 kg/m3), and
accordingly, gravity transport pipes use higher degrees of slopes. The
mechanical milling of soft wheat inherently generates less starch damage.
In countries where soft wheat flour is used for breadmaking, the miller is
aware that starch damage of the flour must be increased. This is done by
applying heavy roll pressures in the reduction system, as mentioned in
Chapter 5.
The large variety of flours from soft wheat requires careful analysis and
selection of flour streams to blend them to the product specifications.
Nelson and Loving (1963) published a practical description of stream
analysis and showed examples for stream blending to produce various final-
flour qualities in a soft wheat mill.
Soft Wheat Sprout Damage Control

Sprout damage in soft wheats can result in higher-than-normal levels of α-
amylase in the flour. Sound wheat has low levels of α-amylase. The most
effective method to lower α-amylase activity is to segregate incoming wheat
according to α-amylase activity and blend the wheat mix to an acceptable level.
Debranning or pearling of wheat kernels to remove the embryo and
outer layers of bran before the first break reduces α-amylase activity in the
flour (Liu et al, 1986). Success depends on the extent to which the α-
amylase activity has penetrated the endosperm. This technique shows
commercial promise as more attention is given to the process by millers and
machine manufacturers.
The miller can control amylase activity by using coarser sieves in the
mill, producing flour with larger granulation. In such cases, good results
have been achieved by selecting flour screens with larger apertures in the
first four middlings stages in the mill flow. The miller can select flour
streams that are low in α-amylase activity, but the problem with stream
selection is how to dispose of the flour that is high in α-amylase.
Cake Flours
Cake flours are usually produced in a soft wheat mill as patent flours
and are considered to be the first grade. Patent flour is a partial collection of
the best-color and lowest-ash flour steams from under the mill sifters. The
flour streams are selected to meet the quality specifications for the grade of
flour desired, while also considering how the removal of these flour streams
will affect the ability of the remaining flour to meet commercial grade
SOFT WHEAT 359
specifications. Usually, the second grade of flour is suitable for crackers and
some cookies. Cake flour also can be produced by pin milling regular
grades of flour and segregating the flour by air classifiers into a fraction that
contains primarily starch granules (see Air Classification below; see also
Chapter 9). Cake flour also can be produced by a combination of split
milling (where two or more flours are produced at the same time) and air
classification.
There are many different kinds of cake flours; properties of some of
them are shown in Table 11-3. Type “A” flour is produced by an air classi-
fier; separation at a certain flour particle size results in a fraction that con-
sists mainly of free starch granules. This method can produce good flour for
angel food cake from hard wheat, but it is very expensive in capital and
operating costs and is not desirable when low-protein wheat is available at a
reasonable cost. Types “B” and “C” flours are usually produced as patent
flours. Type “D” flour can be produced as a straight grade (100%) or from a
split run, i.e., by blending flour streams from different sections in the mill to
produce two or more final flours. A typical three-way split from a commer-
cial soft wheat mill is shown in Table 11-4. These flours also can be pro-
duced by a combination of split milling and pin milling.
Mills that produce cake flour usually collect the individual flour streams
to meet the specifications necessary to make the grade. An important
specification is granulation of the flour. Granulation control requires that
the sifter sections for the patent flour stream contain fine clothing to remove
coarse particles, usually larger than 75 µm. The reduction stages in the mill
require more grinding surface to reduce the endosperm particles to the
required particle size. A mill producing flour for high-ratio cakes (cakes
with more sugar than flour) can have 10–15% more roll and sifter surfaces
than a soft wheat mill that mills straight-grade flour for cookies, pretzels,
doughnuts, and other soft wheat products. The principal adjustment for pro-
ducing soft wheat products in a soft mill is making changes in the wheat
mix. For example, doughnut flour is made from slightly harder wheat or a
blend of hard and soft wheat flours rather than by changing the mill flow or
processing parameters.
TABLE 11-3
Cake Flour Types and Their Usesa
Protein Ash
Flour (%) (%) Uses
A 4.70 0.23 Angel food
B 7.35 0.29 Chiffon, angel food, white and yellow layer cakes
C 8.30 0.32 Sponge, chocolate, pound, other heavier cakes
D 9.10 0.42 Pound, chocolate, and lower-grade cakes
a
Source: Dubois (1961); used with permission.
360 CHAPTER 11
The cake flour stream sifters are clothed with fine-meshed screen, or air
classifiers are sometimes used to control the granulation. The streams can
be combined to make a regular cake or cracker flour, depending upon the
wheat mix. Cake flour is treated with chlorine to improve cake grain,
texture, and volume. Chlorine gas is metered into a mixing chamber, and
the flour is agitated to absorb the gas uniformly (see Chapter 9). Normally,
solid additives are mixed in a blending conveyor or ribbon mixer to
distribute them uniformly; however, in a gas-to-solid mixture, the particles
must be suspended to receive the gas uniformly. An agitator is used for this
purpose (Fig. 9-2). The flour is thrown upward into the chamber, where the
gas can react with the flour particles. The extent of treatment with chlorine
is measured by the pH of the flour. The amount of chlorine to obtain a given
TABLE 11-4
Soft Winter Stream Analysis Three-Way Split: Short-Patent Cake,
Strong Cracker, Cleara
Short Strong
Stream Percent Protein Ash Patent Cracker Clear
b
1st Break 6.75 6.30 0.295 xxx
2nd Break 6.00 7.50 0.330 xxx
3rd Break 3.95 9.25 0.390 xxx
4th Break 2.90 10.85 0.620 xxx
5th Break 1.40 12.55 0.930 xxx
Sizings 1.80 6.90 0.310 xxx
2nd Qual. 1.95 8.20 0.325 xxx
1st Midds 23.20 7.50 0.300 xxx
2nd Midds 10.85 8.05 0.295 xxx
3rd Midds 7.75 8.55 0.305 xxx
4th Midds 6.60 8.65 0.310 xxx
5th Midds 5.90 9.95 0.345 xxx
6th Midds 4.45 10.00 0.360 xxx
7th Midds 3.00 10.70 0.460 xxx
1st Tails 2.90 7.55 0.415 xxx
2nd Tails 1.65 8.90 0.590 xxx
3rd Tails 1.45 11.90 1.330 xxx
1st LGc 2.40 10.60 0.780 xxx
2nd LG 1.40 11.00 0.850 xxx
3rd LG 1.15 11.30 0.990 xxx
4th LG 0.85 12.80 1.430 xxx
Dusters 0.75 11.75 1.200 xxx
Bran sieve 0.95 10.35 0.900 xxx
Cumulative 100.00 8.55 0.410
Short patent 64.90 7.70 0.310
Cracker 20.20 10.05 0.415
Clear 14.90 10.40 0.780
a
Source: Nelson and Loving (1963).
b
xxx indicates the flour to which the corresponding stream would be diverted in a split
milling system.
c
Low grade stage in the mill. This follows the middlings reduction system. The stock
contains rather large quantities of cellulose and some aleurone layer as well as endosperm.
SOFT WHEAT 361
Fig. 11-2. Relationships between the degree of pin-milling of soft wheat flour and
particle size (i.e., specific surface diameter, open triangles), starch damage (filled
circles), hydration value (open circles), and white layer cake quality (filled
triangles). (Source: Miller et al, 1967)
pH depends on the flour’s ash content and moisture. The streams are
usually treated separately as patent, middle cut, and clear flours. Patent
flour requires less chlorine per unit than higher-ash clear flour. It is good
practice to treat the different end flours separately to avoid overtreatment of
patent flour when treating straight-grade flour to a certain pH. In many
cases, cake flours are bleached in the range of pH 4.5–4.8. Environmental
concerns have raised questions about the use of chlorine for cake flour.
Several countries have enforced regulations forbidding the use of chlorine.
Heat treatment of soft wheat flour also improves cake baking quality.
A soft wheat mill with standard sifter clothing can make a variety of soft
wheat flours and produce angel food cake flour with an auxiliary pin mill
reduction system. Figure 11-2 shows the relationship between the degree of
pin-milling of soft patent flour and particle size, starch damage, hydration
value, and white layer cake quality. One or two passes through the pin mill
improves granulation and baking quality, while minimizing starch damage
(see Air Classification in Chapter 9).
Cookie Flour
Protein levels in wheat used to make cookie flours for the U.S. market
should be between 9 and 10%. If the protein level is too low, the cookies
produced from the flour are too dense. On the other hand, high-protein hard
wheat makes cookies too hard for the U.S. consumer. Consumer preferences
362 CHAPTER 11
TABLE 11-5
Particle Size Index (PSI) and Cookie Diametera
Wheatb PSI Cookie Diameter, cm
SRW 41.7 9.51
SWE 41.3 9.46
SWW 36.6 9.22
CLB 38.4 9.36
a
Data from Pomeranz et al (1988).
b
SRW = soft red winter, SWE = soft white east (Midwest and eastern United States), SWW =
soft white west (northwestern United States), CLB = club.
vary in other parts of the world, and other wheats and their flours are used
accordingly.
Cookie flour is usually made as 100% straight-grade flour. The sieve
apertures are slightly larger than normal for soft wheat; especially in the
break redust flour sifters. It is better to grind more gently and sift more
coarsely with larger sieve apertures to improve the cookie spread factor.
Some mills have a valve arrangement in the flow to divert coarse flour from
the break system directly to the flour stream rather than grinding it in the
reduction system. Usually, the break-flour yield from soft wheat used for
cookie production is in the range of 34–35%, with about 2.1% damaged
starch, and an alkaline water retention capacity (AWRC) of about 52–
53%. Water retention capacity is a very important characteristic in soft
wheat flours. Flours with lower water retention capacity require less heat
during baking to attain a given target moisture content.
The particle size of the flour affects cookie texture, general quality, and
AWRC. Soft wheat characteristics relating to the final flour granulation, which
affects hydration, can be determined by the particle size index (PSI). This value
is determined on a sample of wheat meal. Yamazaki and Donelson (1983)
described the procedure to determine the PSI. Wheat meal (20 g) is ground
with a Labconco heavy-duty mill equipped with special burrs. Fifteen grams of
the meal is weighed on a round 20-cm, 425-µm-opening metal screen over a
pan and sifted for 30 sec on a rotary sifter (190 rpm, 10-cm throw). The
assembly is then tapped lightly, and the material passing through the screen is
weighed. PSI is calculated as the percentage of meal passing through the
screen. As the PSI value increases, the average particle size or granulation of
the resulting flour is expected to decrease. Because soft wheat releases more
fines than hard wheat, the higher the PSI, the softer the wheat. Table 11-5
shows the relationship between PSI and cookie diameter.
Conclusion
There is great diversity in soft wheat mills. Some mills grind local
wheat to produce straight-grade flour for cookies, pretzels, or crackers. The
SOFT WHEAT 363
flow diagram is usually simple and is tailored to the flour specifications of

the end product. The larger mills have a more complex flow diagram, to
control flour granulation and simultaneously produce several grades of flour
(e.g., cake, pastry, cracker, and cookie flour). Some vertical integration
exists in the cracker/biscuit industry, and this trend may continue in the
future as bakers seek specialized flour manufactured from identity-
preserved wheat. Such flour is desired not only for organic reasons, but also
because some wheat varieties have unique baking characteristics that can,
for instance, improve cookie spread factor or make good Japanese noodles.
REFERENCES CITED
Downs, D. E. 1963. Automation demands soft wheat flour uniformity. Cereal Sci.
Today 8:349-350, 358.
Dubois, D. K. 1961. Achieving flexibility in variety cake production. Proc. Am.
Soc. Bakery Eng., pp. 274-282.
Liu, R., Laing, Z., Posner, E., and Ponte J. 1986. A technique to improve functional-
ity of flour from sprouted wheat. Cereal Foods World 31:471-476.
Miller, B., Trimbo, H., and Powell, K. 1967. Effects of flour granulation and starch
damage on the cake making quality of soft wheat flour. Cereal Sci. Today
12:245-252.
Nelson, C., and Loving, H. 1963. Mill-stream analysis. Cereal Sci. Today 8:301-
304, 326.
Nemeth, L. J., Williams, P. C., and Bushuk, W., 1994. A comparison study of the
quality of soft wheats from Canada, Australia, and the United States. Cereal
Foods World 39:691-700.
Pomeranz, Y., Czuchajowska, Z., Shogren, M. D., Rubenthaler, G. L., Bolte, L.
C., Jeffers, H. C., and Mattern, P. J. 1988. Hardness and functional (bread
and cookie-making) properties of U.S. wheats. Cereal Foods World 33:297-304.
Seitz, L. M., Yamazaki, W. T., Clements, R. L., and Andrews, L. 1985.
Distribution of deoxynivalenol in soft wheat mill streams. Cereal Chem.
62:467-469.
Tkachuk, R., Dexter, J. E., Tipples, K. H., and Nowicki, T. W. 1991. Removal
by specific gravity of tombstone kernels and associated trichothecenes from
wheat infected with Fusarium head blight. Cereal Chem. 68:428-431.
Wingfield, J. 1983. Milling specifications: Hard wheat vs. soft wheat. Assoc. Oper.
Millers Tech. Bull., Nov., p. 4151.
Yamazaki, W. T., and Donelson, J. R. 1983. Kernel hardness of some U.S. wheats.
SUGGESTED READING
Farmer, S. 1970. Flour milling method and apparatus. U.S. patent 3,517,889.
Finney, P. L., and Andrews, L. C. 1986. Revised microtesting for soft wheat quality
evaluation. Cereal Chem. 63:177-182.
Kruger, J. 1981. Severity of sprouting as a factor influencing the distribution of
alpha amylase in pilot mill streams. Can. J. Plant Sci. 61:817-828.
364 CHAPTER 11
Lockwood, J. 1960. Flour Milling. Northern Publishing Co. Ltd., Liverpool, Eng-
land.
McGee, B. 1992. Robinson’s Trigotec System. Assoc. Oper. Millers Tech. Bull.,
Feb., p. 6001.
Perten, H. 1990. Rapid measurements of wet gluten quality by the gluten index.
Scott, J. 1951. Flour Milling Process. Chapman and Hall Ltd., London, England.
Wanzenried, H. 1991. Cleaning house and wheat cleaning flow. Assoc. Oper. Millers
Yamazaki, W. T. 1954. Interrelations among bread dough absorption, cookie diame-
ter, protein content, and alkaline water retention capacity of soft winter wheat
flours. Cereal Chem. 31:135-142.
USDA Soft Wheat Quality Lab: www.oardc.ohio-state.edu/swql

FDA: Mycotoxins in Imported Foods: http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~comm/cp07002.html
CHAPTER 12
Air in the Flour Milling

Industry
The miller in the modern mill regards the air-handling system as one of
the more important portions of the milling operation. It is one of the
controllable elements that millers can use to their advantage. Estimates indi-
cate that, by weight, 10 times more air than wheat is moved in a modern
flour mill during processing of a given quantity of wheat. Consequently, the
miller’s objectives are to understand and control this important part of the
operation. Besides the mechanical aspects of air handling, which are impor-
tant to its efficient usage, the miller is concerned about air quality and purity.
Ambient air in the facilities in which grain is handled or processed
influences the process and the quality of the finished products. Air movement is
used as a tool in segregating parts of the stock based on specific gravity
differences and in separating foreign material from the wheat. It is also used in
the creation of vacuum to aerate grain and collect dust and light material in
machines and facilities. High-pressure air activates equipment, tools, and
instrumentation in the ever-growing automation of the industry. Last, but not
least, air is used to convey materials.
Air in the mill affects product quality. Contaminated air may contami-
nate the products it touches. In a well-designed mill, where a large part of
the air used in the mill is washed and recirculated, it may be cleaner than
the outside air. However, poorly designed air-handling systems are costly
and can cause pollution in the immediate area of the flour mill. Excessive
amounts of air in the process may cause too much moisture evaporation
from intermediate materials, and as a result, flours may have poorer color
and lower moisture content.
Materials considered for pneumatic conveying should have physical
characteristics that allow them to be accelerated, moved, and separated from
the air. Particles should have enough surface area to react to an airstream
that will move or suspend them and should not have a cohesive or attracting
force among them.
365
366 CHAPTER 12
Because air is apparently “easy” to move, little thought may be given to

the power consumed for its activation or to the efficiency of the system. As
shown later, about the same energy level is needed to move air whether the
mill is loaded with materials during grinding or running empty. The follow-
ing sections include descriptions and principles characterizing air in the
different forms used in the wheat flour milling industry.
Principles
Definitions
Static pressure (SP) is the pressure of air confined within a duct. It
exerts itself perpendicularly to the walls of the duct and can be negative as
well as positive, relative to the atmosphere.
Velocity pressure (VP) refers to the pressure equivalent of the air
velocity at any particular point. It is also referred to as “velocity head” and
is always positive.
Total pressure (TP) is the algebraic summation of the static and
velocity pressures. It is the resistance of ducts and valves and the pressure-
equivalent of the air. TP can be either negative or positive, relative to
atmospheric pressure.
Vapor pressure is the portion of air weight (or pressure) contributed by
its water vapor content, expressed as the “partial pressure” in millimeters
(or inches) of mercury.
Saltation velocity is an inherent material characteristic that equals the
actual air velocity in a horizontal pipeline from which particles mixed
homogeneously with the conveying air begin to fall out of the air-material
stream.
Relative humidity is the ratio of water vapor actually contained in the
air to the amount it could hold if saturated at any given temperature.
Dry bulb temperature is the temperature of moist air indicated by an
ordinary thermometer.
Wet bulb temperature is the temperature produced by the cooling
effect of evaporation. There are two wet-bulb temperatures: the thermo-
dynamic and the psychrometric. The thermodynamic wet-bulb temperature
is that reached by moist air and water if the air is adiabatically saturated by
the evaporating water. The psychrometric wet-bulb temperature is the tem-
perature of moist air indicated by a thermometer whose bulb is covered with
a wet wick. The psychrometric and thermodynamic wet-bulb temperatures
of 100% rh air are equal. Figure 12-1 shows a sling psychrometer with dry
and wet bulb thermometers. Whirling the device accelerates airflow over the
two thermometers. When the air in the mill is drier, more evaporation
AIR 367
Fig. 12-1. Sling psychrometer. (Source: Kice, 1985)
occurs, causing the wet-bulb temperature to get cooler. With known dry-
and wet-bulb temperatures, the relative humidity can be determined using a
psychrometric chart.
Barometric pressure is the pressure of the atmosphere at a certain
point on the earth. It can be measured because air has a weight that changes
as a result of weather conditions. Atmospheric pressure will balance a
column of mercury of any cross-section and of a certain height if there is a
complete vacuum above it. This is the principle of the barometer. The
standard barometric pressure at sea level is 760 mm of mercury at 0°C by
definition. Equivalents of this pressure in other units are 29.92 in. Hg at
70°F; 14.696 lb force/in2, and 1 atmosphere.
Temperature
Temperature is a measure of the intensity of molecular energy in any
physical condition. Absolute zero is that temperature at which all molecular
activity ceases. On the Celsius scale, the ice point is 273.16°C above
absolute zero. On the Fahrenheit scale, the ice point is 491.69°F above
absolute zero and 0°F is 491.69 – 32 = 459.69°F above absolute zero. For
most engineering computations, absolute zero is taken as –273°C (–460°F).
The absolute temperature using the Celsius scale is often expressed in terms
of kelvin (K) and on the Fahrenheit scale as degrees Rankine (°R). For
example, a temperature reading of 25°C would correspond to an absolute
temperature of 273 + 25 = 298 K. The temperature of air has an effect on its
pressure and on the quantity of air moved. With an increase in temperature,
368 CHAPTER 12
air expands and, as a result, the pressure increases and actual air density
decreases. Calculations related to air quantity moved should be corrected to
the temperature of the air (see below).
Air Pressure
To move air from one point to another, a difference in pressure between
the two points must exist. We differentiate between the three types of pres-
sure: static pressure, velocity pressure, and total pressure.
Static pressure is responsible for overcoming frictional resistance in the
system in which the air is moved. The static pressure in a network of ducts
is not cumulative and is governed by the path of the greatest resistance.
Each change in shape, diameter, roughness of the hood, or internal duct
material affects the static pressure. The static pressure generated with a
blower or a fan should be great enough to overcome all the resistance in the
“leading” path.
The velocity pressure is responsible for movement of the air at a level
required to perform the designated task. The total pressure is the algebraic
sum of the static and velocity pressures.
These air pressures are determined using the pitot tube (Fig. 12-2) and a
manometer. The pitot tube consists of a hook nozzle and a tube inside a
concentric outer tube. Small holes through the outer tube wall near the end
of the bent portion are at a 90° angle to the nozzle opening in the end of the
bent tube. When the nozzle is positioned to face directly into the airstream,
the small holes are not subjected to any velocity pressure. Instead the holes
Fig. 12-2. Pitot tube. S. P. = static pressure, T. P. = total pressure. (Source: Kice,
1985)
AIR 369
sense the static pressure inside the duct. The static pressure is transmitted
through the annular space between the tubes to one leg of the manometer.
The inside tube, with its hook nozzle facing the airstream, transmits the
total pressure to the other entry of the manometer. The manometer is a “U”
tube filled with liquid that measures pressures in the system. The difference
between the total and the static pressures, seen as the difference between the
liquid column heights of the “U” gauge manometer, is the velocity pressure.
Pressures through the pitot tube can be determined using different kinds of
manometers. Mechanical or liquid manometers are available (Fig. 12-3). A
liquid manometer should contain a liquid with the designated specific grav-
ity. Otherwise, corrections should be made to account for the difference in
specific gravities.
Pressures, especially the velocity pressure, can vary greatly over the
duct cross-section from top to bottom and side to side. This is due to
turbulence and currents created by elbows, transitions, and other fittings in
the duct system. A single velocity measurement might be considerably
different from the average air velocity over the entire cross-section. For this
reason, the duct cross-section is divided into a number of equal areas, and
the velocity pressure is measured at the center of each area (Fig. 12-4). The
velocities calculated from the different velocity pressures are averaged.
Engineering tables can be used to determine the traversing points with a
pitot tube in ducts with different diameters.
The following are some typical static pressure drops in systems with
milling machines: roller mill: 6 mm water gauge (WG), purifier: 8–13 mm
WG, slow-speed cyclone: 13–20 mm WG, high-speed cyclone: 76–130 mm
Fig. 12-3. Manometers, fluid and mechanical. SP = static pressure, VP = velocity

pressure, TP = total pressure. (Source: Kice, 1985)
370 CHAPTER 12
Fig. 12-4. Duct cross-sectional area to measure air velocity.
WG, filter with compartments: 51–64 mm WG, reversed air jet filter: 38–51
mm WG.
Velocity
Velocities of the air and the material in mill equipment are different
because a “slippage” always occurs between the medium (air) and the material
conveyed. Air velocity (V) is measured in meters per second (feet per minute).
It is calculated from the velocity pressure using the following equation:
V (m/sec) = 2 ×
g
× Vp
j
where: Vp = velocity pressure in mm H2O, g = 9.81 (m/sec2), j = air density
(kg/m3), or, using a short calculation:
V (m/sec) = 4 × V p (mm H 2 O)
V (ft/min) = 4,005 × Vp (in. H 2 O)

AIR 371
The required velocity depends on the system used and the char-
acteristics of air and material to be conveyed. Each particle of material has
its own aerodynamic and physical characteristics, which affect the terminal,
saltation, and critical velocities of the particle. Generally, terminal,
saltation, and critical velocities are determined empirically in the laboratory.
Different researchers have attempted to establish equations for their
determination.
Capture velocity is the air velocity at any point in front of the hood or
out the hood opening necessary to overcome opposing air currents and to
capture the contaminated air at that point by causing it to flow into the
hood.
Settling velocity is a function of the particle size and weight. Some
particles settle very quickly, but others float in the air for extended periods.
The terminal velocity of a material particle is the velocity reached when
the body is allowed to fall freely in still air. At the beginning of a fall, the
speed of fall increases until the restraining force from resistance of the air
becomes equal to the effect of the force of gravity. From that moment, the
body continues to fall at a constant speed that is known as its terminal
velocity.
Saltation velocity is defined as the mean air velocity required to prevent
particles from settling on the bottom of a horizontal pipe.
Critical velocity is the velocity required to keep a particle in suspension.
The following are some typical air velocities in the mill: grain storage
aspiration: 920–980 m/min, cleaning house aspiration: 820–880 m/min,
powder conveying: 1,220 m/min, and wheat conveying: 1,550 m/min.
Air Volume
The quantity of air is determined by calculating the volume moved
through the system per unit of time. The product of multiplying the air
velocity by the cross-sectional area of the duct or line is the air volume per
unit of time. Technical data regarding equipment and theoretical
calculations of air are expressed by manufacturers at standard conditions.
Standard air is air at 21.1°C (70°F) temperature, 50% rh, and sea level
atmospheric pressure of 760 mm (29.92 in.) of mercury, or 14.7 lb/in2.
Values can be corrected to standard and back to actual conditions by
knowing the temperature and barometric pressure at a given location. In
correcting air characteristics, the absolute temperature and pressures are
used. The following is an example of an air quantity corrected as a result of
change in temperature and barometric pressure:
460 + 70°F Pactual
SCFM = ACFM × ×
460 + Tactual 29.92 in. Hg
372 CHAPTER 12
where SCFM is the cubic feet per minute (CFM) at standard conditions,
ACFM is the CFM at actual conditions, Pactual is the actual barometric
pressure in inches of mercury, and Tactual is the actual temperature in degrees
Fahrenheit.
Equipment
Any air system in the mill can be divided into three distinct parts, each
of which contributes to the efficiency of the system. These are the fan or
blower that generates the pressure and moves the air, the ducts or lines that
convey clean air or a mixture of air and material, and the dust disposal sys-
tem that separates the material from the air before returning the latter to the
atmosphere.
Fans, Blowers, and Compressors

Fans, blowers, and compressors are equipment for moving air. They dif-
fer in the volume of air moved, pressure, and energy requirements (Table
12-1).
A fan is a rotary-bladed machine that delivers a continuous flow of air
or gas at some pressure, without materially changing its density. Fans can
be divided into two general types: 1) axial or propeller fans and 2)
centrifugal fans. Axial fans are used to move and circulate air without
creating substantial pressure in a duct. They generally are used where large
volumetric flow rates and low system pressures are required. They can be
installed in a duct leading to grain storage bins for aeration and drying.
The fans used in moving air for dust collection in the wheat milling sys-
tem are the centrifugal type. They draw air into the center of the rotor and
discharge it tangentially through the outlet. They can be used in single-, or
multiple-branched duct systems for aspiration and pneumatic conveying.
TABLE 12-1
Air Pressure Systems for Pneumatic Conveyinga
Medium-
Diluted Phase Dense Phase Dense Phase
Air Mover Centrifugal Fanb Blower Pump Blow Tank
Pressure Up to 50 in. ±7 psi 15–35 psi 30–125 psi
Air material ratio, Vac. 10–30 Vac. 3–5
ft3 air/lb material Pres. 4.5–13 Pres. 1–3.5 0.35–0.75 0.1–0.35
Air velocity, ft/min 6,000 4,000–8,000 1,500–3,000 200–2,000
a
Source: Colijn (1983).
b
Vac. = vacuum, Pres. = pressure.
AIR 373
In selecting a fan or other means to move the air, the higher the pressure
developed by the fan, the further it will move the air and the product. To
select the pressure needed for a fan to perform its task, the static pressure
should be determined, based on the requirements of the system. The follow-
ing is the equation to calculate the static pressure (SP) of the fan:
SPfan = SPoutlet – SPinlet – VPinlet
Where VP = velocity pressure.
Fan specifications in manufacturers’ catalogs show the static pressure
calculated with the above equation. The pressure is specified at standard
conditions of temperature and barometric pressure. Fan manufacturers also
supply a fan-efficiency curve that is valid only for air having specific weight
1.20 kg/m3 at 20°C and 760 mm Hg, corresponding to sea-level conditions.
Fig. 12-5. Fan performance chart. (Courtesy of Kice Industries, Inc.)

374 CHAPTER 12
To determine fan size requirements, specifications such as pressure and vol-

ume should be corrected to local conditions. Fan efficiency curves or charts
differ in presentation from one manufacturer to another. Figure 12-5 is an
example of a centrifugal-fan performance chart that shows the relationship
between static pressure, air quantity, and break horsepower. Such a chart is
usually supplied by the manufacturer as one in a complete series for the
different sizes, from which the appropriate fan can be selected within the
required range of parameters.
Fans differ in their blade shapes depending on the objective of their
use. The three main shapes are radial and backward- and forward-curved
(Fig. 12-6). The radial-blade fan wheels turn at a high tip speed and
develop relatively higher pressure (30–50 in. WG) than the other two
shapes. Dust passing through them would not settle on the blades. Fans with
radial wheels are used in multiple-line, pneumatic conveying systems in
the mill.
Forward- and backward-blade fans are used for lower pressures. The
main disadvantages of the forward-curved blade wheels are that they are
very low in efficiency, and dust accumulates on the blades. Fans with back-
ward-curved blades are efficient in moving large quantities of relatively
clean air in aspiration of equipment and segregation of materials, based on
Fig. 12-6. Three main types of fan wheel blades. (Courtesy of Kice Industries, Inc.)
AIR 375
aerodynamic properties. However, dust also builds up on these blades when

they move humid, dust-laden air while aspirating stocks. The typical fans
used for dust-control systems are designed for pressure differentials
between 10 and 20 in. WG.
Horsepower
The horsepower for a fan, or for any other air-moving equipment, is the
energy required to overcome all resistance or pressure within a system to
move a given volume of air. The resistance is basically the summation of all
static pressure losses and the final velocity pressure (VP) loss at the dis-
charge point. Brake horsepower (BHP) is the required horsepower of the
driving motor of the air-moving equipment.
1 air horsepower (AHP) = 6,356 ft3/min (CFM) of air volume at 1 in.

static pressure (SP), if the fan efficiency (Efan) is 100%.
Thus: AHP =
(CFM × SP in. of water )
6,356 × Efan
BHP × 100
Thus: Efan =
AHP
AHP
and BHP =
6,356 × Efan
where fan efficiency is in the range of 0.5–0.65.
Another short calculation is:
hp =
(SP × CFM)
33,000
2
where SP is expressed in lb/ft .
The air volume is related linearly to the fan revolutions per minute
(rpm), whereas the pressure and horsepower increase in the second and
third power, respectively, with changes in rpm.
The aspiration or pneumatic fan energy requirement depends, as shown,
on the amount of air conveyed. By adjusting the fan rpm, significant savings
can be achieved. Fans are constructed with rotors that are directly coupled
to the driving motor or through belts. Although the direct drive requires less
maintenance and is usually less expensive, a belt-driven rotor is more effi-
cient with respect to energy consumption. Accordingly, following mill
startup or any other changes, the amount of air conveyed by the fan can be
easily adjusted with a change of rotor rpm by replacing pulleys and belts.
Blowers are used for single-line pneumatic transfer of material. The
medium pressure is usually generated with a positive-displacement pump
with twin eight-shaped rotary lobes. During the early 1990s, blowers with
376 CHAPTER 12
three-lobed rotors were developed by engineering companies, who claimed

that they reduced pulsation of air and, as a result, produced quieter
operation. Displacement blowers are available for air volumes generally
between 1.42 and 142 m3/min (50–5,000 cfm) and for pressure differentials
between 5 and 18 psig (pound per square inch gauge). This is about 10
times the pressure developed by high-speed centrifugal fans, so a system
motivated by a blower can convey more stock through smaller tubes with
less quantity of air and to longer distances.
Compressors significantly change the air density during compression.
They compress air with pistons. Compressed air systems in milling reach 7
atm or about 103 lb/in2. Compressed air is used to activate air cylinders,
tools, valve gears, instruments, and dense-phase pneumatic conveying of
bulk materials.
Conveying Lines
The lines conveying air or a mixture of air and material should be
designed to convey the air at the correct velocity and volume and with mini-
mal loss of static pressure. To save on energy requirements, which depend
on the system pressure and air volume, the duct system should be stream-
lined. Elbows and abrupt changes in diameter should be avoided, because
they require unreasonably high pressure. Especially in aspiration systems,
trunk design is important for efficiency. The following are some of the
issues that should be taken into consideration in the design of an air system.
An elbow directly into the fan inlet should be avoided because fan
capacity can be reduced up to 30%. A straight section with a minimum
length of 1½ duct diameters should be provided before the fan inlet. Elbows
should have a minimum center-line radius of two duct diameters. Elbows
create turbulence in the stream of air, so if they have a small center-line
radius, they increase the pressure loss. A branch leading into the main trunk
should have an angle of less than 30°, preferably about 20°. Entry of a
branch into a main trunk should be from above or the side but never from
below. The main trunk diameter should increase following the entry of a
branch, to accommodate the additional volume of air at the appropriate
velocity. The pipe or trunk diameter can be determined using an airflow
chart (Fig. 12-7) if three of the parameters (such as air volume, static pres-
sure loss, velocity, and duct diameter) are known at standard conditions. All
air leaks in the air-movement system, including ducts and pipes, should be
avoided because the energy loss increases as the third power of the volume
lost.
The hood is an important component of the air-moving system. The
hood, which is the entry point for the aspirated dust and air into the system
of ducts, has considerable effect on the pressure loss and the efficiency of
AIR 377
Fig. 12-7. Airflow chart. (Source: Kice, 1985)
the system. An engineering reference book should be studied for the selec-
tion of the appropriate hood for minimal losses.
Separating Equipment
The cyclone and the filter are the two pieces of equipment used to sepa-
rate aspirated material from air. The cyclone, made of a cone connected to a
cylindrical section, is for separating material from moving air (Fig. 12-8).
378 CHAPTER 12
The dust-laden air that enters the cyclone is set into a circular motion; the
air volume increases; and the air velocity drops to below the critical
velocity. The centrifugal force spins the particles to the outside; this
separates the product (which drops by gravity) from the air (which is
pushed out through the center outlet). Advantages of the cyclone are
simplicity, compact size in proportion to the volume of air it handles, and
comparatively low cost. The main disadvantage is its inability to separate
extremely fine particles. Most well-designed and well-fabricated cyclones
have a separation efficiency rate of 95% of particles above 30 µm. The
efficiency drops off rapidly when they handle particles below that size.
Special new designs of cyclones for pneumatic systems can remove
particles in the 10-µm range. Particles that will not settle in still air are not
separated in cyclones.
The filter, a chamber containing cloth sleeves, is used to clean dust-
laden air (Fig. 12-9). Upon entering the receiving hopper of the filter
through the dirty-air inlet, the volume of dust-laden air increases, and many
of the heavier particles fall into the dust hopper ahead of the sleeve filters.
The clean air is pulled through the cloth sleeves or fabric elements and is
discharged at the clean-air outlet. Filters are not simple, require
substantially large space, and cost far more than cyclones for a given air
volume. They also require more maintenance and have more resistance to
airflow than cyclones. On the other hand, their advantage is that they can be
very efficient in cleaning air by achieving up to >99.9% separation of fine
dust particles. In some cases, the air cleaned by filters in the mill is cleaner
than the outside air.
Fig. 12-8. Cyclone.

AIR 379
In the past, filter sleeves were cleaned in sequence by a mechanical

shaking system. Modern filter sleeves are cleaned by high-pressure
reversed-air pulses in a regulated sequence. Electronic systems regulate the
frequency, length of intervals, quantity, and pressure of the reverse-pulsing
air. The high-pressure cleaning air should be oil-free and condensate-free.
The engineer and the miller are concerned with the air-to-cloth ratio of
the mill filter. The ratio, which indicates the amount of air needed (the filter
load), depends on the dust particle size, the physical properties of the dust,
the concentration of dust in the unfiltered air, and the electrostatic charge in
the mill atmosphere. It depends also on the type of filter cloth and the effi-
ciency of the cleaning mechanism. Generally, a ratio of about 4 m3/min of
air per 1 m2 of filter cloth area is used in mill pneumatic exhaust systems,
whereas a ratio of 5 m3/min of air per 1 m2 of cloth has been found satisfac-
tory for wheat cleaning, purifiers, and general exhaust systems. Synthetic
filter cloths made of polyester, polypropylene, polyamide, or poly-
acrylnitrile prevent static charge buildup. (See the discussion on filters in
the wheat-cleaning section of Chapter 3.)
Air locks are used to separate spaces of different pressures. They are
installed under cyclones or filters or as feeders to transfer lines. They should
be well designed with a minimum loss of air volume. The shape of the air
lock rotor is selected to accommodate the material’s flow characteristics.
Figure 12-10 shows an air lock feeding material into a pneumatic conveying
Fig. 12-9. Filter dust collector. A = clean air outlet, B = fabric element, C = reverse
jet piping, D = solenoid valves and controls, E = dirty air inlet, F = dust hopper.
380 CHAPTER 12
Fig. 12-10. Air lock to seal pneumatic equipment. (Courtesy of Semco Inc.)
line. Selection of suitable air locks for particular work depends on factors
related to capacity and the flowability of the material. Manufacturers’ tables
should be used to select a suitable air lock for a particular task.
Environment in the Flour Mill

Operative millers realized many years ago that reduction in moisture
evaporation from stocks in their automated mills was a worthwhile objec-
tive. They realized that the tail-end mill stocks dry out while moving
through the process, and so during grinding, the bran is pulverized, causing
poor color and high ash. On the other hand, on a damp day when the
humidity is high, the materials in the mill do not run freely, which causes
choking in the spouts. In addition, high-humidity air, when passing through
a machine with relatively cold surfaces, causes condensation of moisture on
the inside surface. Air, water, and the dry constituents of the hygroscopic
body of the wheat kernel all have different specific heat values. The amount
of heat in the mill air and the ratio of latent to sensible heat (which are
measurable by the wet- and dry-bulb depressions) determine the vapor pres-
sure of the mixture. The effective vapor pressure of the moisture within the
stock is dependent upon the quantity of water present, the molecular
AIR 381
attraction of the constituents for that water, and the amount of heat available
for vaporization. Equilibrium is disturbed whenever an interchange occurs
between the heat in the mill air and that in the processed material.
Obviously, the relative quantities of heat in the mixture of air and
water vapor and in the constituents of the hygroscopic bodies of wheat,
intermediate stocks, and flour, as well as the moisture content of these
products, are important considerations. (The importance of relative quan-
tity can be seen in other situations. Ice may be changed to vapor by air
with a temperature well below the freezing point, because even very cold
air contains heat that will transfer to water. A cold wind can eliminate ice
if it brings enough unsaturated air into play, whereas blocks of ice in a
well-insulated small room remain intact a long time because the small
amount of air is soon saturated and is kept cool, thus prohibiting further
evaporation.) A small amount of wheat or flour in contact with a large
quantity of air is greatly affected by that air; a large quantity of flour or
intermediate stock in a flour mill is virtually unaffected by a small
amount of air, whatever its properties.
To use evaporative cooling in the mill, a vast amount of air must be
passed through the rooms in which the machines are located. This is
particularly true of the grinding floors, for the roller mills produce by far
the greatest percentage of the excess heat. The temperature of the rolls often
reaches as high as 60°C (140°F). It is not uncommon for stocks to reach a
temperature of >43°C (>110°F) when the air aspirating the roller mills is
above 32°C (90°F). Some heat removal can be accomplished in the flour
mill by flooding the roll stands with great volumes of air or water cooling
of the rolls (see Chapter 5). Better cooling can be achieved if the air is
passed through a standard humidifier and cooled to the approximate wet-
bulb temperature of the outside air.
Simply increasing the relative humidity of the air coming in contact
with the mill stocks is not a solution to the difficulties encountered during
summer operation. Rather, such a procedure may add to the problems. It is
a very complicated assignment to narrow down the optimal ambient condi-
tions of a milling operation. No definite rules or procedures exist for deter-
mining the best conditions for milling, which differ drastically from one
step to another. To do this, it is necessary to figure out just what was
transpiring in the milling system when highly satisfactory milling weather
prevailed. When that is determined, it is possible to use systems to
automatically control air variables such as humidity and, to a certain extent,
temperature.
Commercial millers keep records of decisions made regarding optimal
environment conditions in the mill. A relatively small amount of
information has been published on practical experience in commercial
mills. Most of the published information is based on tests performed under
382 CHAPTER 12
experimental or laboratory milling conditions (Bayfield et al, 1943; Hook et

al, 1984). Although information from laboratory testing is important, in the
commercial mill, many additional variables interact, and these have still not
been evaluated scientifically.
Commercial air stabilization systems have been installed in some mills
(see Fig. 10-4). The exhaust air from the mill is cooled by “washing” or is
warmed by heat exchangers before it is fed back into the mill. Some
millers stabilize the process air at around 60% rh and 24°C (75°F) to
minimize moisture losses. In summer months, the set-point temperature is
higher than in winter. Recommendations for temperature and relative
humidity during summer months in commercial mills are 27–28°C and 50–
55% rh (Kice, 1982). The equilibrium moisture content in mill stocks is
close to 14% under these conditions. In automated mills, the process air
must be controlled with a system to adjust the relative humidity and
temperature of the air. The system also should have a heat-saver recycle
feature in cold climates. The energy from the mill exhaust air can be
captured and used to heat cold air.
Grain Aeration
Wheat contains about 10–13% moisture under ordinary atmospheric
conditions. This varies, depending upon the temperature and relative
humidity of the air. Table 12-2 shows differences in moisture content
equilibrium for different classes of wheat (see Chapter 3).
Air that is moved through the grain during aeration changes this equilib-
rium. Moist air is removed from the spaces among the kernels, allowing
evaporation of moisture from within the wheat. The design of the aeration
system is based on the bulk density of the grain, original and expected
moisture content, size and shape of the storage bin, grain depth, and range
of outside climatic conditions. For aeration of grain bins, axial fans can be
TABLE 12-2
Equilibrium Moisture Content (%) of Wheats at 25°C (77°F)
and Different Relative Humidities
Relative Humidity
Wheata 15% 30% 45% 60% 75% 90% 100%
White 6.8 8.6 9.9 11.8 15.0 19.7 26.3
Durum 6.6 8.5 10.1 11.5 14.1 19.3 26.7
SRW 6.3 8.6 10.6 11.9 14.6 19.7 25.6
HRW 6.4 8.5 10.5 12.5 14.6 20.1 25.4
HRS 6.8 8.5 10.1 11.8 14.8 19.7 25.0
a
SRW = soft red winter, HRW = hard red winter, HRS = hard red spring.
AIR 383
used to move the air through the bulk of the wheat. Fans are set to run
automatically to cool the grain when ambient temperatures reach a given
level.
Air in Purification and Cleaning Machines

In some of the more important machines of the milling process, air is
used as a means of achieving processing steps. Segregation and separation
of materials are the main technological functions for which air is used.
Three physical conditions of the particles are related to air usage: size,
shape, and specific gravity. Each material has its own characteristics that
affect the terminal, saltation, and critical velocities of the particles. Careful
adjustment of the air velocity in a machine is one of the major tasks the
miller must perform daily. Too much or too little air does not achieve the
expected segregation of materials (Fig. 12-11). Because air flows via the
path of least resistance, air adjustment causes reciprocal effects between
compartments of a given machine as well as affecting the rest of the system.
Accordingly, routine control and fine adjustments must not be performed on
a single machine but always on all machines connected to the same system.
Because air characteristics continuously change with the weather, adjust-
ment of air velocity and volume are daily tasks for the miller in a well-run
mill.
In the wheat-cleaning system of the mill, those characteristics play a
very important role in segregation of particles from each other. Stones, or
lighter material, of the same size as the wheat kernel are segregated from
it with the help of air as a result of differences in specific gravity. In
principle, air moves in the path with the least resistance. Accordingly, to
Fig. 12-11. Results of different amounts of air on a gravity table deck.

384 CHAPTER 12
use the available air efficiently, the material should be spread evenly over
the total area exposed to the moving air. Aspiration in the mill relates to the
use of negative air pressure to remove unwanted materials, such as dust and
seed, from grain and products. The light material is separated and removed
from the bulk of wheat in the cleaning machine and transportation
equipment.
In the purification system, air is used to segregate coarse wheat fractions
based on differences in the amount of endosperm and bran attached. The
specific gravity of endosperm (1.44.g/cm3) is higher than that of bran (1.22
g/cm3). Accordingly, if the particles are of the same dimensions, the lighter
bran will be raised by the air and stratify, while the heavier endosperm will
sink and move across the sieve until it passes through the apertures in the
sieve. Depending on the purifier design and material handled, the amount of
air needed per machine is about 40–70 m3/min, with a static pressure loss of
about 15 mm WG. The attributes of air used in the purifier have an impor-
tant effect on the behavior of the materials and their quality in the rest of the
milling process, as well as on the moisture content, causing excessive
breaking of the bran when it is ground and producing poor color and high
ash. On the other hand, in some cases, the air used in the purification
system also equalizes the moisture in material that contains wetter and drier
particles.
Dust Control
Fine particles of grain and foreign material, as well as flour that is dis-
persed in the atmosphere or lying on the floor and equipment, are termed
“dust.” “Dust control” normally means the suppression of collection of
micro-fine particles in the mill. Suction is used to cause negative pressure to
remove dust from wheat-handling equipment and eliminate dust buildup.
Control of dust in the flour milling operation is normally advantageous
because the dust is valuable, and its collection has economic justification. In
addition, it reduces the possibility of a dust explosion; mill sanitation is
improved; and potential infestation problems are avoided. The fully auto-
matic, lights-out mill of today creates additional needs for measures of fire
detection and dust-explosion suppression.
The U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) pub-
lished grain handling standards under Part 1910 of Title 29 of the Code of
Federal Regulations in the United States (U.S. Dept. of Labor, 2003). Under
Standard 1910.272 and Appendices A, B, and C, measures are described for
control of fires, grain-dust explosions, and other safety hazards associated
with grain-handling facilities. Dust explosions in grain elevators and flour
mills claim lives and cause injuries every year. Before the issuance of the
final grain-handling-facilities standard, between 1958 and 1987, an average
AIR 385
of 7.3 deaths and 29.1 injuries related to grain explosions occurred per year.
After the standard, between 1988 and 1998, an average of 2.3 deaths and
13.2 injuries occurred per year (U.S. Dept. of Labor, 2003).
Four components are required to support an explosion: 1) suspended
grain dust, 2) an ignition source, 3) an enclosed space, and 4) oxygen. If
one of these four components is missing, an explosion is prevented. Noyes
(1998) described the progress of the dust explosion in a grain elevator. Two
separate explosive phases (primary and secondary) occur during a major
dust explosion. The primary explosion is caused by confinement of airborne
dust and its contact with a heat source that ignites it. The first explosion cre-
ates an air-shock wave, traveling at about 300 m/sec, which stirs up layered
dust along gallery corridors, tunnels, and vertical shafts in the elevator. A
flame front, traveling at about 3 m/sec, follows the initial pressure wave,
igniting airborne dust as it progresses through the structure. Dust from the
primary explosion may be carried along with the pressure wave, providing
even more fuel for secondary explosions. The secondary blasts send addi-
tional pressure waves through the structure. According to Noyes (1998),
grain industry research has measured pressures of 13.8 kPa (or 2 lb/in.2)
during the primary explosions and pressures of more than 550 kPa (or 80
lb/in.2) during secondary explosions.
A dust particle of 30 µm has a terminal velocity of 2.4 m/min (8 ft/min).
Particles of this size and smaller remain suspended if the air velocity in the
space is higher. A spark that originates from a piece of metal moving with
the wheat and hitting a hard surface can supply the necessary ignition of the
suspended particles, causing a dust explosion. Good housekeeping, regular
maintenance, and adherence to work regulations can reduce explosion
potential. A comprehensive list of safety measures recommended to prevent
dust explosions was documented by Noyes (1998). Hajnal and Lagos
(2003) described recent dust explosions in grain facilities and preventive
practices to avoid them.
Pneumatic Conveying
In the modern mill, pneumatic conveying of intermediate and final
stocks is a common practice. Sanitation, space, and convenience of design
are some of the benefits the miller gains from using pneumatic conveying
systems versus other mechanical means of conveying materials. The major
disadvantage is the increased energy consumption of the pneumatic system
in comparison to that of mechanical conveying methods (see Fig. 3-9).
The main factors in pneumatic conveying are material amount and
characteristics, air volume (velocity), and system pressure. Changing one
factor changes one or both of the other factors. There are three distinct
386 CHAPTER 12
types of pneumatic conveying methods, which differ in the proportions

among the above three factors. The types are 1) low pressure and high air
volume from centrifugal fans, 2) medium pressure and medium air volume
from air pumps, and 3) high-pressure and low air volume from
reciprocating compressors (Table 12-1).
Relatively low-pressure systems are used for pneumatic conveying sys-
tems at pressure differentials of 30–50 in. of water. The centrifugal fan
creating the pressure differentials moves materials by air positively or nega-
tively. Centrifugal fans also are used in the multilift systems commonly
found in flour mills. In the mill, 20 or more negative pressure lifts of
various sizes may be connected to one or more manifold suction ducts and
to a large, high-speed fan. Each lift includes a stock/air inlet fitting at the
material pick-up point, tubing, a cyclone, and an air lock (Fig. 12-12). Air
locks are mounted in a row on a bench, so that several can be turned by a
single-gear motor. The multilift system requires very careful engineering
coordinated with the mill flow and capacities. Figure 12-13 shows the
significance of pneumatic conveying in the total energy consumption of the
milling system. Energy consumption by the pneumatic system is not
reduced significantly when the load is removed.
Above the cyclones in the path of the outgoing conveying air there are
regulating valves. By regulating the amount of air, the miller can optimize
the conveying velocity of the material and the efficiency of separation in the
Fig. 12-12. Negative pneumatic conveying system in a flour mill. (Reprinted, with
permission, from Association of Operative Millers, 1963)
AIR 387
cyclone. However, operative millers normally use an excessive amount of

air to overcome potential fluctuations in the amount of material to be con-
veyed. In the long run, this excessive air has a substantial effect on mill
power consumption. In the newly constructed pneumatic systems in flour
mills, automatic control devices regulate the amount of air used in each line.
The Venturi tube or differences in pressure on both sides of a membrane are
used by different engineering companies for this type of control. The
individual control devices used to regulate the amount of air to the negative
pneumatic lines in the mill can significantly reduce energy consumption but
usually are effective only in lines of 70 mm diameter and larger.
The medium-pressure systems usually operate with positive-
displacement pumps or twin, eight-shaped rotors. With positive pressures of
up to 1.05 kg/cm2 (15 lb/in.2) and speeds of up to 25 m/sec (5,000 ft/min),
such systems can convey materials in single pipes to long distances with
less air. These systems also can operate under negative pressure at a lower
efficiency.
High-pressure or dense-phase pneumatic systems are used in conveying
by fluidizing the material and then pushing it through the pipe. The initial
pressure of up to 125 psi is created in the blow tank, which is connected
through a pipeline to the delivery point (Fig. 12-14). Different designs of
dense-phase systems include additional points along the lines where high-
Fig. 12-13. Energy consumption in a mill. Note that the pneumatic system requires
the same energy regardless of load. (Source: Krach and Klabunde, 1979)
388 CHAPTER 12
Fig. 12-14. Dense-phase pneumatic conveying system.
pressure air is added to boost the moving mixture of material and air. The
high pressure in the system requires periodic inspection by certified inspec-
tors, as is needed for compressors and other similar equipment. Dense-
phase pneumatic conveying systems differ from dilute systems in that they
have a low ratio between the velocities of conveyed material and conveying
medium. The cross-section of the line is full of suspended stock and
medium. Some dense-phase characteristics are larger capacities in smaller-
diameter lines, low stock velocities, low friction losses, and easy separation
of stock from medium at the end of the line.
Calculation of Pneumatic Conveying Systems

Some of the more important values to be used in calculating pneumatic
systems in the mill are related to principles of fluid mechanics. The follow-
ing is one of the more widely used approaches.
Reynolds Number
The Reynolds number (Re) is a dimensionless grouping of variables
related to the characteristics of the flow. It is expressed as
ρVD
Re =
µ
Where ρ represents the density of the fluid passing through the pipe
(slug/ft3), D is the internal diameter of the pipe, V is the average velocity in
the pipe, and µ is the dynamic viscosity of the fluid (slug/ft·sec).
AIR 389
Fig. 12-15. Moody’s correlation of friction factors for flow in circular pipes. (Re-
printed, with permission, from Moody, 1944)
A flow in a pipe is normally laminar for Re <2,000. Above 3,000, the

range of air movement in the mill, the flow is turbulent.
The Re is used to determine the friction factor (f) in a pipe, depending
on its roughness, by applying Moody’s correlation. Figure 12-15 shows the
plot of the friction factor as a function of Re and relative roughness e/D,
where e is surface roughness (ft) and D is pipe inside diameter. Some
frequently used materials in mill pneumatics have the following values for ε
(ft): commercial steel or wrought iron, 0.00015; asphalted cast iron, 0.0004;
galvanized iron, 0.0005; cast iron, 0.00085; and riveted steel, 0.003–0.03.
Static Pressure
The static pressure drop in a pipe or a duct for moving air is calculated using
a relationship that includes the typical friction factor (f) of the inner surface:
 l   V 2 
h = f  × 
 D   2g 
where h is the loss or head loss in the pipe (ft), l is the length of the pipe
(ft), V is the velocity (ft/sec), g is the gravity acceleration (ft/sec2).
Froude Number
The Froude number represents the relationship between the material
characteristics and the moving air. For pneumatic conveying, it should be in
the range of 14–24.
390 CHAPTER 12
Vm
Froude number =
µ 0.25 × g × Dm
where Vm is the average velocity (m/sec), Dm is average particle diameter
(m), g is acceleration (m/sec2), and µ is the ratio of material to air (kg
stock/kg air)
Other values to be determined for the design of a pneumatic conveying
system are the amount of material to be conveyed, the required air velocity
to accelerate and convey the material, pipe diameters, total air volume
moved by the fan or any other machine, and the total static pressure to be
overcome by the fan. Minimum conveying air velocities in the mill for
some materials are 20.33 m/sec (4,000 ft/min) for flour and similar
powders, 22.87 m/sec (4,500 ft/min) for meal and similar particles, and 25.4
m/sec (5,000 ft/min) for whole grain and similar materials. For additional
materials in a mill, Reddy et al (1984) suggested minimum air velocities to
ensure choke-free operation of the pneumatic lifts. For wheat, the velocity
is 21.34 m/sec (4,200 ft/min); for first-break stock, 20.07 m/sec (3,950
ft/min); for fourth break stock, 18.80 m/sec (3,700 ft/min); for course sizing
and first-middling stocks, 20.32 m/sec (4,000 ft/min); for first tailing, sixth
middling, and flour, 17.78 m/sec (3,500 ft/min); and for bran, 15.24 m/sec
(3,000 ft/min).
TABLE 12-3
Critical Velocities of Mill Products
Hectoliter Weight Critical Velocity
Product (Kg/m³) (m/sec)
Wheat 800 9.8
1st Break 650–700 9.0
2nd Break Ca 550 7.5
2nd Break F 650 7.5
3rd Break C 500 6.0
3rd Break F 600 6.0
4th Break C 400 5.3
4th Break F 500 5.3
5th Break 350 4.5
6th Break 300 4.0
Bran C 250 3.5
Bran F 300 3.0
Sizings C 550 6.5
Sizings M 550 6.0
Sizings F 600 5.5
1st and 2nd Midds 500 5.0
3rd and 4th Midds 475 4.5
5th and 6th Midds 450 4.0
7–10 Midds 425–375 3.5
Flour (granular) 550 3.5
Flour (fine) 550–600 3.0
a
C = coarse, M = middle, F = fine.
AIR 391
Many aerodynamic properties of the material to be conveyed pneumati-

cally affect determination of the system variables. The mixtures of material
that are transferred in a mill with multiple negative pneumatic systems are
not homogenous in their particle shape, size distribution, or density. The
physical characteristics vary from one mill to another (and even in the same
mill) as a result of the kind of wheat and its conditioning or the mill adjust-
ment. The critical velocity of the heterogeneous materials in the airstream is
that which keeps it suspended in a stream of air of a certain velocity. The
critical velocity is affected also by the density of the air, the friction factor
between the different particles and the air, and the fineness ratio factor, that
is, the ability of the particles to resist the airstream.
Table 12-3 shows values for the critical velocity of various mill materi-
als that are conveyed throughout the grinding system. Values higher than the
stated critical velocities would move the materials in the vertical direction.
The steps for calculating the air system start with the determination of
the path with the highest static pressure, or the “governing path.” In a
branched system, the static pressure loss is determined for each branch,
based on the air velocity, pipe diameter, and losses related to machines,
bends, hoods, and duct transitions. All milling machinery and engineering
companies have computer programs that can calculate all the specifications
for conveying lines, air requirements, and filters for a pneumatic conveying
system based on the input data of the proposed milling system. Figure 12-
16 shows some reference data for typical pressure losses as a result of
different components in the system. In many cases, engineering companies
supply estimates of static pressure losses for their machines. Engineering
Fig. 12-16. Pressure losses in different components of the air system. (Source:
Kice, 1985)
392 CHAPTER 12
reference books are also sources for static pressure loss values. The airflow
chart (Fig. 12-17) also can be used for pressure loss at different pipe
diameters and air velocities. The total pressure the fan must generate equals
the velocity pressure and the governing static pressure in the system, plus
the static pressure loss in the fan and the loss in the subsequent air-cleaning
filter. As mentioned before, the total static pressure is not an accumulation
of all the pressures in the branches but is the static pressure of the governing
path. The total air volume moved by the fan is the summation of the
amounts from all the branches. The calculated static pressure and the total
air volume values are used to select the fan and motor for the system. Based
on experience and collected data from systems designed in the past, mill
engineering companies use safety factors to boost the calculated parameters.
Fig. 12-17. Compressed airflow chart. (Source: Compressed Air and Gas Institute,
1966)
AIR 393
Compressed Air
Modern automatic milling systems depend to a large extent on com-
pressed air to activate machines and instruments. The quality of the com-
pressed air is of great importance to the function and durability of the
equipment in which it is used. Therefore, it is essential for compressed air
to be properly processed before being used to actuate air cylinders, tools,
valve gear, instruments, or other equipment. Temperature and the oil and
moisture contents of the compressed air are some of the most important
quality characteristics. Most installations in mills operate at between 5.6
and 7 atm (82–103 lb/in2). Compressed air is quantified by the amount of
free air delivered in dm3/sec at standard conditions. Although compressed, it
is measured in atmospheric free air volume.
Compressed air in the mill should be as clean and dry as possible, even
though that always involves additional expenses. The compressed air con-
tains water in some form, which must be removed, along with other
contaminants. Originally, at the compressor outlet, the water is in vapor
form, but it condenses upon cooling. The amount of liquid water present in
a compressed-air system is inversely proportional to the temperature of the
compressed air and directly proportional to the pressure. Automatic or
manual drains should be installed in the system in which pipes are
pitched to allow the condensed water to flow to lower points and ensure
its separation from the compressed air. Efficient water removal from
compressed air is achieved at the point at which the system temperature is
the coldest or after an artificial cooling stage. Because water is not
compressible, it replaces air volume, causing the compressor to run more
often, wasting power and reducing compressor life span.
Compressed-air charts (Fig. 12-17) that incorporate air pressure, rate of flow,
pipe size, and pressure drop are available. Any one of these can be deter-
mined, providing the remaining three are known. The following components
are important for the installation and operation of compressed systems.
The compressed-air system usually includes a receiver, which is a tank
with a capacity approximately equal to 30 times the rated free air delivered
by the compressor. The receiver usually is located in the coldest location to
permit the air to cool and the vapor to condense.
Filters installed in the compressed-air system remove moisture, oil, and
condensed liquids to protect the air-driven equipment from rust and corro-
sion. The filters also remove solids that happened to dislodge from pipes or
other equipment of the compressed-air system. Good and correctly posi-
tioned filters extend the life of air-driven equipment and reduce
maintenance and replacement costs.
Regulators of compressed air are used to adjust and hold pressure to the
best operating levels, according to the manufacturer’s specifications.
394 CHAPTER 12
Exceeding the manufacturer’s specified pressures causes increased wear and

cost and shortens the equipment’s operating life.
Lubricators are included in compressed-air systems that power equip-
ment to ensure a continuous lubricant film on the moving components. The
most efficient way of lubricating air-actuated equipment is to inject the
lubricant directly into the compressed air immediately before the activation
point. Carefully metered lubricant “atomizes” in the air line and travels in
the airstream to the equipment, where it coats all operating parts.
In most mills, the compressor is hidden in a secluded corner, often to
avoid noise disturbance, making simple maintenance difficult. To reduce
unscheduled maintenance, compressors should be installed in locations
where they can take in air with minimal moisture and foreign material.
Scheduled maintenance of the compressor and the compressed-air system
should include the following steps:
1. The compressor’s air filter as well as all other components in the sys-
tem, such as regulators and lubricators, should be checked periodically.
2. The compressor’s lubrication should be checked on a regular basis.
3. The air gauge on the compressor tank should be checked on a regular
basis to confirm automatic cutoff at a certain pressure level.
4. The compressor valves should be checked periodically to make sure
that oil does not reach the compressed air.
5. The system should be checked periodically for leaks. Estimates indi-
cate that leaks in the system cost $0.10 (U.S.) per 1,000 ft3 of air at 100 psi.
Future Trends
The role of air in flour milling is extremely important. Future develop-
ments will emphasize the economics of its use. The amount of air used for
cooling, conveying, and dust control will be reduced by changes in the tech-
nology of the milling process, machine design, improved sensing, and auto-
matic control.
REFERENCES CITED
Association of Operative Millers. 1963. Cereal Millers Handbook. Burgess Publish-

ing Co., Minneapolis, MN.
Bayfield, E. G., Anderson, J. E., Geddes, W. F., and Hildebrand, F. C. 1943. The
effect of millroom temperature and relative humidity on experimental flour
yields and flour properties. Cereal Chem. 20:149-171.
Colijn, H. 1983. Pneumatic conveying systems. University of Wisconsin Ext. Serv.,
Madison.
Compressed Air and Gas Institute. 1966. Compressed Air and Gas Handbook, 2nd
ed. The Institute, New York.
Hajnal, R., and Lagos, L. C. 2003. Controlling the biggest risk. World Grain
21(6):36-43.
AIR 395
Hook, S. C. W., Boone, G. T., and Fearn, T. 1984. The influence of air temperature
and relative humidity on milling performance and flour properties. J. Sci. Food
Agric. 35:597-600.
Kice, J. 1982. Psychromatics and air stabilization. Assoc. Oper. Millers Bull., Apr.-
May, pp. 3929-3940.
Kice, J. 1985. Skilled Air Manual for Milling and Other Industries. Kice Metal
Products Co., Inc., Wichita, KS.
Krach, H., and Kalbunde, H. 1979. Report of the Milling Technology Conference,
30th. Granum Verlag, Detmold, Germany.
Moody, L. F. 1944. Friction factors for pipe flow. Trans. Am. Soc. Mech. Eng.
66:671-684.
Noyes, R. 1998. When grain dust explodes. World Grain 16(9):20-22.
Reddy, P. V., Farrell, E. P., and Ward, A. B. 1984. Pneumatic conveying of flour mill
stocks. Assoc. Oper. Millers Bull., April, pp. 4251-4255.
U.S. Department of Labor. 2003. Grain Handling Facilities Standard. Standards
1910 and 1917. Fed. Register 68:12301-12303.
SUGGESTED READING
Anonymous. 2001. Pneumaticsche Passagenfoerderung in der Praxis. Muehle

Mischfuttertech. 138:850-859.
Brooker, D. B., Bakker-Arkema, F. W., and Hall, C. W. 1974. Drying Cereal Grains.
AVI Publishing Co., Inc., Westport, CT.
Knowlton, T. M. 1986. Solids transfer in fluidized systems. Chapter 12 in: Gas
Fluidization Technology. D. Geldart, Ed. John Wiley & Sons Ltd., New York.
Krause, M. 1968. Pneumatic Conveying of Bulk Materials. Ronald Press, New York.
Matsumoto, S., Harada, M., and Maeda, S. 1974. Minimum transport velocity for
horizontal pneumatic conveying. J. Chem. Eng. Jpn. 7:425.
Matsumoto, S., Harada, S., Saito, S., and Maeda, S. 1975. Saltation velocity for
horizontal pneumatic conveying. J. Chem. Eng. Jpn. 8:331.
Miller, E. S. 1937. “Thermohygrics”—The inside of air conditioning. Northwest.
Miller, Dec. 8, pp. 36-37, 40.
Turninger, K. 1983. Efficient mill pneumatic. Assoc. Oper. Millers Bull., Dec., pp.
4163-4171.
of wheat milling yields and moisture content of flour. Bull. 1013. U.S. Dep.
U.S. Department of Labor, OSHA: www.osha.gov

U.S. Grain Elevator and Processing Society: Videos on grain hazards, www.geaps.com
CHAPTER 13
Mill Process Control
The miller is responsible for two major categories that affect profit: the
manufacturing cost to produce a unit of flour and the total monetary recov-
ery from a certain quantity of wheat. To address these responsibilities, the
miller must have the means to simultaneously control the whole operating
system and make the right technical, economic, and management decisions.
Optimum extraction rate is the major objective of the miller’s efforts, in
addition to the quality of the finished products and the capacity of the mill.
The emphasis on these three objectives continuously changes, and an opti-
mal economic balance among them must be found.
The mill’s process control is related mainly to the technical aspects of
the milling operation. Although the operation of the equipment and the
monitoring of mill flow are largely automatic, with the help of sophisticated
electronics, close specialized supervision of the milling process is necessary
for an efficient and economical system. The wheat must be selected and
mixed based on defined parameters and then cleaned and conditioned prop-
erly for milling. In the mill, the wheat is fed to the rolls and ground in ways
that create the proper distribution of intermediate quantities and qualities to
keep the mill in balance. Mill control requires the miller to set specific
methods and guidelines for routine upkeep of an efficient operation. How-
ever, a control computer augments human capabilities by applying pre-
planned intelligence to the over-all economic operation of the process,
which can result in 1) increased production and better utilization of equip-
ment, 2) improved quality control and uniformity, and 3) reduced operating
costs through better use of raw materials and reduction of losses and human
errors. The most common functions of the computer that controls a flour
mill were stated by Kuphal (1964):
1. Controlling actuators and set points to guide the process,
2. Scanning the process variables,
3. Data logging, either on a demand or trend basis,
397
398 CHAPTER 13
4. Providing alarm signals when process variables reach their outside

limits,
5. Recording sequences of events,
6. Calculating and reporting performance indexes,
7. Providing information on operator demand,
8. Start-up, shut-down, and control sequencing of processing and
material handling equipment,
9. Taking emergency action when required,
10. Making multivariable control calculations and optimizing such cal-
culations.
Goslak (2002) suggested an integrated system for a flour mill in which
the production automation system is linked to the business and information
systems over one common communication network. With such an inte-
grated system, information can be shared among production, accounting
and invoicing, quality control, production scheduling, and maintenance.
In addition, many indirect methods are used to control the mill, and
these require the miller’s skill and judgment. The miller tests and evaluates
the wheat and the resulting flour, germ, and bran to determine mill adjust-
ments that obtain the best performance. The relative amounts of products
are expressed as functions of quantity and quality. To control the inter-
mediate processes, i.e., the grinding stages in the mill, the miller uses the
ash curve, distribution table, and sieve analysis, from which the granu-
lation curve is generated. Such means give the miller a total picture of the
mill’s technical performance and permits evaluation of changes in raw
materials, product quality, and mill efficiency.
Mill Capacity
Mills are operated either at design capacity, rated capacity, or optimum
capacity. The design capacity is conservative and contains a safety margin
for contingencies that may affect capacity. The designer may indicate an
operating capacity for different types of wheat; however, it is still conserva-
tive. The rated capacity is based on previous experience and represents a
record of the capacity over time when set at a level that has a good margin
of safety in the operation. The optimum capacity is the maximum load that
the mill can handle without lowering extraction. The miller must continu-
ously know the flour extraction to monitor any changes that are made in the
system. Obviously, if no adjustments are made in the system when an addi-
tional load is put on the mill, extraction will be lowered. Therefore, the
miller must fine-tune the mill to get the most capacity at the best extraction.
The miller can sometimes reduce the load to the mill and improve the
extraction or maintain the same production of flour. Thus, a rigid, fixed feed
rate to the mill does not ensure optimum results.
MILL PROCESS CONTROL 399
Factors that affect capacity and extraction of a mill other than flow and
design are the type and condition of the wheat, environmental factors (tem-
perature, humidity), flour specifications, seasonal variations, and mainte-
nance of the equipment. Some wheats simply mill better than others and are
easy to reduce into flour at high extraction and good quality. When wheat of
better milling quality is used, the load in the mill changes and more
capacity can be obtained. The condition of the wheat affects the reduction
of the endosperm. Endosperm that is hard to reduce leads to lower capacity.
Environmental factors and ambient conditions in the mill building also
effect mill performance. On a damp day when humidity is high, the inter-
mediate materials do not run freely and may choke in the spouts. In
addition, sieving efficiency is reduced because of material characteristics.
Flour is hygroscopic in nature and absorbs or loses moisture from or to the
atmosphere according to the relative humidity, which may cause operating
difficulties. Mills that do not stabilize the air used in the process experience
changes in capacity; e.g., high dew-point temperatures can reduce capacity
by 10% or more. Specification of flour with coarse granulation requires
increased capacity, whereas fine granulation requires decreased capacity.
Capacities reduced from the optimum for a certain kind of wheat can result
in higher extraction and higher-ash flours. A seasonal effect on capacity
occurs during milling of new-crop wheat, which usually requires lower
capacity. When the wheat has aged about 14 weeks after harvest, as
described in Chapter 1, wheat milling quality improves. Good maintenance
of the mill affects milling results because the capacity of the mill improves
after the sifters have been cleaned and rolls with dull corrugations have
been replaced.
Some of the current computer-controlled automatic mills, where preset
roll-gap adjustments exist for different wheats, have a fixed capacity
because of limited intervention by the miller for fine-tuning. The opportu-
nity for increased capacity and extraction is lost because, although the mill
could handle additional load, the grinding is eased off and the loads are bal-
anced to maintain fixed capacity. On the other hand, at the present state of
milling machine technology, if the mill’s capacity is not fixed, an experi-
enced miller can fine-tune the mill by maximizing both the extraction and
capacity, something today’s computers cannot do.
Automation
The existing industrial flour mill uses one of the earliest production sys-
tems that were continuous, fully integrated, and automated. Even before
electronic components were used in the industry, flour mills were designed
to achieve a balanced load to machines and optimization of quantity and
400 CHAPTER 13
quality of intermediate materials to the various mill stages. The automation

of a mill is very complex because no operational alteration or adjustment
functions in isolation, but affects other variables in the system. Early mill
automation was implemented for starting up and shutting down the process.
This was essential because of the large amount of material that existed
within the system of an operating mill. A rigid sequence of machine start-up
and shutdown with adequate time intervals between stages can be
automated very effectively and is necessary in the modern mill. Currently,
operational cost influences the wider usage of more sophisticated automa-
tion in the milling industry.
Automation basically replaces human work with a device that measures,
evaluates, and adjusts processing to certain standards. Test and measure-
ment data can be expressed as graphs, digital numbers, or signals, upon
which decisions about process adjustments, normally made by the miller,
can be made by the machine. However, human judgment of quality depends
to a large extent on experience, observation, and personal preference.
Development in automation is slowed only by the inability to translate
human judgment in the wheat milling system into analog or digital expres-
sions.
In automation of flour mills, millers must differentiate between
directing and adjusting. Directing stocks, machinery, and goods is related to
sending material one way or the other, stopping or starting the flow of
material, or starting a machine in a sequence. Adjustment relates to
regulating the opening of a gate feeding stock to a belt conveyor or grinding
rolls to achieve a certain level of grinding. Such regulation is the result of a
feed-back signal indicating the level of product on the belt and results in
closing or opening the feed gate. The advancement of mill automation
requires the development of sensors and measuring instruments to deter-
mine the quantity and quality of materials in the flow. Some of the main
sensors and controls in use today are discussed below. Especially in the
“lights out” mill, preset scheduling of material flow and adjustment is
available to some degree, but it still needs much additional development.
Artificial intelligence (or “expert system”) is the approach that will ele-
vate automation in the milling industry to its next level. Artificial intelli-
gence is based on the ability of a computer system to make decisions based
on human logic with the information transferred from mill sensors. From a
vast database of stored knowledge accumulated from past operators’ experi-
ence and based on predicted events, the computer is programmed to initiate
corrective actions and to adjust the mill, which is quite different from exist-
ing controls in mills. Common sense, human thinking patterns, and
reasoned judgment are the strengths of the expert system, which makes
decisions after scanning a large number of “if” statements and “rules” of
action. The rules contain the best practices in operating the mill and
troubleshooting, which may exist in the form of design information

(operating procedures) as well as skill-based information that has been built
up by experienced operators. Instead of the simple binary logic that makes
possible yes/no, hot/cold, or fast/slow decisions, the expert system can
make decisions in real time based on human logic. The expert system
simulates human thinking by quantifying events and decisions with
language rather than with figures. The use of fuzzy logic techniques enables
it to translate the verbal information into algebraic statements that can be
handled by the computer. The ability of operative millers to understand the
systems they work with and the data from mill analysis determines how
well they can provide the technological information required by the expert
system.
Sensors
Measuring, regulating, and sensing the operation are the functions of
control components installed in the different sections of the mill. For exam-
ple, sensors that detect material level in a space are very important parts of
plant automation. Another example is a detector that can alert operating per-
sonnel to unusual material flow in air ducts. This is of concern because rup-
ture or disconnection of filter bags can occur. Using the principle of
triboelectrification, the relative flow rate of dust in a pneumatic system can
be determined. Triboelectricity occurs when two materials collide or are
rubbed together, causing a transfer of charge from one material to another.
Although the magnitude of the charge is minute (0–10 V), it is measurable
as current. Sensors that detect instant sparks in ducts can activate gates to
contain the sparks and prevent explosions.
When choosing sensing devices for different functions, it is important to
consider maintenance, safety, and the life of the component.
On-Line Stock Quality Control

Use of near infrared reflectance (NIR) enables the miller to observe
differences in intermediate mill stock quality. Linear combinations of
extreme qualities of an intermediate stock are blended and analyzed; the
data is fed into the NIR computer, which monitors the mill run. Deviation
from a certain range can electronically activate machine adjustments. NIR is
already used on-line with great success for quality control of final product
and for adjustment of additives such as gluten or starch. Up to four final
products can be analyzed subsequently for necessary adjustments in quality
parameters or additives. The use of NIR technology for mill control is dis-
cussed in more detail later in this chapter.
402 CHAPTER 13
Mill Extraction Control

Modern mill systems are equipped with continuous weigh-out systems to
keep track of materials flowing into, through, and out of the mill. The miller
can read off the mill performance, which is continuously recorded. This is an
important tool with which the miller makes adjustments to fine tune the mill
and improve the extraction. The statistical information collected is used to
manage the mill operation and calculate production costs.
Computer software can be used to improve reporting and analysis of the
information. The relative market value of all mill products and the manufac-
turing costs of the products are used to calculate the value added to the origi-
nal wheat. The actual added value can be compared to a target added value,
which indicates mill performance. The mill manager can use these types of
tools to consider the different variables and optimize mill performance.
Automated Conditioning Systems

Conditioning of wheat is one of the most important segments of mill
automation. Ensuring uniform water addition and proper conditioning time,
to bring the wheat to its optimal milling condition, eliminates fluctuations
of material distribution in the mill and increases the system’s efficiency.
Conditioning is the only stage in the process at which the miller can control
and change the state of the raw material. Consequently, the miller is
interested in having the most dependable automatic conditioning control.
Each aspect of conditioning, such as amount of water addition, time
allowed for water penetration, flow to bins, and bin change over time is
important for achieving optimal results in the mill. Although many control
instruments have been developed to optimize the amount of water to be
added in the conditioning stage, control of the subsequent tempering period
by an in-line instrument is still not possible. With the appropriate modifica-
tions, such an instrument could be developed on the principle used in the
single-kernel characterization system described in Chapter 1.
Machine Design to Accommodate Automation

New milling machines are adapted for future mill automation. Some
machine units are completely controlled systems, whereas others are just
units that can be integrated into the whole milling operation. For example,
the roll stand is the principal machine in the flour mill, but subjective
human decisions are still relied upon for adjusting the rolls and evaluating
the characteristics of the roll surface.
In the early development of roll stand automation, the first steps
involved engagement and disengagement of the rolls. A “tree” (i.e., a
structure with branches) was assembled in the product inlet space leading to
the roll stand (Fig. 5-3). Today, electronic sensors in the inlet space regulate
the engagement and disengagement of the rolls and control the revolutions
of the feeder rolls. Depending on the weight of the material accumulated in
the space, the rolls are engaged or disengaged by pressure buildup in oil or
in air cylinders. This function guards against the rolls being engaged
without feed and prevents wearing out of corrugations. Also, heating of
rolls, eventually a fire hazard, can be prevented by automatically disen-
gaging the grindng rolls. Subsequently, engagement and disengagement
were integrated with control of the feed gate to the rolls.
Roll gap adjustment was the next attempt to automate the machine (Fig.
5-27). Stepwise direct-current motors control the gap for prescribed
changes in wheat mix or milling conditions. Such systems must be
recalibrated periodically as a result of changes in raw material and machine
wear. Attempts are now being made to develop feedback systems using
NIR, electronic weighing, and image analysis to adjust the roll gap and the
severity of grinding, based on qualities of intermediate material in the mill.
New systems “borrowed” from other industries are applied in the
milling industry. A stress-wave-sensing technology uses an intelligent
sensor targeted at a specific frequency band. The patented sensor monitors
structurally borne signals at a higher-than-audible frequency, which elimi-
nates any problems associated with directional sensitivity of conventional
pick-up systems. The sensor is programmed to detect two alarm thresholds,
as percentages of a mean operating level. It can be used for warning
purposes at the lower level and shutdown at the higher level. The roll stand
structure is one of the places most sensitive to variation of load, which can
be sensed at certain frequencies as stress waves in the structure. Automation
of systems allows detection and regulation of load and grinding levels, as
well as finding problems in the machine itself that require scheduled
maintenance.
Break Release Control

Controlling the release in the breaks influences the whole milling opera-
tion. Correction of fluctuation resulting from conditioning or changes in the
mix can substantially increase the efficiency of the mill. Millers take differ-
ent approaches to automatically determining the break release on-line. This
is discussed in detail later in the chapter.
Automated Air Control

Automatically activated valves are used to control the movement of
air in the aspiration and pneumatic conveying systems. For example, in
404 CHAPTER 13
multiple-line, negative pneumatic conveying systems, valves are activated

by a change in the static pressure difference before and after the receiving
cyclone. The automatic control of the volume of air transferred in the
conveying systems has a direct effect on pressure and energy con-
sumption. A cutback in the feed rate causes excessive airflow and a surge
in power demand. The velocity of air transferred in a given system relates
directly to the revolutions per minute of the air-moving device, and the
pressure and horsepower are the square and the cube of the velocity,
respectively.
Raw Materials
Efficient control of the cleaning and conditioning of raw materials
ensures optimal results in the grinding stage. Electronic control systems
help the miller to monitor the inventory and blend wheats accurately, either
before the cleaning system or after the tempering stage and just before mill-
ing. Random testing of the wheat mix to determine the accuracy of the ratio
in the blends of the different wheats is activated manually or automatically
on-line. If a change occurs in bulk density of the wheat flowing into the
measuring or weighing equipment as a result of wheat characteristics or
from segregation in flow from the bins, adjustments can be made by the
miller. Fine adjustments in ratio should be based on thousand-kernel weight
and the weighing of small samples.
The flowability of wheat from the storage bin to the measuring devices
is a major factor in the uniformity of the resulting blend. Mass flow of the
wheat through the bin outlet (Fig. 3-8) prevents segregation in the bin. Bin
design parameters such as outlet diameter (or diagonal, in the case of a
rectangular opening) and hopper steepness as well as bulk material
characteristics can cause undesirable “funnel flow,” in which the heavier
material flows out of the bin first. Foreign material mixed with the wheat
can also interfere with flow from the bin.
Wheat moisture has a significant effect on the separation of foreign
material, mainly because of differences in specific gravity and flowability
of the bulk contents. The moisture of the different components of blends
should be determined before and after tempering and the necessary
adjustments made to ensure that the mix to the mill is as homogeneous as
possible. The miller in a large operation should be able to determine the
moisture and hardness of the components in the wheat mix and make the
necessary adjustments in water addition as well as in tempering method
and time. Differences in water absorption among kernels are functions of
kernel size, hardness, and the kinds of wheats intended to be milled
together.
Testing of Intermediate Stocks

The operative miller must make subjective decisions with regard to the
quality of intermediate stocks. To ensure the proper balance and efficiency
of the operation, it is a good practice to test the intermediate stocks periodi-
cally. The ash curve and the distribution table can give a good indication of
mill efficiency.
Depending on the wheat that is processed, changes occur in the com-
position of the different streams. So intermediate streams are continuously
monitored for quantity, quality, and granulation, and this data is used for
adjustment by the miller. Irregularities occurring with a particular wheat
mix require changes in the mill flow. To recognize such changes, the miller
should have a test sifter on hand and periodically check different streams
(Fig. 13-1).
Periodically, the miller lays out, on a table, samples of all the stocks in
the mill and compares streams flowing to the same stage in the mill from
different wheat mixes and settings. Stocks flowing to the same machine can
be evaluated and compared easily by slicking them side by side. The miller
slicks intermediate materials as well as flours in the mill by manually press-
ing samples on a tray, using a thin-bladed paddle, for visual inspection of
color and dress. This procedure should be followed every week and espe-
cially after major grist changes. A hinged cover on the table can prevent the
samples from collecting dust between samplings. This technique shows
differences, not in quantities but in qualities, of intermediate stocks in the
process.
With all the mill products laid out, the miller is in a position to make the
necessary changes in grinding, sifter and purifier settings, and wheat condi-
tioning, and, as a last resort, to divert streams to different destinations. For
instance, samples from sifters indicate how roll settings should be
Fig. 13-1. Test sifter. (Courtesy of Great Western Manufacturing, Inc.)

406 CHAPTER 13
changed to obtain the best sifter separations (e.g., sizing to improve germ
separation, produce cleaner middlings, or improve tailing stock) and to
determine the best roll setting for a mix. Material flowing to the reduction
rolls is monitored to make sure an acceptable percentage of unsifted flour
flows back for grinding. The layout of mill streams can be used during
subsequent operating shifts by the mill workers for quality comparison, if
irregularities show up in the system.
Test Sifters
Test sifters for commercial mill use are available through most of the
companies manufacturing mill equipment. The test sifter is supplied with a
timer, a sufficient assortment of sieves for needed clothing sizes, spacer
frames, sieve cleaning frames, and pan frames. A digital scale for the
weigh-outs would be convenient, if taring and percentage calculation are
integrated. To determine the needs in sieve covers, the miller should analyze
the clothing mesh assortment from the mill flow. For maximum utilization
of the test sifter, the miller should have on hand sieves with screen meshes
similar to those used in the mill flow. For example, the flow sheet for the
pilot mill at Kansas State University requires the sieve frames shown in
Table 13-1, properly clothed.
Sieve cleaner frames are used under bolting cloth finer than 70 GG.
Cleaners may be of the same type used in the commercial sifter, i.e., cotton
belting, 5/8-in. plastic cubes, rubber balls, and others. Sieve cleaning frames
are clothed with 2.5-in. mesh per inch of hardwire screen. With these sup-
plies for the test sifter, it is possible to duplicate each classification in a
commercial flour mill.
TABLE 13-1
Sieves Used in a Mill Flowa
TMSb LWc GGd Swiss Silk
Number Microns Number Microns Number Microns Number Microns
10 W 2,030 18 W 1,190 36 GG 568 8 XX 193
12 W 1,678 20 W 1,041 38 GG 546 9 XX 150
22 W 977 40 GG 501 10 XX 136
24 W 869 44 GG 467 11 XX 124
50 GG 375 12 XX 107
54 GG 351
56 GG 333
70 GG 240
a
Source: Farrell and Ward (1965); used by permission.
b
Tinned mill screen.
c
Light wire screen.
d
Grit gauze bolting cloth.
Maintenance requirements of the commercial mill sifter can also be

identified by the test sifter. Incomplete sifting can be identified by the test
sifter, using proper clothing for that point in the flow. Excessive carry-back
of unbolted product may indicate the need to service the commercial mill
sifter. Leaks or holes in screens of the commercial mill sifter can be
detected also by test sifting on the same clothing with which the product has
been sifted in the mill. Examination of overs remaining on the test sieve
screen will indicate the problem.
Errors in sieve clothing on the commercial mill sifter are identified by
checking the stock to the sifter on test sifter screens according to the mill
flow sheet. Comparison of classifications from the test sifter with those
from the commercial mill sifter can identify any errors in clothing mesh that
may exist. The change in the granulation curve of a mill for each wheat mix
can be determined with the test sifter. Decisions related to mill flow changes
or proposed changes in clothing mesh of the commercial sifter also can be
verified or refined by duplicating the changes with the test sifter.
The test sifter is also an excellent device for training people. Classifica-
tions can be made, measured, and defined. Flour mill flow systems can be
demonstrated and measured.
Break Release Adjustment in the Mill

The break release percentage is the amount of ground material obtained,
consisting mostly of sizings, middlings, flour, and fine bran, reported as a
percentage of the original material being tested through a certain sieve aper-
ture (Fig. 13-2). Adjustment of the mill break release affects the total results
and balance of mill grinding.
The following equation should be used to calculate break releases:
W1 − W2
Break release, % = × 100
W1
in which W1 = the total weight of stocks (or wheat in the case of 1BK)
entering the break rolls, and W2 = the total weight of overs on the 20W sieve
in the break system after sifting. The break release values are actually the
percentages of the stock passing through the 20W sieve. For example, in an
operating mill, sample quantities of 100 g are sifted for 20 sec, and the rolls
are adjusted to the following releases through a No. 20 thin mill stream (TMS)
wire (910 µm): first break, 30%; second break, 40%; and third break, coarse
30%. Third break fine (45%), fourth break coarse (20%), fourth break fine
(30%), and fifth break (30%) are sifted through a 24 TMS wire (730 µm).
Proper test sifter procedures are important in determining break or
grinding releases from roller mills. Taking the sample for sieve analysis can
be a challenging act that demands some experience. Representative samples
408 CHAPTER 13
Fig. 13-2. Schematic explanation of break release. (Reprinted, with permission,

from Posner and Wetzel, 1986)
are taken under the grinding rolls in such a way that a truly representative
sample of the flow can be repeatedly obtained. A sample should be taken
from under the rolls from each side of the ground material stream.
Subsequently, the gap is adjusted on each end of the roll until the release on
both ends is equal. Weighing out a small portion of a sample taken under a
roll stand might cause vibration and disaggregation in the sample. Accord-
ingly, the whole sample of about 100–150 g should be sifted on a laboratory
sifter. Weighing of the sample must be done in a manner that will not result
in size separation. Accurate weighing of the sample is important, as well as
accurate weighing of the separate components after test sifting. Some
millers use specially designed containers equipped with a cutting lid to take
a fixed volume of material under the rolls. Containers of different volumes
are used for different materials. The weight of the total sample is recorded
and used for the break release test.
Determination of break releases is made on a routine basis in flour
mills. Break releases are determined at least once each shift and after mill
mix changes. In new developments, the test sifters are modified for
continuous on-line separation of ground material to overs and throughs,
and the weights of those are used to determine the break release and to
activate roll gap adjustment. Another approach is to determine the weight
of one of the sifter outlet materials continuously with a flow-through
scale and feed back information to the roll gap control.
TABLE 13-2
Cumulative Break Release and Cumulative Asha
Setting No. 1 Setting No. 2
Extraction, %b Ash, % Extraction, %b Ash, %
1st Break 18.3 0.67 27.5 0.76
2nd Break 39.4 0.56 30.0 0.58
3rd Break 17.8 1.45 18.1 1.65
Cumulative 75.5 0.79 75.6 0.89
a
Source: Peterson (1949); used by permission.
b
Percent extraction is based on the load to first break.
Procedures for test sifting of breaks and other materials vary among
mills. Generally, the more those materials are tested on a regular basis and
rolls adjusted accordingly, the more efficient the mill operation will be.
The following procedure could be used by the miller to determine the
best break release, by which the rolls should be adjusted each shift. Ash of
the released material from each break should be checked periodically, and
especially upon change in wheat mixes. The cumulative ash of released
material in the mill breaks is a good indication of variance from optimum
adjustment. Table 13-2 shows an example of the cumulative break release
percentage based on wheat to the first break and the cumulative ash from
two settings. Setting No.1 should be preferred, in the case described in the
example. Although the total releases are very close, the amount of cumula-
tive ash is significantly better with setting No. 1. Dividing the value of the
cumulative release by the cumulative ash results in a higher number,
indicating a better adjustment.
In general, to achieve 78% flour extraction in the mill, the cumulative
release from all the breaks should be in the range of 81–82%. Accordingly,
the miller selects for break release adjustment sieves with apertures similar
to those used at the top of the corresponding break sifters sections in the
mill.
Scale Readout and Calculation

Extraction is the amount of flour obtained from any given amount of
wheat. Different means are available for calculating flour extraction,
production of finished products, and inventories in the mill. Scales, flow
controllers, and other electronically controlled devices can continuously
update mill performance, capacity, and inventories. Instant readout of the
mill extraction rate is possible with on-stream totaling weighers. The weight
measurement can be achieved by load cells, which provide a signal to the
control system. Although several on-line, high-capacity weighers are avail-
able for the mill raw materials and products, basically they all weigh
410 CHAPTER 13
batches of material and provide corrections of the tare weight. Some of the
sources of information in the mill are weight of dirty wheat purchased,
weights from the various scales (mill dirty wheat, elevator dirty wheat, mill
dry clean wheat, mill tempered wheat, mill finished products), and weight
of mill products sold.
The only true way of determining the mill extraction is by using the
weight of dirty wheat purchased minus the dockage in the United States or
of wheat arriving at the mill elevator in other places. In the final analysis,
the only weight that can be used in calculating a true extraction is the
weight of flour actually sold to the customer. In many cases, this weight is
considerably different from that from the mill scales, but to get an actual
relation between extraction and cost of production, this weight must be used
as a percentage of the weight of dirty wheat purchased minus dockage.
Scales generating this information can be named as the production-
reporting scales for overall evaluation.
Process-control scales are located at different stages of the operation for
continuous technical evaluation of mill performance. This enables the miller
to measure the extraction, identify bottlenecks in the system, and indicate
irregularities in the operation.
Disappearance, or shrinkage, in the elevator during storage of material
can usually be shown from scale and weigher data. The following are some of
the losses in the milling operation: dusting losses, flour bin discrepancies,
clean-out losses (bins), infestation losses, moisture dry-out losses in wheat and
products, broken bags, and over packing; none of these factors can be
controlled completely by the miller. One of the miller’s objectives is to use
appropriate measures and adjustments to control these losses.
The Distribution Table

The distribution table expresses quantitative data for analysis of all
intermediate and final product streams in a milling unit. It is constructed
using the mill flow sheet and data generated from weighing out all the mill
streams. The same fixed procedure should always be used in weighing out
the streams to achieve an accurate analysis.
Sampling of streams should start from the tail end of the mill and be
taken under each sifter section by using a special arrangement or by
unfastening the stockings from their lower attachment. Several people
simultaneously divert all the sifter-section stockings into collecting bags.
Because of large differences in stream quantities, the streams are collected
for different lengths of time. When inserted into the distribution table, all
the weights of the streams are corrected to the same length of time. An
example of a distribution table is shown in Figure 13-3. The sequence of the
milling stages in the table is the same in the top row and the left column.
The left column indicates the milling stages from which materials originate,
and the upper row indicates the milling stages to which the different
materials flow. The total of each column indicates the quantity (in pounds
per hour) of stocks going to the particular milling stage. The total of each
row indicates the quantity of stocks going from a particular milling stage,
machine, or section of a sifter.
The complete distribution table can be used by the miller in many ways.
It indicates any ring-arounds of materials in the flow, i.e., a stream or part of
a stream that flows back to a previous processing stage. This shows up in
the distribution table as a weight to the right of the stepwise line. The
miller’s objectives are to have all intermediate materials flow forward and to
extract good-quality flour as soon as possible in the milling system. An
observed ring-around in the system is an indication of reduced efficiency of
machine usage. From the distribution table, the miller can also evaluate the
actual quantities of all intermediate stocks and compare them to the original
design load of the machinery. The specific roll surface, sifter area, and
purifier width can be determined. If deviation from the optimum is
observed, measures can be taken to correct the problem. The miller is
interested in keeping the mill running in balance and using each machine at
maximum potential. Consistent quantities of material to the different
machines help guarantee results of uniform quality. From the distribution
Fig. 13-3. Example of a distribution table. All weights in the table are in pounds
per hour. (Reprinted, with permission, from Farrell and Ward, 1965)
412 CHAPTER 13
table, the miller can determine the quantities picked up by the pneumatic
system and make more accurate air adjustments.
Granulation Curve
The granulation curve (Fig. 6-26) expresses the disintegration of the
wheat kernel at different stages of the milling process. It is drawn on a
graph in which the horizontal axis shows the various sieve apertures in
microns and the vertical axis shows the tail cumulative percentage overs of
the respective sieves. The granulation curve is a description of the particle
size distribution of a ground material. By drawing granulation curves, the
miller can monitor variability in kernel disintegration and make the
necessary adjustments in the system. The data to construct the granulation
curve can come from those collected for the distribution table or can be
generated with an experimental sifter. Using the latter, the miller sieves the
stock from under the roll stand on a stack of sieves and then calculates the
percentages of all the quantities remaining on the sieves and the material in
the bottom pan from the total weight.
If different sets of sieves are used for separation of the same stock,
different points will be allocated on the graph. However, the points will lie
on exactly the same curve. The form and the course of the curve do not
depend on the sieve aperture but on the sample granulation distribution.
The miller draws the granulation curves of the mill for each wheat mix at
the time when mill performance is optimum. This curve is used as a
reference for subsequent runs or as a background for improvement
studies. The granulation curve can be affected by any small changes in
roll settings or by whether rolls are dull or recorrugated. Changes in
break releases because of harder or softer wheat texture can be detected
with the granulation curve, and over- or under-loading of the systems and
equipment can be prevented by changing the adjustments of the breaks. If
the mill is out of balance, extraction, capacity, power consumption, and
flour quality are affected. For example, if the curve changes and drops at
a steeper angle from the starting point, it means an increase in flour
production with the breaks and could be an indication of dull rolls.
Using the granulation curve, the efficiency of a sifter flow arrangement
can be determined. A poorly designed sifter for a certain mill setting or for
specific wheat will tail over many granules that are smaller than the aper-
tures of the respective cloths and that should have fallen through. This can be
checked against the granulation distribution determined with an experimental
sifter. A large difference in the curve indicates deficiency in the mill sifter.
The granulation curve analysis can generate the following information:
1) corrugation condition, 2) mill balance when milling soft and hard wheats,
3) roll adjustment, and 4) sieve area, aperture, division, and efficiency.
Ash in the Flour Mill and Cumulative Ash Curve

Ash is the residue remaining after the incineration of a substance under
such conditions that all organic matter is destroyed. Ash determination is of
great value to the miller because it is an accurate index of the separation of
endosperm from pericarp and germ in any particular flour. The natural
mineral constituents of the wheat kernel can vary between extremes of 1.10
and 2.18%. Bran, which makes up 14–15% of the total weight of wheat, has
an ash content of 6–7%. The pure starchy endosperm has approximately
0.35% ash. In a typical, high-protein, hard red winter or spring wheat, the
ash value in the bran averages about 6.0%, whereas that in the pure
endosperm averages 0.3%. Table 13-3 is an example of mineral analysis of
wheat and mill products.
In addition to the minerals cited above, wheat and wheat products con-
tain traces of iron, manganese, copper, zinc, and aluminum, usually
expressed analytically in terms of parts per million. Contrary to general
opinion, the ash test requires a great deal of skill in manipulation and
weighing, and experimental errors of ±0.01% in patent and first clear flours
are usual. On second clears and whole kernels of wheat, the experimental
error is ±0.04%. Because such a great difference exists in ash content
between the seed coat and the endosperm of the wheat kernel, ash
determination of flour is of great importance to the miller—but not to the
flour consumer. The ash value of flours is a guide to the miller as to the
performance of the mill. The baker who attempts to evaluate the quality
of flour by its ash content probably only pays dearly for deception. By
specifying only low ash in flour, the baker may get flour of poorer baking
quality than that with higher ash. For example, in Britain, the addition of
calcium carbonate to flour is mandatory; flour ash figures are of no value
after this addition.
Perhaps the best single measurement of milling efficiency from a
technical viewpoint is the accumulated ash curve. This can be constructed
from the rate of flow, percentage of ash, and moisture level of all the
TABLE 13-3
Average Mineral Content (%) in Wheat and Flour Mill Productsa
Total Ash Magnesium Calcium Phosphorus Potassium
Wheat 2.05 0.19 0.04 0.44 0.24
Patent flour 0.48 0.03 0.02 0.12 0.06
Clear flour 0.80 0.06 0.02 0.19 0.09
Wheat bran 6.75 0.72 0.12 1.52 0.71
Wheat midds 4.76 0.45 0.11 1.04 0.56
Wheat germ 5.04 0.38 0.07 1.25 0.55
a
Source: Sullivan and Near (1927).
414 CHAPTER 13
mill’s intermediate flour streams. The ash percentages are converted to a

common basis, such as dry or 14% moisture. The individual flour streams
are arranged according to ash content, with lowest-ash flour first. Starting
with the two lowest-ash streams, a series of calculations is made to
determine ash content from blending two streams. Then ash of a new
blend, consisting of the first two flours plus a third flour higher in ash
content, is calculated. Figure 2-22 shows a set of such calculations for
cumulative ash. The miller can use electronic software spreadsheets for
convenient and fast calculation of the ash curve. Figure 1-9 shows
cumulative ash curves. More than one curve can be drawn on the same
graph for comparison of milling performance. Ash determination can help
in break release optimization and roll adjustment. For instance, if a mill is
operating with low ash for every flour stream but giving a straight-grade
flour with higher ash at a very poor extraction, the ash curve can show
this.
Ash content alone is misleading as a flour grading factor; low ash at
low extraction percentage can be deceptive in evaluating mill results. The
cumulative flour ash curve shows the quantity related to a certain ash
level. Flour ash levels are also related to the level in the kernel
endosperm. Wheats differ in their inherent endosperm ash level, which
depends on variety and growing conditions. Wheat with higher
endosperm ash is bound to give a higher ash at a given extraction level, if
all other variables are kept constant. The relationship between the ratio of
flour ash to wheat ash and the flour extraction level is almost linear (Fig.
2-23).
In practice, it is impossible to mill flour completely free of bran
contamination using a dry process. The objective in efficient milling is to
approach this goal as closely as possible, consistent with economic and
other considerations. The relationship between the endosperm and its
contamination with bran can be expressed theoretically using a simple
relationship. If the ash of a mill stock or a flour stream is greater than
0.30%, we can conclude that it is contaminated with bran powder. We can
calculate the percent of bran powder in the stock by using the equation
% ash in sample − 0.30
%Bran powder =
0.057
Thus, if the ash content of a given stock is 0.93%, its bran con-
tamination is 11%. If the ash content is 0.30%, its bran content is 0%—in
other words, it is pure endosperm. Likewise, if its ash content is 6.00%, its
bran content is 100%, or in other words, it is pure bran. Even patent flour
having an ash content of 0.40% is contaminated by approximately 1.8%
bran powder; and straight-grade flour with an ash of 0.48% contains in
excess of 3% bran powder.
NIR Control of the Milling Process

The implementation of computers and modern analytical monitoring
systems for everyday use in flour milling is essentially a step toward auto-
mated quality control of mill products. Gerold (2002) described an NIR-
mini-spectrometer connected to a measuring head that can be attached to
any spout in the mill for evaluation of the flowing material or flour. NIR
monitoring of product characteristics at the end of the product line with on-
line instruments had appeared in mills by the 1980s. Automated systems by
which protein, moisture, and “NIR-ash” of end-products are monitored can
be described as informative, indicating to the miller any changes in the mill
end-products. On-line NIR can be used to monitor blending of flours and to
control moisture of end-products or additives such as gluten or starch.
A new dimension for automation of flour mills has been suggested
using NIR technology. It is based on the use of an on-line monitoring
system as a decision-making tool. The instrument generates pulses fed to
the mill control computer, which makes decisions similar to those made by
the miller while looking at intermediate material or examining results from
the mill laboratory. The decision is based on measurements indicating
qualitative characteristics that can influence milling performance. For real-
time, on-line monitoring while the mill is running, it is important to get a
rapid, relative measurement sensitive to changes in the mill in order to make
a processing response to these changes.
For on-line monitoring, it is necessary first to select an appropriate place
in the mill where product differences are readily apparent and where a
miller might apply skill and experience with an appropriate processing
adjustment that would commercially benefit the operation. Certain streams
always indicate to the miller whether the mill is out of balance. Table 13-4
shows an example of variation in a mill stream with different wheats for
which the same break release was set.
TABLE 13-4
Variations in a Mill Stream as a Result of Milling Different Wheatsa,b
Percent of Wheat
Wheatc to First Break Ash (14% mb)
HRS No. 1 9.73 0.96
HRS No. 2 11.01 1.10
SWW 7.01 1.48
SRW 7.98 1.90
HRW 8.69 1.22
a
Source: Posner and Wetzel (1986); used by permission.
b
Third break material to purifier No. 4 (through 22TT over 56GG).
c
HRS = hard red summer, SWW = soft white winter, SRW = soft red winter, HRW = hard red
winter.
416 CHAPTER 13
Fig. 13-4. Schematic drawing of the near-infrared reflectance sampling

mechanism. (Reprinted, with permission, from Posner and Wetzel, 1986)
The optical arrangement for the remote, on-line sensing head does not
involve a sample cup in which the sample is observed by the instrument
through two layers of quartz windows. Instead, the quartz window of the
sensing head is mounted flush with an observation port in the vertical
aluminum chute, which then is welded to common aluminum spouting.
Figure 13-4 shows a schematic drawing of the NIR sampling mechanism.
The stock flows through a 3-in. spout by gravity into a vertical 2- × 4-in.
rectangular aluminum extruder, the bottom end of which is connected to a
round tube of appropriate internal diameter to house a conveying screw. A
hydraulic motor maintains high torque but can be controlled to give repro-
ducible low revolutions per minute under continuous operation. An optical
window port is milled into one side of the extruder, allowing the optical
window to be mounted vertically. Opposite the window is an inspection
port. Because the rectangular extruder is kept full of stock by an overflow
system, the compaction on the vertical window is controlled by the weight
of the stock above it, which is assumed to be constant for stock of a
particular density. It is essential that the position of the sensing head in the
chute be low enough to ensure adequate compaction of the stock at the
reading point. An electronic pulse could be used to activate adjustment or
regulating mechanisms in the mill.
Technical Efficiency of Machines

The technical efficiency of machines can be determined from con-
trolling the process automatically and collecting a large database. Data
collected and organized into the distribution table can help in identifying
machine efficiencies. Granulation curves can identify the effect of changes

in sieve aperture in the system. Computer software can analyze the data and
optimize the mill run based on the miller’s subjective experiences as well as
on regression analysis that is updated continuously.
The Future of Mill Process Control

No other feature of flour milling will change faster in the future than
automation and process control. Application of new findings from different
disciplines (including fluid mechanics, thermodynamics, physics, and
chemistry) will change the control and adjustment of the milling process.
On-line instruments will be developed to more accurately evaluate the
physical, rheological, and chemical characteristics of the wheat and flour
constituents. Data accumulation and analysis will start at the wheat-receiv-
ing stage and end just before the final products leave the flour mill. This
will probably happen through use of the complete artificial intelligence
approach, resulting in fully automated flour milling systems.
REFERENCES CITED
Farrell, E. P., and Ward, A. B. 1965. Flow rates and analysis for ash and protein of
all streams in the Kansas State University pilot flour mill. Assoc. Oper. Millers
Tech. Bull., Mar., pp. 2842-2847.
Gerold, J. 2002. Complex sampling and measuring system for fine-grained and
powdery bulk material on the basis of the NIR technique. Muehle Miscfuttertech.
139:343-344.
Goslak, M. J. 2002. Integrating production line automation systems with office
information systems. Assoc. Oper. Millers Tech. Bull., Aug., pp. 7821-7824.
Kuphal, E. E. 1964. New computer controlled plants. Assoc. Oper. Millers Tech
Bull., Nov., pp. 2820-2822.
Peterson, W. L. 1949. Controlled break extraction. Assoc. Oper Millers Tech. Bull.,
Jan., pp. 1722-1723.
Posner, E. S., and Wetzel, D. L. 1986. Control of flour mills by on-line monitoring.
Sullivan, B., and Near, C. 1927. The ash of hard spring wheat and its products. J.
Ind. Eng. Chem. 19:498-501.
SUGGESTED READING
Ackles, A. 1953. The operative miller’s responsibility in management. Assoc. Oper.

Millers Tech. Bull., Jun., p. 2038.
Bolling, H., and Zwingelberg, H. 1984. Continuous determination of flour contents
through NIR. Getreide Mehl Brot 1:3-5.
Crowley, P. R., Anderson, M. L., Gracza, R., Grogg, B., Handleman, A. R., Wichser,
F. W., and Whitby, K. T. 1961. AACC particle size committee report: 1961.
Cereal Sci. Today 6:330.
418 CHAPTER 13
Dechene, R. L., and Averdieck, W. J. 1987. Triboelectricity: A parameter for solids

flow measurement. Powder Bulk Eng. 1(6):11.
Ernst, K. 1981. Elektrische Automation für die Getreideverarbeitung. Mühle
Mischfuttertech. Nos. 12 & 13, 19, and 26, March.
Franken, J. L. 1992. Automated process control: How do I get started? Assoc. Oper.
Millers Tech. Bull., Nov., pp. 6117-6119.
Haltmeier, O. 1927. Über Wermahlungsversuche und deren Auswertung. Z. Gesamte
Mühlenwes. 4(6):103-105.
Hibbs, A. 1975. The operative miller and milling efficiency. Assoc. Oper. Millers
Tech. Bull., Apr., p. 3537.
Jenike, A. W. 1964. Storage and flow of solids. Bull. 123. Utah Eng. Exp. Stn., Salt
Lake City, UT.
Nordstrom, K. L. 1965. Measuring milling results. Assoc. Oper. Millers Tech. Bull.,
Jul., p. 2869.
Oliver, J. R., Blakeney, A. B., and Allen, H. M. 1992. Measurement of flour color in
color space parameters. Cereal Chem. 69:546-551.
Osborne, B. 1984. Some application of NIRA in the UK to milling and baking
industry. Int. Symp. on Near-Infrared Reflectance Analysis, 7th. Technicon
Industrial Systems, Tarrytown, NY.
Rozsa, T. A. 1948. The granulation curve. Assoc. Oper. Millers Tech. Bull. Vol. I.
pp. 333-338.
Rozsa, T. A. 1948. Granulation study of a flour mill. Assoc. Oper. Millers Tech.
Bull. Vol. I. pp. 341-350.
Robbins, D. H. 1965. Mill control. Northwest. Miller, May, pp. 21-22.
Smart, T. 1990. Philosophy of economic justification for automation. Assoc. Oper.
Sugden, D. 1987. The practicality of automated mills. Assoc. Oper. Millers Tech.
Bull., Jul., p. 5003-5007.
Vol. I, pp. 168-173.
Ward, A. B., Wetzel, D. L., and Vetter, J. L. 1977. Rapid particle size distribution
Wilson, C. 1970. Manufacturing costs. Assoc. Oper. Millers Tech. Bull., Jul., p.
3180.
Wingfield, J. 1985. Flour mill performance. Assoc. Oper. Millers Tech. Bull., Sep.,
p. 4561.
Wingfield, J. 1990. Putting flour mill yields to work: A computerized, value-added
approach. Assoc. Oper. Millers Tech. Bull., Jul., pp. 5721-5734.
Zumwalt, R. 1967. Cost of running a flour mill. Assoc. Oper. Millers Tech. Bull.,
Mar., p. 2965.
CHAPTER 14
Mill Maintenance
Maintenance can be defined as the activity undertaken to allow contin-

ued use of buildings and equipment over a desired life expectancy. Manage-
ment wants full productivity from the production facilities at the minimum
cost necessary to ensure their safe use. The key for efficient maintenance is
good management of the resources invested in this activity.
The miller has always been concerned with maintenance. Historical mill
pictures show the miller sharpening and grooving the millstones. More
dependable stone quality, better roll steel, or durable sifting cloth gives the
miller more time between maintenance activities and allows more efficient
scheduling of maintenance and production. In the modern mill, the effort of
maintaining the mill is not reduced but simply directed toward handling more
sophisticated equipment.
The electronically controlled equipment and high-technology instru-
mentation used today is very dependent on the operational condition of the
machines. Inadequate maintenance results in lost production time from break-
down failure, inefficient production, accelerated depreciation of plant facilities,
wasteful application of lubricants, and increased insurance premiums. In
addition, the miller must deal with the specific maintenance needed to guarantee
product quality. The miller should keep a shut-down report that records lost pro-
duction and the causes, e.g., mechanical, electrical, scheduling, or mill chokes.
Expenditures on maintenance cannot show direct returns, but they are very
important for guaranteeing the overall return from the operation. One of the
first things to examine when a mill is experiencing poor results is the
maintenance. Roll corrugations and sieves gradually wear, and this is some-
times not noticed by the operator, who sees them every day. A regular main-
tenance schedule is necessary as well as an inspection program to evaluate
maintained equipment.
The issue of spare parts in the mill is directly related to mill
maintenance and cost. Based on management experience, mill location,
419
420 CHAPTER 14
logistics, and the cost of inventory, a decision should be made about the
kind and number of spare parts needed to secure a good maintenance
program. The inventory of spare parts should be watched closely by mill
management, using appropriate computer software to keep a record of all
changes.
The size of a maintenance department is in direct relationship to the size
of the plant and its complexity. The cost of operating the department is
directly related to the number of persons who are assigned to it and their
qualifications.
Types of Maintenance
An adequate maintenance program can be achieved by the use of three
distinct concepts: corrective maintenance, operational maintenance, and
preventive maintenance. The general description of the three types of
maintenance below should be used as a guideline. However, specific plant
needs and local conditions should guide management and supervisors in
deciding on a maintenance system and adjusting it, using these concepts.
Corrective Maintenance
Corrective maintenance is necessary because machines, facilities, and
equipment break and wear out. Maintenance includes overhauls, alterna-
tions, replacements, and correction of problems found by preventive and
unscheduled breakdown maintenance. Such activity restores a facility and
its equipment to its original or design capacity and efficiency by replacing
parts or materials after they have deteriorated. In some cases, the mainte-
nance associated with breakdowns is particularly economical because it
prevents damage to other parts of the equipment and thus prevents longer
shutdowns. For example, timely replacement of a damaged fan bearing
could prevent possible damage to the shaft or rotor.
The shut-down report mentioned above is helpful in defining problem
areas. Also helpful are employees’ observations of expected failure of a mill
part or facility. This type of maintenance requires that necessary spare parts
be kept on hand in the mill and that skilled personnel be available in the
mill or close by to prevent unnecessary down time.
Operational Maintenance
Besides scheduled activities based on records and manufacturers’'
manuals, equipment spot checks, such as of bearing conditions or vibration,
give indications of required operational maintenance. To determine the
MILL MAINTENANCE 421
condition of parts, special electronic instruments are used to detect noise,

heat, and vibrations of machine parts during operation. Planned wear of
machine parts, such as hammer mill hammers, elevator buckets, roll stands,
and rolls, should be monitored under the preventive maintenance program;
however, replacement of these parts could be classified as operational
maintenance. The plant production supervisor should keep records of
inspection results and replacements and should establish schedules for pre-
ventive maintenance tasks. The person responsible for maintenance should
continuously follow up on the condition of equipment as part of the deci-
sion-making process. This enables alteration of maintenance schedules
when necessary and economically feasible.
Operational maintenance includes lubrication and bearing maintenance.
Friction exists in all operating machines. The coefficient of friction is the
frictional force divided by the load. Using an appropriate lubricant between
the sliding surfaces reduces the coefficient of friction and allows the sur-
faces to slide on each other with less effort.
The purpose of the lubricant is to maintain a film of a low-friction sub-
stance between the sliding surfaces. A good lubricant must have body that
can stand up to great pressure and considerable temperature. The lubricant
is manufactured to meet the service requirements of minimum coefficient of
friction: maximum adhesion to the surface to be lubricated; maximum film
strength; physical stability with regard to temperature and pressure; chemi-
cal stability against oxidation; freedom from corrosive acids; resistance to
emulsion volatility; proper fluidity at low temperatures; minimum consis-
tency; and purity (absence of abrasives, fillers, soaps, or additional agents).
Liquid-petroleum lubricants are generally used because of their suitabil-
ity for modern engineering design. Greases, which are a mixture of mineral
oils and soap, are suggested when leakage is too high to retain liquid lubri-
cants. Continuous developments are being made in materials for bearings,
as well as for lubricants. In general, manufacturers' instructions should be
followed concerning periodic lubrication maintenance. The number of revo-
lutions per minute, weight, temperature, bearing structure, and size are all
factors in the determination of the most suitable lubricant. Both over- and
under-lubrication could be damaging to the sliding surfaces, bearings, and
machines.
The grain elevator and the flour mill require special consideration in
lubrication because of dust in the system. Dust that becomes oil-soaked
builds up on the bearings, preventing ambient cooling and causing a rise in
temperature. Dust can penetrate different kinds of bearings in the machine,
resulting in loss of energy, damage to bearings, and unscheduled machine
shutdown.
Koehler (2001, 2002) has reviewed food-grade lubricants for industrial
food production. Regulations of the U.S. Department of Agriculture
422 CHAPTER 14
(classifications USDA-H2 and -H1), Germany (DIN V 10517), and the

International Standards Organization (ISO) classify lubricants based on
technical requirements for preventing contact with food materials for
human consumption in the processing system. H1 lubricants can be used on
all friction points, where there may be an accidental, technically un-
avoidable contact between the lubricant and the food product. H2 lubricants
are suitable for general applications in the food processing industry.
However, contact with food products must be avoided. The U.S. Food and
Drug Administration specifies substances approved for use in food-grade
lubricants. A federal regulation (21 CFR 178.357) lists the chemical names
and quantities of all raw materials allowed. All lubricants are tested for
toxicity before they are approved by authorities.
Preventive Maintenance
Preventive maintenance is the routine activity undertaken to enable the
anticipation of breakdown failure. Its goal is the prevention of breakdowns
and other forms of trouble through an orderly procedure of doing necessary
repairs. The old habit of waiting until trouble occurs before acting must be
broken. Doing the job right costs money, but neglect may cost more.
Preventive maintenance is economically justified when the cost of failure
during operation is greater than the inspection cost plus the cost of the
unused productive life of failed machinery. An estimate of 6–8% of total
staff hours should be devoted to preventive maintenance.
A preventive maintenance program should be designed for each specific
condition of a mill. Singh and Allen (1986) listed a few questions that the
mill professional should ask before deciding what equipment to include in
the preventive maintenance program: Is the equipment vital? If it fails, will
it cause a safety hazard or a major operations breakdown? Does a preven-
tive maintenance inspection require a teardown of the equipment? How
long would repair take? Does the equipment have a standby that can be
brought into operation without loss of effectiveness? Will the cost of
preventive maintenance exceed the cost of breakdown repair? How impor-
tant is prolonging the life of the equipment? At some point, will the equip-
ment need to be replaced because it is obsolete or because a better model is
available?
Brown (1984) suggests that a preventive maintenance planning guide
should include CARE, an acronym for the following actions in the plant:
Cleaning–cleaning equipment on a routine schedule, Adjusting—making
adjustments on a routine schedule, Replacing disposables—replacing filters,
lubricants, and other parts considered to be disposable on a routine basis,
Examining—examining and inspecting equipment on a regular schedule. A
repair made before equipment fails is not preventive maintenance; it is cor-
rective maintenance, but it is a result of preventive maintenance. A typical

preventive maintenance system requires keeping the following data record:
equipment type, location, date of purchase, vendor, make, model number,
maintenance accessibility, and a check list of practices for each machine.
The Mill Maintenance Program

Another way to look at maintenance is to divide it into two concepts:
maintenance related to general operational equipment and maintenance
related to the ability of the equipment to efficiently perform milling
technology functions. General maintenance includes upkeep of electronics,
mechanical parts such as bearings and other components, and electrical
motors, just to name a few areas. Specific technical maintenance includes
maintaining roll surface condition, bolting screens, and filter stockings.
The general maintenance program is scheduled, as in other processing
plants, but technical maintenance is scheduled after careful consideration of
production, market demand, equipment, manpower, and labor costs. For
example, many mills schedule maintenance on Monday rather then the
weekend to avoid paying premium time for labor, to avoid having pack and
load weekend production in storage, and to have the full management and
supervisory staff available if needed.
Electric Motors
Electric motors are so familiar that they sometimes are taken for
granted. Maintenance of electric motors, like any other industrial procedure,
should be planned. A maintenance program for the mill motors should be
established after a thorough initial inspection and should include periodic
routine inspections. Good inspection should follow a long-established rule,
that the best time to inspect the motor is while it is being cleaned.
Today, there are very few mills in which a single motor runs the entire
plant. When this was the practice, the mill was shut down when mainte-
nance was required on the motor. Since mills started driving some machines
by more than one motor, some maintenance can be done on motors without
stopping the entire mill if the machine can be taken out of the flow
temporarily. However, multiple motors in the mill have complicated the
problems. At present, the failure of one motor can shut down a complete,
fully automated mill. Experience suggests that most of the motors that
might fail are 15 hp or smaller, but these are critical to production.
In the past, motor preventive maintenance was practiced mostly in the
form of visual inspection based on a computer-directed schedule of
importance to the production process. Until recently, the only motor test
424 CHAPTER 14
instruments on hand were a 1,000-V megohmmeter, a digital low-resis-

tance ohmmeter, and a portable vibration analyzer. The megohmmeter
was used to test for insulation resistance to ground and could be used to
detect an open winding. The low-resistance ohmmeter could detect
shorted turns in the winding, high-resistance connections, open windings,
and severe conductor faults. New instruments to test motor conditions are
available today. However, in selecting them, caution should be taken to
avoid those that can damage a motor with a relatively small fault. If that
happens, repair work must be done immediately. By testing the motors
with instruments such as a DC high-potential tester or a high-voltage
surge compactor tester, problems can be identified and maintenance time
allocated in the near future.
Milling Machines
The miller would like to perform routine maintenance tasks at a time
when they will not interfere with production requirements. Routine mill
maintenance, such as sifter checking or roll changing, requires a relatively
large number of employees to be called in. Stopping the mill for mainte-
nance is efficient if the maximum number of sifter boxes is worked on
simultaneously. The same applies to roll changing or other chores. Many
times, this call-in involves substantial overtime payment or call-in pay. In an
efficient milling operation, such projects are planned very carefully in
advance. In some cases, maintenance can be performed while the mill is
running. Maintenance on the run can be performed when checking or
changing purifier screens, in certain sifter sections, and in some cases when
changing rolls.
Newly corrugated rolls, spare bearings, and an adequate supply of the
various screens that are used in the mill should be ready. Hand brushes and
all other required tools should be on hand and in adequate number to allow
every one of the mill employees to concentrate on this work.
Milling equipment engineering companies provide maintenance instruc-
tions accumulated from many years of experience with their machines, and
these instructions should be followed.
Cleaning Machines
The most common maintenance problem in the cleaning house is a bro-
ken sieve or a leak in the frame that loses millable wheat to screenings.
These machines, separators, sifters, and scourers must be inspected during
every shift for a possible leak. Obviously, any leaks must be repaired
immediately, and spare sieves must be carried in stock for this purpose. The
wear of pockets affects the operation of the disc separators and trieur or
indent cylinder machines, making them less efficient. The worn lip on the
pocket can be observed and scheduled for replacement. This requires that
the machine be bypassed and taken out of service for a short time. Deston-
ers and specific gravity type machines need to be inspected for wear of the
screen deck that makes it smooth and slows the movement of stock. The
screen can be turned over or replaced. The hangers and bearings of tables
also need replacement periodically. Impact machines wear at the point of
impact, usually the rotor and liner. The wear on rotor pins causes the rotor
to get out of balance and need replacement. If this is delayed too long, the
pins break off and cause damage to subsequent machines.
Bucket Elevators and Conveyors

The best way to inspect the grain transport equipment is visually, when
it is not in operation. This activity must be planned on downtime, usually on
premium time; therefore, it should be well organized. Records of the
inspection of and complete specifications for the buckets, belts, and convey-
ors should be maintained. The elevator belt should be turned slowly, and the
condition of the belt and buckets observed as they pass the inspection open-
ing. If the belt looks worn, the complete belt and buckets should be made
ready and replaced during a scheduled downtime. An old, worn, or dam-
aged bucket can be replaced during the inspection. It is important to tighten
and align the belt so that the buckets do not strike the leg housing. The dis-
charge from the bucket elevator should be checked to prevent backlegging
(material falling into the down side of the leg). The bucket elevator leg is
one of the largest producers of dust in the mill and accordingly is the most
dangerous place for concentration of dust. In the process of inspection and
maintenance, it is important to adhere to national regulations, such as to
those of the U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA).
See also published recommendations (Anonymous, 1999). OSHA regula-
tions require that bucket elevators use static conductive belts with an inspec-
tion port and have externally mounted bearings, motion devices, and belt
alignment devices. Routine maintenance tips for bucket elevators and
conveyors were described by Schroeder and Fraser-Dominy (2004).
The screw conveyor drives, couplings, bearings, and flights need peri-
odic replacement. Wear can be observed when the conveyor is not in opera-
tion. The alignment of the conveyor is very important and must be done
properly to ensure the conveyor’s long life.
Roller Mills
The modern mill roll stand is quite different from earlier machines.
Computerized electronics to control the gap, hydraulics or compressed air
426 CHAPTER 14
to engage or disengage the rolls, hydraulics or electrical systems to engage

the feeding system, and electronic proximity switches to control stock
backup have been added. These additional systems are beyond the capabil-
ity of the miller, who is concerned about the rolls as a grinding machine.
Experts in the different fields probably will be called upon to maintain these
components.
The miller is responsible for the mechanical maintenance of the grind-
ing surfaces and the distribution of stock across the full length of the grind-
ing rolls. Distribution of the stock depends on the condition and adjustment
of the feeder rolls.
Brushes are used to clean the corrugated roll surfaces, whereas metal
scrapers are used for smooth rolls. Brushes or scrapers are elements that
press against the rotating rolls to clean adhering material from them. Worn-
out cleaning brushes or scrapers could cause buildup of material on the roll
surface, which could result in severe vibrations and damage to the
machines.
Roll changing during operation usually occurs in large milling units
where several pairs of rolls grind the same stock. In such cases, the load
is distributed in a way that one pair is free to be stopped and changed.
Sifters
The main parts of the sifting machine are the screens, which should be
inspected and maintained continuously. Metal screens fail or break because
of fatigue, shock, corrosion, or abrasion.
The signs of screen breakage caused by fatigue are rounded wire ends
with a dark color. Fatigue occurs for a variety of reasons, all associated with
rapid repeated flexing. One of the symptoms of this problem is a floppy
screen with not enough tension. Screens must be taut in order to have long
service life. Loss of tension during operation leads to flexing vibration,
which, in turn, leads to fatigue and resultant breakage.
The signs that indicate breakage caused by shock are rounded wire ends
and a distorted, rather than smooth, surface. Shock and resultant screen
breakage occur when substantial impact forces the wires to separate, typi-
cally, when heavy items fall on the screen.
Signs of breakage from corrosion include wire ends showing a reduced
diameter and discoloration. Breakage from corrosion can occur anywhere,
but it is most likely near the edges in applications where material builds up
near the screen edge. The best way to avoid the problem is to use the appro-
priate screen material for stock being screened.
Wires close to breaking because of abrasion appear polished and shiny
and have flat ends. Abrasion results when the materials being screened are
rough, if the feed velocity is too high, or if too much material accumulates at
the center or the periphery of the screen. Abrasion is especially severe when
the materials being screened are moist or wet and will not fluidize on the screen.
Periodic maintenance of the sifter sieves includes cleaning the sieve
openings to remove fuzzy buildup and replace worn cleaners. Besides look-
ing for holes in the screen, the miller thoroughly cleans dead areas of the
sieve surface to prevent infestation. Sieves are checked for tightness of the
cloth by tapping and flexing the surface. Tightness can be measured also by
the tensiometer to correct tension.
In a large mill, some sifters can be bypassed and maintained while the
mill is operating. These are usually the mill rebolters, if there are no leaks in
the main mill sifters.
Purifiers
Broken sieves in the purifier cause uncontrolled remixing of separated
fractions. Patched sieves reduce the capacity and, as a result, create
imbalances in the mill. Stuck brushes can also send too much stock to the
tail of the mill. Bristles wear and need to be replaced. Pins and brackets
become clogged or worn and must be changed. In many instances, puri-
fier sieve maintenance is done during operation.
The sieve hanger and bearings are important to the motion of the sieve
frame, affecting the travel and distribution of the stock on the sieve. These
can be checked by the operator and, if a change is necessary, the purifier
can be bypassed and repaired.
The air supply is important to the operation of the purifier. The mainte-
nance of air usually requires keeping the air passages open and making sure
the adjustment valves function. Cleaning of the air passages can be done
during operation.
Filters
Filter maintenance is important to reliably separate dust from the large
quantities of air used in the mill. Buildup of dust on the filter bags increases
the resistance to air, which reduces the quantity of air in the system. The
conveying capacity of pneumatic systems and machine aspiration are thus
reduced. Humid mill air can set deposits of caked dust on the filter separat-
ing cloth, making it difficult to clean with the normal cleaning cycle in the
filter. Periodic dry cleaning or laundering of the stockings can extend their
performance.
Maintenance of the filter dust collector also depends on its construction.
Well-positioned inspection doors allow easy access. Controls should be
positioned at a low level. Filter bags and filter frames should be of a size
and weight that can be handled conveniently by one person.
428 CHAPTER 14
Cyclone Dust Collectors

The maintenance and inspection of cyclones are usually neglected
because these machines are simple to operate. Cyclones should be inspected
regularly, especially when they are used for separating air from abrasive
material. If cyclones discharge the material through an air lock, proper
functioning of the air lock must be checked.
Air Locks
Air locks should be airtight, to separate spaces with different pressures.
Excessive leakage through the air locks causes loss of pressure and, as a
result, lower efficiency in conveying, aspiration, and energy. Inspection of
seals and blades, to check for wear and damage, is necessary to keep them
in good working condition.
Blowers
Blowers are major maintenance items in the mill. They operate at high
velocity, and the air is not always clean. It is good practice to install the
blowers in a special room to contain the noise, provide a source of clean
filtered air, and improve access for maintenance and housekeeping. A
detailed record should be kept on each blower to ensure regular lubrication
and cleaning.
Fans
Fans should be inspected systematically at regular intervals. The inspec-
tion frequency depends on the severity of the application and on local condi-
tions. All equipment that comes in contact with the material in the mill wears
out. Fans usually rotate at a high velocity, and contaminants in the air could
damage the equipment. Material buildup on the fan wheel can cause imbal-
ance, resulting in vibration and wear on the bearings.
Building Maintenance
Flour milling is a process that is very sensitive to insect contamination and
other issues related to sanitation. Good housekeeping can be accomplished
only if the facilities are maintained in good conditions. Repair of structural
cracks and painting of surfaces should be ongoing. Walls, floors, ceilings,
windows, and doors all require continuous maintenance.
Planning of Maintenance
Maintenance Staff
Efficient maintenance depends on both employees and management.
Estimates (Peele and Chapman, 1984) indicate that, in general, after
subtracting 10% for company benefit time and 30% for nonmaintenance
time, 60% of the maintenance worker’s time remains for the maintenance
work. This 60% should be split equally between preventive maintenance
and corrective maintenance. The 50-50 split has proven to be the most cost-
effective use of maintainer time. “Slack time” in the maintenance depart-
ment is the time spent by the worker waiting for an assignment or waiting
between jobs, often the result of poor planning by the maintenance fore-
man. The objective of the maintenance foreman and the plant management
is to develop a manpower model that provides a systematic method of deter-
mining how many people and what skills are required to maintain plant
equipment.
In general, for a 5,000 cwt/day mill, the maintenance staff could com-
prise one foreman and five millwrights and electricians. A model approach
to maintenance-worker power needs is based on determination of individual
hands-on time for each skill (Peele and Chapman, 1984). “Preventive
maintenance (PM) time” is determined by doubling the total hands-on time,
to allow for other related activities such as assembling materials and travel.
“Corrective maintenance (CM) time” is equal to PM time. Accordingly, the
“total maintenance time” is equal to twice the PM time for each skill. This,
divided by a factor of 0.6 to take into account the nonmaintenance time, is
“the total maintainer time.” Full-time maintainers required for each skill can
be determined by dividing the total maintainer time by the working hours
per year (52 weeks × 40 hr = 2,080). So
total maintainer time
Number of full time maintainers =
2,080
Figure 14-1 shows an example.
A significant amount of information is available in the professional lit-
erature as well in manufacturers’ manuals. The production supervisor and
the maintenance personnel are responsible for being knowlegeable in all
aspects of mill maintenance. It is management’s responsibility to provide
for continuous maintenance education of the mill personnel.
Employees on the production floor are the first level of maintenance.
The maintenance staff on site is the second level of maintenance, and the
equipment engineering company makes up the third level. Adequate report-
ing and support should be established between the three levels for efficient
maintenance in the mill. An important safety rule in plant maintenance is
430 CHAPTER 14
that no attempt shall be made to do any maintenance on any motorized

machine unless the electrical supply has been completely disconnected and
locked out.
Finally, a well-implemented and successful maintenance program in a
mill depends on the head of maintenance. Holtz (1951) describes this per-
son, who should be selected very carefully by management to ensure an
effective and continuous program resulting in a minimum curtailment of
production. The experience and good judgment of the maintenance head are
very significant because the economy resulting from an effective mainte-
nance program is reflected in the financial returns of the organization.
Some mills depend on outside maintenance contractors to do the work
of the milling staff in fully automated mills. Such mills, which usually
employ reduced milling staff, schedule preventive (and to some degree cor-
rective) maintenance during planned shutdowns. Outside contractors should
be familiar with the mill equipment and the persons required for each task
in order to complete the scheduled work during the scheduled time. It is
common for outside groups to enter mills during a shutdown to replace
grinding rolls or check sifter sections.
Fig. 1. Example of calculation of number of maintainers required. PM = pre-

ventive maintenance time, CM = corrective maintenance time.
Computers as an Aid to the Maintenance Program

To establish a dependable maintenance program, good recordkeeping is
needed. Newly developed computer software programs are of great assis-
tance in recordkeeping, scheduling, and cost control. The preventive
maintenance program, in particular, when properly planned, can create an
efficient system that minimizes downtime cost and gets all the work done
with the least interference. Many software packages contain several interac-
tive modules that share a common database of information (Sweintek,
1986). Each module is normally dedicated to a particular maintenance func-
tion, such as preventive maintenance, inventory control, work orders, pur-
chasing, reports, equipment histories, job scheduling, backlog scheduling,
manpower planning, budgeting, timekeeping, and cost control. Maintenance
software packages are designed for mainframe, desktop, or laptop com-
puters.
In the new automated plants, computer supervision also can assist the
maintenance program. The computer records the working hours of the
machines and conveyance elements, predicts when maintenance is neces-
sary, and schedules the maintenance. Replacement of parts, such as roller
mill chillers or hammer mill hammers, can be scheduled to take place dur-
ing periods coordinated with the demands of production. Strict adherence to
equipment inspection and maintenance schedules is essential for efficient
use of computerized programs.
Feierabend (2004) described issues related to maintenance in flour mills
and suggested dividing computer programs for maintenance control and
scheduling into semiautomatic and automatic. Semiautomatic programs use
available software that can be installed on the personal computers of the
mill manager, head miller, and head of maintenance. Such programs should
include a spare parts inventory, as well as daily, weekly, monthly, quarterly,
and yearly scheduling plans to be followed by the mill staff. Automatic soft-
ware is integrated into the mill’s programmable logic control (PLC).
Maintenance requirements are printed out weekly, based on input such as
manufacturers’ recommendations, mill production demand, individual
machine running time, and performance sensed by multiple sensors within
the mill. Performed tasks are designated as such, while postponed tasks are
shown in subsequent printouts.
Each flour mill has its unique characteristics, and accordingly, available
maintenance software programs need to be adjusted to local conditions. The
involvement of the staff in the program design is very beneficial, in addition
to giving employees a sense of accomplishment and pride. The system can
start on a small scale and other equipment can be added to the program
gradually. Proper development of the computerized system can schedule the
work of each crew member days, weeks, and even months in advance. Such
432 CHAPTER 14
a system can also record, evaluate, and determine the cost of the mainte-
nance program in the mill.
In addition to computer software programs available for planning and
developing maintenance programs, many books and articles are being pub-
lished on the subject. However, the most important factor in developing a
good mill maintenance program is the application of innovative ideas from
those involved. Experience and self-development are the basis for good
maintenance management.
Safety and Fire Protection
Safety program and fire protection plans are necessary parts of the plant
operation. All personnel should be familiar with these programs. In recent
years, new regulations for employee safety have been performance-
oriented. Employers have been delegated the responsibility of developing
their own safety programs, training employees, and having a mechanism to
ensure that the program is functioning. An example of this type of program
is the lockout/tagout regulation in the United States. This regulation
requires employers to write a program meeting the minimum requirements
of OSHA concerning deenergizing potentially hazardous equipment.
Employees must be trained in what is included in the program and know
how to deenergize equipment in order to safely perform their tasks. As a
minimum, yearly inspections must be conducted to ensure that the program
is effective and is being followed. In addition, employees must be trained to
recognize the importance of the lockout/tagout program so that they do not
tamper with equipment that has been locked out or tagged out.
The European Community has been enforcing the ATEX (ATEX is an
abbreviation of the French “Atmosphere Explosif”) dust explosion
prevention code since the beginning of July 2003. The guidelines relate to
explosive conditions, which can exist in flour mills. Under regulation
94/9/EG (European Community, 1994), guidelines are given to manu-
facturers of equipment. Regulation 99/92/EG (European Community, 1997)
specifies guidelines to be followed in operating plants, including elevators
and flour mills. Broeckmann and Hoetger (2004) described in detail the
ATEX regulations as applied to elevators, flour mills, and feedmills. The
requirements under regulation 99/92/EG specify the following main steps:
• Evaluate and analyze the mill for possible explosion hazards.
• Select and install equipment manufactured according to regulation
94/9/EG.
• Apply dust explosion prevention and suppression means to existing
equipment in the mill.
• Establish organizational responsibilities and procedures in the plant.
• Create and distribute to all persons in the plant documents for

procedures to prevent dust explosions.
The regulations have been enforced in new plants since July 2003. Existing
plants need to comply by June 30, 2006.
When studying existing and new operations with regard to affinity for
dust explosions and the selection of procedures and equipment, areas in
plants can be divided to three levels or ranges:
• Area type 20: Such as grain unloading facilities where a dust
explosion hazard continuously exists.
• Area type 21: Such as space within storage bins where a dust
explosion might occur.
• Area type 22: Such as in flour packing system where a dust
explosion will seldom occur.
The occupational health and safety legislation in Canada outlines the
general rights and responsibilities of the employer, the supervisor, and the
worker. Included are grain elevators, flour mills, and other related
businesses. The Canadian C-45 law imposes criminal liability on
corporations and organizations that fail to take reasonable measures to
protect employee and public safety.
Managers cannot dictate workplace safety and end up with a safe opera-
tion. Safe operations evolve from teamwork, which includes all employees.
Safety teams are useful to get the participation of everyone in the plant.
Employees also can point out safety hazards and help to enforce the safety
rules. Regularly scheduled fire drills also are required, so that the employ-
ees know how to respond in an emergency.
Not only are the nation’s medical costs rising, but so are workmen’s
compensation costs. The latter costs can be controlled with management
effort and a good employee safety program.
REFERENCES CITED
Anonymous. 1999. Keep it safe. World Grain 17(2): 35-38.

Broeckmann, B., and Hoetger. S. 2004. Explosionschutzkonzepte fuer die Muehlen
und Futtermittelindustrie. Pages 138-168 in: Muehlen- und Mischfutter-Jahrbuch.
Verlag Moritz Schaefer, Detmold, Germany.
Brown, J. 1984. The preventive maintenance planning guide. Plant Eng., Mar. 8, pp.
151-153.
European Community. 1994. Amt fuer Amtliche Veroffentlichungen der Europaeischen
Gemeinschaften (Hrsg.) Amtsblatt der Europaeischen Gemeinschften 37 L 100,
19/4/94.
European Community. 1997. Amt fuer Amtliche Veroffentlichungen der Europaeischen
Gemeinschaften (Hrsg.) Amtsblatt der Europaeischen Gemeinschften 40 L,
23/12/99.
Feierabend. W. 2004. Wartung….. oder warten bis zur Stoerung, bis zum Bruch?
Pages 169-176 in: Muehlen- und Mischfutter-Jahrbuch. Verlag Moritz Schaefer,
434 CHAPTER 14
Detmold, Germany.
Holtz, E. 1951. Preventive maintenance. Assoc. Oper. Millers Tech. Bull., Dec., pp.
1927-1928.
Koehler, C. R. 2001. Lebensmitteltechnische Schmierstoffe fuer die industrele
Lebensmittelverarbeitung. Getreide Mehl Brot 55:332-335.
Koehler, C. R., 2002. Lebensmitteltechnische Schmirctoffe fuer die Getreide-
verarbeitung und Futtermittelherstellung. Muehle Mischfutter 139:302-304.
Peele, T. T., and Chapman, R. L. 1984. Determining maintenance manpower
requirements. Plant Eng., Jul. 12, pp. 74-77.
Schroeder, T., and Fraser-Dominy, S. 2004. Conveyor maintenance tips. World
Grain 22(4):50-53.
Singh, J. B., and Allen, R. M. 1986. Establishing a preventive maintenance program.
Plant Eng., Feb. 27, pp. 46-48.
Sweintek, R. J. 1986. Computerized maintenance programs improve productivity,
cut costs. Food Proc., Aug., pp. 90-91.
SUGGESTED READING
Brown, J. 1984. Preventive maintenance planning guide. Plant Eng., Mar. 8, pp.
151-153.
Kochensparger, J. 1987. Applying predictive maintenance testing to minimize motor
failure downtime. Plant Eng., Nov. 17, pp. 62-66.
Lane, D. 1992. Employee safety programs: A management challenge. Assoc. Oper.
Millers Tech. Bull., Oct., p. 6107.
McAllaster, D. 1959. Preventive mill maintenance. Assoc. Oper. Millers Tech. Bull.,
Apr., p. 2438.
McCullough, W. W. 1947. Electric Motor Maintenance. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
New York.
Mill Mutual Fire Prevention Bureau. 1964. Organized maintenance in grain and
milling properties. Bull. OM901-64. The Bureau, Chicago, IL.
Mill Mutual Fire Prevention Bureau. 1973. Guidelines for Lubrication and Bearing
Maintenance. Bull. F609-73. The Bureau, Chicago IL.
Peele, T. T., and Chapman, R. L. 1987. Designing a maintenance training program.
Plant. Eng., Dec. 17, pp. 46-49.
Stone, L. H. 1987. Why screens fail. Powder/Bulk Solids, Nov., p. 11.
Vandenberg, R. 1970. Basic fundamentals of a modern safety program. Assoc. Oper.
US Department of Labor: Occupational Safety & Health Administration:

http://www.osha.gov/
Canadian C-45 law:
http://www.parl.gc.ca/PDF/37/2/parlbus/chambus/house/bills/government/C-
45_1.pdf
Canadian Center for Occupational Health and Safety: http://www.coohs.ca
Canadian Industrial Accident Prevention Association (IAPA): http://www.iapa.ca
CHAPTER 15
Food Safety and Hygiene in the

Flour Mill
Government agencies, worldwide, inspect flour mills and enforce a

variety of regulations concerning the flour milling industry. Such regula-
tions apply to the grain producer, the miller, and the end-users of the flour.
Accordingly, it is in the miller’s interest to be aware of the regulations,
which affect the technology, reputation, and safety of the products. Food
safety and compliance with manufacturing standards are also demanded by
mill customers because end-users of flour are required to use raw ingredi-
ents that comply with standards and good manufacturing practices (GMPs).
Numerous publications deal with the issues of food safety, surveillance, risk
prevention, and control systems such as hazard analysis critical control
points (HACCP). In addition, various organizations have developed pro-
grams for third-party audit in operating plants.
Hygiene in the mill is part of a complete mill sanitation program. The
program needs the support of management and all employees to guarantee
that safe products are delivered to customers. Management leadership,
education, enforcement, and audits are needed in all stages of the plant.
Mills and Pedersen (1990) published a flour mill sanitation manual, which
includes factors responsible for product contamination, information about
an integrated pest control management program, and a sanitation guide for
application in a flour mill.
Infestation and Pest Control

Control of pests that infest the mill is a major issue in all flour mills
around the world. Accordingly, it is the mill manager’s direct responsibility
to make sure that the appropriate steps are taken by persons certified to deal
435
436 / CHAPTER 15
with the issue. Problems with infestation and its control have a direct
relationship to mill operation time, shutdowns, customer complaints, and
long-range investment and planning. Pests in flour mills include insects,
rodents, birds, and microbes (see Chapter 9).
Insects that infest flour mills are susceptible to very low temperatures
and are quickly killed. (Although this method is used in the mill, it is not
practical in flour storage areas because of the insulating properties of
flour.) In winter, during subzero temperatures, the practice of opening the
mill building and allowing it to cool down can be used where climatic
conditions allow. This treatment, if scheduled properly, is an inexpensive
method of eliminating or reducing insect infestation. Cotton et al (1945)
described precautions to be taken before opening windows and doors. It is
necessary to drain all steam lines and radiators and empty all receptacles
containing liquids that freeze. Accumulation of milling stock or
sweepings from the floors of the mill should be removed and elevator
boots cleaned out as they can protect live insects during subzero
temperatures.
The flour beetles of the genus Tribolium, which constitute the greater
part of the insect population of a flour mill, are susceptible to cold and can
be killed readily in 24 hr by exposure to subzero temperatures. Whenever
there is a prospect of two or three days of subzero weather, it would seem
well worthwhile for mill managers to take advantage of the situation by
arranging for a “freeze-out” of their mills.
Experiments regarding the effectiveness of heat in the control of all insects
infesting flour mills were conducted in Kansas from 1910 to 1913 by G. A.
Dean of Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station, Manhattan, KS. Since then
extensive research work has been done, especially in recent times as the use of
chemicals was phased out as a result of official regulations.
To destroy the insect population of a flour mill successfully by heat
treatment, it is necessary to produce temperatures of about 49–55°C (120–
130°F) in all parts of the mill and maintain that temperature for 10–12 hr.
Preparing the mill for the heating process probably will be somewhat differ-
ent from one mill to another. However, the following measures should be
considered: the mill should be completely emptied of material; bucket
elevators and other equipment should be emptied and left open; and all
bagged material should be removed from the building. Driving-belt tighten-
ers should be loosened. Floors should be isolated from other levels by clos-
ing all possible holes. Spouts between floors, windows, doors, or chutes to
the outside should be sealed. Thermometers should be placed on each floor
for control and, if a sprinkler system exists, it should be adjusted to prevent
discharge at a temperature lower than 100°C (212°F). Kuehn (2002)
described a space-heating system that operates by distributing the hot air
through hoses into the building. Temperature sensors inserted throughout
MILL SAFETY AND HYGIENE 437
the building controlled a computerized system that maintained the level in

each area. This efficient system caused total insect kill in a maximum
period of 48 hr.
Hofmeir (2000) suggested using permanent or removable heaters to heat
the mill and keep the temperature at about 50°C for 24–50 hr, depending on
local conditions. Estimated energy consumption was shown to be between 3
and 4 kWh per m3 of space. Subramanyam (2003) described a software pro-
gram for calculating heat treatment for flour mills. It is designed to calcu-
late the amount of energy needed to heat a building to a required tempera-
ture and to predict the quantity of fuel needed to provide this energy and the
best estimate for the required fuel consumption. Weather conditions, build-
ing materials, and their characteristics such as surface, thickness, coefficient
of heat transfer, and thermal conductivity are variables in the calculation
formulas.
Vail et al (1990) suggested fumigation with modified atmospheres as an
alternative for traditional fumigants such as methyl bromide and/or
phosphine. The process is based on injecting an inert gas (CO2) into a
sealed building in which the temperature is elevated above 40°C (104°F) for
15–20 hr. The confused flour beetle, the most resistant of all species tested,
was easily killed in 15 hr when the CO2 concentration exceeded 71%. The
suggested method can be adjusted to local conditions in mills by optimizing
the variables time, temperature, and concentration to achieve the best
results.
ISO in the Flour Milling Industry

ISO 9000
In 1987, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) issued
the ISO 9000 series of international standards, which are generic standards
for quality management and quality assurance (Hedman, 1994). Numerous
publications were published on the ISO issue and its application in different
industries and services. Lamprecht (1993) described the process of imple-
menting an ISO 9000 quality assurance system in small and large compa-
nies in a work-book format. The ISO standard contributes to global
homogeneity by creating a similar approach to evaluation, quality control,
and services worldwide. It is unique in that it is a market-driven standard
that does not rely on regulations but exists solely for the competitive advan-
tage of companies that apply it. The impact of the ISO standard on any
industry is that if one segment or plant adopts the standard, all its suppliers
also need to be certified. The ISO standards are becoming a prerequisite for
company certification. The ISO series consist of the following:
438 / CHAPTER 15
ISO 9000. Quality Management and Quality Assurance Standards:

Guidelines for Selection and Use.
ISO 9001. Quality Systems: Model for Quality Assurance in
Design/Development, Production, Installation, and Servicing.
ISO 9002. Quality Systems: Model for Quality Assurance in Production
and Installation.
ISO 9003. Quality Systems: Model for Quality Assurance in Final
Inspection and Test.
ISO 9004. Quality Management and Quality System Elements Guide-
lines.
The ISO standards do not specify or require adoption of a particular or
regulated quality system. ISO registration certifies only that the organiza-
tion has its unique quality system. Registration requires that companies
document the quality system they have already set up and are able to prove
that they adhere to that system while manufacturing their products or
providing a service. Hedman (1994) suggested 17 steps toward a successful
ISO quality system registration. They include in-plant training of execu-
tives, designating an individual to be responsible for the program, creation
of an internal steering committee, training of employees, and internal audit
procedures. A registration audit is the final assessment by an outside-
accredited third party. The auditors look for objective evidence to verify
that the quality system has been completely documented and implemented
for at least three months before the assessment. The outcome of the assess-
ment is a recommendation for or against registration. Hedman (1994) lists
qualifying questions to consider asking the registration organizations before
selecting one to perform the audit in the mill.
The ISO 9001 segment, which includes design of new products, their
installation, and after-sales servicing, is the most comprehensive of the
quality standards. The standard covers about 20 areas within a manufactur-
ing operation (Zdrojewski 1997): management responsibility; quality sys-
tems; contract review; design control; document control; purchasing; pur-
chaser-supplied product; product identification and traceability; process
control; inspection and testing; inspection measuring and test equipment;
inspection and test status; control of nonconforming product; corrective
action; handling storage, packing, and delivery; quality records; internal
quality audits; training; servicing; and statistical techniques. A flour mill
needs to determine the ISO standard that fit its activity.
The unique characteristics of the flour milling system require adoption
of quality control methods and procedures that, in the long run, improve
mill performance. Documentation of break releases, typical ash curves, and
typical granulation curves for different kinds of wheat are some of the
records that help to improve mill performance. Documentation of stock size
distribution and the ash of different fractions can indicate corrugation wear
TABLE 15-1
Quality Control of Bakers’ Flours Types 550 and 1050a
Tests to Be Performed on Final Product
Type 550 Type 1050
Variables Tolerance Target Tolerance Target
Flour extraction, % 62.5–64.5 63.5 14.5–15.5 15.0
Ash, % dm 0.59–0.63 0.60 1.15–1.25 1.20
Moisture, % 14.0–15.0 14.5 14.0–15.0 14.5
Additives
Ascorbic acid, g/100 kg 1.8–2.2 2.0 3.8–4.2 4.0
Malt, %
Vital gluten, type_____, %
Enzyme, type____, %
a
Source: Baitinger (1997); translated by E. Posner.
and the need to refurbish rolls. Because the mill’s final products depend
heavily on the ever-changing characteristics of the raw material, wheat,
receiving and evaluation are significant parts of the ISO program.
Procedures that guarantee representative sampling of incoming wheat and
other materials, sending that information to data collection, and recording
the information throughout the operation form the basis for the ISO system.
Target values and tolerances of received wheat qualities, performance of
wheat cleaning systems, and end-product qualities should be based on
statistical evaluation of recorded data. Over time, accumulated data improve
the targets and tolerances of the mill. Baitinger (1997), who showed high
correlations between laboratory data for wheat and flour and the calculated
values based on the statistical analysis of data during a time period,
developed a structure for an ISO program for a flour mill. The program
includes, among other information, a description of all personnel work
activities and target flour specifications. Baitinger (1997) suggested
recording data forms and procedures related to HACCP. Table 15-1 shows
an example of a document describing production of 550 and 1050 type
flours from a wheat mix.
Pursley (1993) reviewed the impact of the ISO 9000 standards on the
food industry.
ISO 14000
While the ISO 9000 provides companies with a standard system for
practicing quality, the ISO 14000 is a set of standards that addresses
environmental concerns. The ISO 14000 standards seek to promote a com-
mon approach to environmental protection programs. They cover the
following topics (Giese, 1996): environmental management systems; envi-
ronmental auditing; environmental performance systems; environmental
440 / CHAPTER 15
labeling, terms, and definitions; life cycle assessment; and environmental

aspects in product standards. The flour milling industry also deals with
issues related to ISO 14000 such as packaging materials, air filtration, and
wastewater. The ISO 14001 creates a system of guidelines to follow in rela-
tion to the efficient use of natural resources, waste reduction and recycle of
refuse, reduced pollution as a result of transportation, as well as energy sav-
ings per unit of production. The following are some of the ISO 14000
Series Standards:
14000. Guide to Environmental Management Systems: General Guide-
lines.
14001. Environmental Management Systems: Specifications.
14010. Guidelines for Environmental Auditing: General Principles.
14011. Guidelines for Environmental Auditing: Audit Procedures.
14012. Guidelines for Environmental Auditing: Qualification Criteria
For Auditors.
14020/24. Environmental Labeling
14031/32. Guidelines on Environmental Performance Evaluation.
14040/43. Life Cycle Assessment: General Principles and Practices.
Good Manufacturing Practices
Methods for GMPs vary among mill locations and countries. Guidelines
for food plants and flour mills developed by the Food Protection Committee
(1995) of the Association of Operative Millers (AOM, now the International
AOM) include the following topics: legal aspects of regulatory compliance,
insects pests of the foods industry, insect controls by chemicals, rodents and
rodent control, birds and bird control, employee practices, laboratory
detection of contaminants, and programming sanitation. Internal rules and
regulations are implemented and enforced regarding wheat receiving, storage,
cleaning, and milling; end-product storage, blending, and packing; and truck
and rail car cleaning and loading. Testing, cleanliness, and organization are
the fundamentals of a good system. Weirich (2000) described recommended
good warehousing practices in the milling industry. Good warehousing
practices are in compliance with regulations of the Occupational Safety and
Health Administration (OSHA) and the Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA), as well as with HACCP and ISO 9000.
Transportation of flour and other mill end-products in railway bulk cars
requires dry or wet cleaning of the cars before loading, based on the
weather conditions along the delivery routes (Ackels, 1959; Howard, 1960;
and McSpadden, 1960). Factors such as hours required for cleaning, equip-
ment, air-pressure, and other variables are used to estimate cost.
HACCP in the Flour Milling Industry

HACCP is a program applied in food processing and other operations
within the food industry, from production to consumption. Points critical to
the safety of food are identified and are systematically monitored and con-
trolled to prevent the creation of hazardous product. In many cases, the
HACCP system is incorporated into the mill’s ISO standard 9000 regarding
quality parameters of mill products. The flour milling industry could be
considered to have low risk of producing hazardous products because of the
low water activity in mill products. The hazard is decreased further in the
final products since wheat flour is, in many cases, the raw material for bak-
ing, which is a heat-intensive process. Nevertheless, it is good practice to
implement a HACCP program. In the first place, a HACCP program is
needed to accommodate flour customers who mandate HACCP for their
own operations and from the suppliers of their raw materials, including the
mill. Secondly, the HACPP program is a preventive approach to food safety.
Clark (2003) stated that, without GMPs and sanitation standard operat-
ing procedures (SSOPs), a HACCP plan will not be effective in producing
acceptable quality. There are three types of HACCP programs: scientific
HACCP, government HACCP, and customer HACCP. The scientific
HACCP is the original approach, which uses those close to the process to
identify hazards, assess risk, and identify critical control points (CCP). A
CCP is not very useful unless something can be measured and steps taken
to correct deviations. The government HACCP is the regulatory tool in
which some CCP are mandated, whether they would have been identified
under a scientific approach or not. The customer HACCP relates to a
buyer insisting that a supplier have a HACCP plan in place and that it
includes certain CCP.
When HACCP is properly developed and applied, there is a reasonable
expectation that the flour mill using the strategy should receive economic
benefits. Such benefits are gained through better process control, which
results in the reduction and elimination of defects from the milling process.
Accordingly, the HACCP system is described in Chapter 16, on mill man-
agement, because the essential first step for the success of the program is
management commitment. It is the responsibility of mill management to
motivate, implement, and control the application of the program. Identifica-
tion of CCP as well as implementation of control procedures should be
worked out by a team. The HACCP team should have, in addition to a
coordinator, one representative from each operating department or disci-
pline (Vail, 1994). The team should keep procedures and documentation as
simple as possible without sacrificing protection. A plant team is familiar
with the plant and business and can make sure that none of the critical
points are overlooked. Employee training is key to successful implementa-
442 / CHAPTER 15
tion. Employees must learn which control points are critical in an operation
and what the critical limits are at these points, for each preparation step they
perform (FDA, 1999).
Similar programs and regulations have also been published in the Euro-
pean Community. The “white book” of the European Commission (Direc-
tive 93/43/EEC on Hygiene of Foodstuff Manufacturing, Altering,
Packaging, and Transportation) is similar to the HACCP program and is
now part of national legislation in all EC member states. The directive pro-
motes the protection of human health and consumer trust in foreign and
local foods.
Application of the HACCP program was pioneered during the early
1960s by the Pillsbury Company, with the cooperation and participation of
the National Aeronautic and Space Administration (NASA), Natick
Laboratories of the U.S. Army, and the U.S. Air Force Space Laboratory
Project Group. The objective of the program was to create food for the U.S.
space program that approached 100% assurance against contamination by
bacterial and viral pathogens, toxins, and chemical or physical hazards.
Since its implementation, persons related to the food industry have
expressed opinions about HACCP in numerous journal articles. In spite of
differing opinions, those familiar with HACCP agree that it is fundamen-
tally a preventive approach to ensuring food safety (Vail, 1994).
Establishing the Critical Control Points

The implementation of the HACCP program can be divided into differ-
ent steps that vary among different sources (Mills and Pedersen, 1990;
Baitinger, 1996; Pappas, 1999). Inherently, approaches will vary as the pro-
gram should be made to fit the unique conditions of the flour mill.
The first step is to identify all incoming materials, end-products, flour
treatment materials, and equipment, as well as the different steps or process-
TABLE 15-2
Possible Health Hazard in Mill Productsa
Biological and Chemical Co-Worker
Physical Hazards Microbiological Hazards Hazards Hazards
Foreign materials Microorganisms Insecticide Unqualified
Dust Micotoxins: ergot residues Unmotivated
Stones Weed seeds Metal residues Unhygienic
Dirt Insects Cadmium Human
Glass Animal secretions Lead contamination
Metal
Wood
Environment effect
a
Adapted from Baitinger (1996).
ing stages in the flour mill. In addition, all vegetative spore pathogens, for-
eign materials, and other hazards need to be identified so that they can be
controlled in the different milling stages. Table 15-2 shows a sample list of
hazards that can affect mill products. Various government and expert
Fig. 15-1. Diagram of a mill wheat cleaning section, showing critical control
points: 1 = magnets, 2 = clean wheat, 3 = tempered wheat, 4 = wheat to first
break.
444 / CHAPTER 15
publications list biological, chemical, and physical hazards and allowable

limits (FDA, 1999).
The next step in implementing a HACCP program in a flour mill is the
analysis of the operation and the different steps at which contamination or
hazards could be generated. Schematic diagrams of the different sections in
the mill should be drawn, showing the different steps in the process. Figure
15-1 shows such a schematic diagram of the wheat cleaning section. All
steps in the section should be evaluated. If no major hazard can be found at
a given step, it should not be considered as a CCP. The numbered equip-
ment or locations in the figure indicate CCP. Figure 15-2 explains the
schematic approach to an evaluation procedure and questions that should be
asked during the analysis of each step in the flour mill to determine whether
it should be considered a CCP. Different approaches should be taken to
implement a HACCP program in an existing operation as compared to one
in planning. During construction of a new mill, the implementation of the
HACCP program should be considered at the stage of equipment selection.
Design, materials used, and the surface of the areas in contact with the
milled wheat are all considerations in the selection of equipment for a
HACCP mill.
Problem areas can be attributed to one or a combination of four factors:
personnel, equipment, practices, and/or an unforeseen event. Current tech-
Fig. 15-2. Example of a decision tree to help millers identify critical control points
(CCP) in the mill. (Adapted from McCue, 1977)
nology is still not sufficient to monitor all CCP on-line. Accordingly,

monitoring, to a large degree, is done manually. Electronic systems using
barcodes and hand-held scanners connected to a centralized computer can
improve the efficiency, accuracy, and timely checking of the different CCP
in a milling operation (Advanced Automation Associates, 1996).
A detailed manual should be written for the program and should include
measures to control the hazards at critical points in the system. For exam-
ple, limits should be set for temperature ranges affecting insect growth and
for maximum ergot levels in reception wheat loads. The manual should
include procedures to routinely monitor the preventive or corrective meas-
ure taken whenever deviations from specifications are noted. Management
should review data and investigate all tolerance breaches, following this
with corrective steps and implementation of solutions. Records of proce-
dures and findings should be reviewed periodically and additional CCP
added, if necessary, to improve performance and results.
The corrective action taken when CCP deviation occurs should be fol-
lowed by a thorough detailed evaluation to determine, eliminate, or drasti-
cally minimize the potential for recurrence. To prevent the HACCP program
from failing, evaluations should be performed, if possible, by a team of
individuals engaged in the program. Any incident reports should contain
information such as product name, code and package size, person reporting
the incident, date, time, and location (Vail, 1994).
Recall Program
A prerequisite program for HACCP is a program for recall of the mill
products (Stier, 2000). However, a mill cannot effectively recall product
without a good system for identifying the product, which is another HACCP
prerequisite. Worden (1988) defines two important basics for a product
recall system. The first is product coding that identifies each shipping pack-
age and container with a meaningful and legible code. As a minimum, the
code should identify the production day and plant location, but it could also
include the shift or batch number and even the item code. The second is
product tracking by a good recordkeeping system that can trace how much
of each product has been manufactured and where it has gone. The follow-
ing steps for a recall program should be adjusted to local conditions:
1. Management commitment. This is necessary as the first step for suc-
cess.
2. Development of a recall team. A team should represent purchasing,
receiving, manufacturing, and distribution operations.
3. Recall coordinator. This is a person who will coordinate activities
related to recalls.
4. Recall pan. The recall team should prepare the details of a recall plan.
446 / CHAPTER 15
5. Practice the plan. The team should initiate mock recall, to make sure
the recall plan works properly.
Dust Emission and Risk Management

Program
Grain elevators and mill dust emission are handled under EPA publica-
tion AP-42, section 9.9.1. Regulations should be followed, and measures
should be taken to eliminate any emission caused by broken filter bags or
an uncontrolled unloading system. The regulations show 10 potential emis-
sion sources in a grain elevator, such as elevator legs and grain cleaners.
Potential emission sources are listed in the areas of milling operation, bag-
ging, and loading.
The EPA regulation may apply to some mills in which certain chemicals
are stored. Under EPA regulation 40 CFR Part 68, businesses must submit
risk management plans if they have toxic and flammable substances such as
2,500 lb or more of chlorine.
Conclusion
Engineering companies constructing new flour mills are conscious of the
miller’s need to comply with an ever-increasing number of regulations
regarding food safety, hygiene, and the environment. Increased significance in
future contracts will be on equipment and facilities that comply with national
regulations and international standards for food safety and hygiene in the mill.
REFERENCES CITED
Ackles, A. A. 1959. Dry cleaning of bulk flour cars. Assoc. Oper. Millers Tech. Bull.
3:418-419.
Advanced Automation Associates. 1996. The next level in HACCP compliance.
Food Quality, Jan/Feb., pp. 44-47.
Baitinger, A. 1996. EG-Hygienerichtlinie und HACCP-Konzepte in Muehlenbetrie-
ben. Getreide Mehl Brot 50:167-171.
Baitinger, A. 1997. Qualitaetssicherung bei der Herstellung von Getreidemahler-
zeugnessen aus Weizen und Roggen. Ph.D. dissertation, Hohenheim University,
Germany.
Clark, J. P. 2003. Hazard analysis. Food Technol. 57(8):95-96.
Cotton, R. T., Frankenfeld, J. C., and Dean, G. A. 1945. Controlling insects in flour
mills. Circular 720. U.S. Dep. Agric., Washington, DC.
Food and Drug Administration (FDA). 1999. Food Code—HACCP Guidelines.
Recommendations of the United States Public Health Service. U.S. Dep. Health
Human Serv., Washington DC.
Food Protection Committee. 1983. Hazard analysis critical control points—Wheat

flour milling. Assoc. Oper. Millers Bull., Feb., pp. 4017-4019.
Food Protection Committee. 1995. A Guide to Good Manufacturing Practices for
the Food Industry. Association of Operative Millers, Leawood, KS.
Giese, J. H. 1996. ISO 14000 is coming. Food Technol. 50(7):34.
Hedman, S. 1994. Recommendations for successful ISO 9000 registration. Cereal
Foods World 39:389-392.
Hofmeir, H. 2000. Waermentwesung nach den ThermoNox-Verfaren. Getreide Mehl
Brot 54:325-327.
Howard, R. M. 1960. Condensation in bulk transport cars. Assoc. Oper. Millers
Tech. Bull., Mar., pp. 2498-2500.
Kuehn, W. 2002. Insect free system IFS—Schaedlingsbekaempfung mit waerme.
Muehle Mischfutter 139:282-284.
Lamprecht, J. L. 1993. Implementing the ISO 9000 Series. Marcel Dekker, Inc.,
New York.
McSpadden, P. 1960. Wet cleaning of bulk cars, costs and tools. Oper. Millers Tech.
Bull., Apr., pp. 2502-2503.
McCue, N. 1997. Getting a handle on HACCP. Prepared Foods, May, pp. 109-115.
Mills, R., and Pedersen, J. 1990. A Flour Mill Sanitation Manual. Am. Assoc. Cereal
Pappas, C. J. 1999. HACCP made simple—Seven steps toward writing a HACCP
manual. Milling J., July/Aug./Sept., pp. 56-57.
Pursley, W. E. 1993. ISO-9000—Its impact on the food industry. Assoc. Oper.
Millers Tech. Bull., Aug., pp. 6259-6261.
Stier, R. 2000. Micro hazards macro concerns. Baking Snack, Sept., pp. 103-110.
Subramanyam, B. 2003. Heat treatment calculator. Milling J (third quarter):46-48.
Sullivan, B., and Near, C. 1927. The ash of hard spring wheat and its products. J.
Ind. Eng. Chem. 19:498-501.
Vail, R. 1994. Fundamentals of HACCP. Cereal Foods World 39:393-395.
Vail, R., Buckley, M., and Paolocci, L. 1990. Modified atmospheres combined with
elevated temperatures—Fumigation alternative. Assoc. Oper. Millers Tech. Bull.,
Apr., pp. 5671-5675.
Weirich, J. A. 2000. Modern warehousing practices: How current are we? Assoc.
Oper. Millers Tech. Bull, Apr., pp. 7429-7438.
Worden, G. C. 1988. Product coding and product recall systems. Assoc. Oper.
Millers Tech. Bull., Jan., pp. 5135-5138.
Zdrojewski, E. 1997. An ISO 9000 checklist. Milling J. 5(5):30-31.
SUGGESTED READING
Anonymous. 1998. HACCP in a flour mill. World Grain 16(8):46-48.

Dechbene, R. L., and Averdieck, W. J. 1987. Triboelectricity: A parameter for solids
Food Protection Committee. 1985. An overview of integrated pest management.
Assoc. Oper. Millers Tech. Bull., Feb., p. 4422.
Mühlenwes. 4(6):103-105.
448 / CHAPTER 15
National Advisory Committee on Microbiological Criteria for Food (NACMF)

1992. Hazard analysis and critical control point system. Food Safety and Inspec-
tion Serv., U.S. Dep. Agric., Washington DC.
Jul., p. 2869.
Oliver, J. R., Blakenney, A. B., and Allen, H. M. 1992. Measurement of flour color
in color space parameters. Cereal Chem. 69:546-551.
Wanzenried, H. 1986. Reducing infestation in flour. Assoc. Oper. Millers Tech.
Bull., Mar., p. 4693.
3180.
American Institute of Baking: http://www.aibonline.org/audits/foodsafety/

Emergency (health hazard) product recall procedure guidelines, Grocery Product
Manufacturers of Canada: http://www.fcpmc.com
Environmental Protection Agency
Chemical emergency preparedness and prevention:
http://www.epa.gov/ceppo/acc-pre.html
Grain elevators and processes:
http://www.epa.gov/ttn/chief/ap42/ch09/final/c9s0909-1.pdf
Food Safety and Inspection Service, USDA: http://www.fsis.usda.gov
Hazard analysis and critical control points:
http://vm.cfsan.fda.gov/~lrd/haccp.html
http://www.allconferences.net (Search: HACCP)
International Organization for Standardization (ISO):
http://www.iso.ch/iso/en/ISOOnline.frontpage
U.S. Department of Labor—Occupational Safety and Health Administration:
http://www.osha.gov
CHAPTER 16
Mill Management
Mill management involves the overall direction and leadership of the

technical, financial, and economic aspects of the operation. Deficiencies in
management usually result in problems related to plant efficiency and finan-
cial return. The following topics related to flour milling operations show
some of the new tools that mill managers use to direct and control the
operation. Mill management models covering decision making, costs, profit,
and programs for hazard analysis and critical control points and for Interna-
tional Standards Organization certification should be used as a structure for
the operation. An in-house mill-training program, including safety proce-
dures and job duties, should be designed for all new mill personnel.
Staffing and Organization of a Flour Mill

Mill Manager
The flour mill is managed by an individual who is responsible for lead-
ing the operation to function properly and generate return on investment. A
mill manager’s responsibilities include labor relations, scheduling, safety,
plant security, transportation, sales, purchasing, office administration, and
budgeting. Although the mill manager should delegate responsibility for the
various functions to other persons in the mill, the manager should under-
stand the technical factors that affect the operation, from the effect of wheat
quality to the smallest detail of flour loading and shipping. Maintenance,
sanitation, and milling technology, as well as quality control, are functions
with which the manager should have experience. The manager also is
responsible for ensuring that all operators understand and are motivated to
perform the necessary tasks for efficient production. Because the mill is
operated 24 hr a day by three to four teams, one of the major responsibilities
449
450 CHAPTER 16
of the mill manager is to create an atmosphere of cooperation among all em-

ployees to achieve uniform performance and quality from each of the teams.
Staffing
Staffing of the mill varies considerably according to its size, design,
level of automation, variety of end-products, and also whether it is part of a
multiple-plant operation. A large mill requires more personnel than a small
mill, but it requires fewer personnel per tonne of wheat processed. The
methods of wheat delivery to the mill (truck, rail, or waterway) also affect
staffing. For example, if several ways to unload wheat or flour shipping are
necessary, additional staff is required. The design of the mill has a consider-
able effect on staffing of the operation. The types and number of end-
products also affect staffing. Factors such as the ratio of packed to bulk end-
product and the resulting requirements for storage, shipment, and electronic
control and automation, as well as the complexity of the flow sheets, affect
the number of persons needed. Production of prepared mixes for bakeries or
consumers require more staff.
A multiple-plant operation can provide a number of services from the
central headquarters for many mills at a reduced cost per tonne of flour and
reduce the staff at the mill location. Functions that can be performed at the
central office include general administration, accounting, payroll, finance,
legal, insurance, engineering, safety, labor relations, purchasing of grain
and supplies, run scheduling, transportation, sales of flour and by-products,
and research and development. Each local mill must be staffed for efficient
operation of the plant. These functions include grain reception, sampling,
wheat evaluation; storage, mixing wheat, cleaning, and conditioning; mill-
ing; blending, storage, packing, and shipping of products; maintenance,
sanitation, and laboratory tests; and office services to coordinate scheduling
and transportation with headquarters.
Reporting
The number of personnel reporting to the mill manager is directly
related to the mill size and variety of products. Supervisors are responsible
to the mill manager for the different departments of the operation and for
the crew working under them. Small mills can sometimes operate with a
miller/manager who supervises the plant operation. One disadvantage of
this is that the miller cannot spend sufficient time in the milling area to
obtain the maximum milling efficiency because of demands of other plant
operations, e.g., labor relations, inspections, and other administrative mat-
ters. In a small operation of less then 300 t of wheat per day (5,000 cwt of
flour per day), arrangements can be made for the elevator and maintenance
supervisors to report to the head miller and the remaining supervisors to
report to the manager.
MILL MANAGEMENT 451
Head Miller
The chief technologist responsible for the technical aspects of the mill-
ing operation is called the head miller, the milling superintendent, or the
production manager, depending on the company, location, or country.
Beyond formal schooling, this person should be experienced in the different
aspects of wheat milling technology. Flour milling is continuously changing
into a technology related to different disciplines of science. Computer pro-
gramming, chemistry, mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, fluid
mechanics, powder technology, and economics are only some of the areas
TABLE 16-1
Suggested List of Controls and Tests to Be Performed by the Mill Staffa
Sample Test Frequency
Raw wheat Physical appearance Each load
Dockage Each load
Natural impurities As required
Test weight Each load
Protein content Each load
Moisture content Each load
Falling number (α-amylase) Each load
Ash content Each load
Blended wheat Protein content Hourly sample of blend
Moisture content Hourly sample of blend
Blended wheat to cleaning
house Moisture content 4 hr
Tempered wheat to first break Moisture content 4 hr
Granulation of break meal Change of crop
Ash of break meal fractions Change of crop
Kernel hardness Daily
Basic flour streams Pekar test 2 hr
Percentage ash content Daily
Protein Daily
Finished flours Percentage ash content 4 hr
Percentage protein content 4 hr
Percentage moisture content 4 hr
Pekar test Hourly
Additive check 2 hr
Farinograph Daily
Extensigraph Daily
Alveograph Daily
Baking test Daily
Starch damage Daily
Flour granulation Weekly
distribution
Millfeeds Percentage ash content Daily
Percentage protein content Daily
Percentage moisture content Daily
Percentage fat content Daily
Percentage fiber content Daily
a
Adapted from Brennan (1982).
452 CHAPTER 16
about which the miller needs information. It is the head miller’s, respon-
sibility as well as that of management, to continuously strive for additional
information about milling from professional and research publications as
well as from professional meetings. The head miller needs good experience
in the operation of a mill, because at present not all variables related to the
raw material, machine configurations, and adjustments can be defined
quantitatively.
The milling department makes a profit by adding value to wheat in the
form of flour and by-products. The other departments in the plant can
reduce costs and save money, but the milling department makes the actual
conversion from wheat to flour. Thus, the head miller is the key person in
the economic success of the business. The head miller must be completely
knowledgeable about the operation and able to fine-tune the process not
only to obtain the maximum flour extraction and grade percentages of pre-
mium flour, but also to obtain the optimum capacity to maximize produc-
tion. The mill’s objective is to maximize the total return; sometimes this
may require adjusting the mill to increase total extraction at the expense of
patent flour or, conversely, to lower total extraction to increase patent flour
TABLE 16-2
Example Job Description for Grinder (Shift Miller) Dutiesa
Routine Duties Details
Hourly round procedures Check level of wheat supply.
Take temperature and humidity.
Record wheat scale reading.
Record temperature of wheat to first break.
Read wheat and flour scales at shift end.
Check content of used flour bins.
Maintaining roll stock extractions Adjust breaks to prescribed extractions (17 pairs of
rolls, about 1.5–2.5 hr each shift).
Recheck break releases upon change in wheat mix.
Readjust releases upon drastic change in wheat
moisture or mill relative humidity.
Wheat moisture control Record hourly moisture data supplied by crew.
Final flours and red dog Pekar tests Make sure crew perform Pekar tests.
Make hourly review of Pekar tests. Make necessary
changes in the mill.
Shift production report Complete all necessary data in the mill production
report.
Nonroutine duties Decide upon emergency need to open a sifter
section with broken sieves.
React to abrupt changes in mill temperature and
relative humidity (15–20% effects mill
performance)
If major mechanical problems, use authority to shut
down the mill.
Free chokes in the mill with mill crew.
a
Duties will change from mill to mill.
MILL MANAGEMENT 453
and reduce clear flour. Decisions are based on, among other things, the sell-
ing price of flour and by-products and how they affect total profit. The
miller must work closely with the financial and scheduling sections of the
operation to determine the most profitable setting of the mill. Mill economic
and management models can also assist the head miller in decision making.
Table 16-1 shows a suggested list of control tests and actions that should
be considered by the mill staff while operating a mill. Based on local needs,
the head miller decides which tests to use, which methods to follow, and at
what frequency.
The main responsibility of the head miller is supervising the milling
operation 24 hr a day and therefore includes supervising the shift millers
who operate the mill during each 8-hr shift.
Job descriptions for all persons in the mill are an essential prerequisite
for efficient operation. Supervisors should take the time to define job
descriptions, describe them in writing, and explain them to the workers.
Timetables and estimated times required for different tasks should be dis-
cussed and established with workers. Table 16-2 shows an example of the
main duties of a shift miller or a grinder, which depend on the size of the
operation, number of floors, and the level of automation. Additional details
and a timetable should be constructed for operations by the head miller.
Shift Miller
The second miller (shift miller) is the shift foreman and the first line
supervisor responsible for an efficient mill run during a particular shift. The
number of people to be supervised depends on the size of the milling unit.
In small operations, the shift miller might be a single professional, with a
helper, and might therefore perform all tasks on the shift, from supervising,
adjusting, and repairing equipment to performing essential laboratory tests.
Under no circumstances should the shift miller be the only person in the
mill; this is a safety precaution. The skills for this position are gained
through education, experience, and special instruction from supervisors; the
shift miller must be part mechanic, part chemist, part electrician, and a good
improviser. The efficiency with which this job is performed can determine
whether or not the mill shows a profit (Nault, 1964). The shift miller makes
adjustments in processing machines and changes in roll settings or purifiers
sieves to optimize the mill performance and supervises the operators who
perform the necessary tasks to run the mill.
The duties of the various mill operators depend upon their specialties.
Smutters clean and prepare the wheat for milling. This includes drawing the
mix from the storage bins, overseeing the cleaning machines, and applying
moisture for proper conditioning of the wheat for milling. Bolters make the
flour grades, add improvers and enrichments in the finished flour grades,
454 CHAPTER 16
and bin the flour. Bolters also check the sifters for broken sieving cloths that
may affect flour color. Machine tenders adjust and clean purifiers and other
machines. Roll tenders adjust, lubricate, clean, and check grinding and roll
releases. Sweepers clean the machines and the floors of the building and
observe the general operation of the mill equipment. Depending on the size
and complexity of the operation, these duties can be combined or expanded
and the crew size adjusted.
In addition to supervising, the shift miller performs the first level of
documentation of plant operations. The shift production report includes
information related to the amount of wheat used, flour extraction level
achieved, percent of different flour grades produced, and millfeeds pro-
duced. The shift miller summarizes and documents all scale readings during
the shift, all changes to the wheat mix and flour blend, the route of the
different flours into the flour bins, and the additives used according to
specification requirements. The shift miller also documents data related to
roll adjustment, wheat and flour moisture, and other test results performed
during the shift.
Number of Persons to Operate a Flour Mill

The question regarding the number of persons to operate a flour mill is
of major concern mainly because of its effect on operation costs. With the
increase in automation and operational efficiency, the actual employee
hours can be reduced. The number, which can be expressed as an employee
hour per tonne of wheat milled, varies depending on the mill size and
capacity from 0.5 to 2 per tonne (or per 16.53 cwt). Other suggested values
are expressed as a performance range of 12–20 cwt per employee hour
based on a five-day work week or 260 days per year.
No rigid rules can be set for the number of staff in the mill because
some mills run at night and on weekends, producing flour without person-
nel. An example is a “lights-out” operation, in which equipment supervision
or adjustment is provided during the day but the mill runs automatically at
night. In some cases, work such as maintenance or housekeeping can be
contracted out, which reduces staff; however, supervision of these duties is
still required.
Training
Training includes both practical experience and theoretical understand-
ing. Training in milling is an evolutionary process, the requirements for
which depend on developments in technology. With current technology, the
demands on the operative miller are becoming more complicated. Keeping
industrial units running at their maximum capacity and efficiency requires
MILL MANAGEMENT 455
people to have an understanding of many related fields that were not neces-
sary in the past.
A broad education in engineering, business administration, computers,
and chemistry are basics for the future mill operator. With understanding in
the different disciplines, the person can become acquainted with a specific
operation in a very short time.
Companies invest resources in training new employees about procedures
and methods specific to their mills. The more time the company takes to
train the person, the better the individual understands the different aspects
of the operation. Intensive training should not mean just walking through
the departments and experiencing the activities. The trainee should be
involved in discussions and theoretical analysis of problems in the opera-
tion. The trainee must be exposed to all the functions of the company, to
gain a better understanding of company policy. Training of millers is a con-
tinuing process, so that they keep current with the latest technology. This
involves taking technical courses at schools, attending technical conferences
on milling subjects, and visiting other mills and mill machinery manufactur-
ers. Managers who are concerned about trained people changing employ-
ment should initiate self-evaluation about their own leadership and ability to
motivate people.
In most flour companies, supervisors take on the task of training new
employees. In this case, existing perceptions of mill operations are trans-
ferred and retransferred down the line. To improve new employees’ knowl-
edge, it is recommended that part of their training be conducted by outside
organizations or consultants.
Reporting Methods in the Operating Mill
Management and control depend on accurate mill reporting. The mill

manager and supervisors can access the mill computer to observe and evalu-
ate data generated from scales and accumulated inventory. As mentioned
previously, self-activated gap-control adjustments and data from other sen-
sors can be recorded in the mill data storage for the supervisor’s informa-
tion. In the past, production reports were designed for each section in the
mill, requiring the various mill operators, shift millers, and other supervi-
sors to submit them to their superior every 24 hr. Shutdowns, technical
problems, adjustment data, mix changes, and the kinds of flours produced
were recorded. Computer spreadsheets are now designed to provide summa-
rized reports from each section of the mill, using critical data and variables
that the operators have fed in. Good data accumulation is the basis for
statistical optimization of the operation, and it starts with the lower levels in
the mill.
456 CHAPTER 16
Mill Management Models

The management model is a tool constructed for a particular mill or for
multiple operations. Mill models implemented as electronic spreadsheets
calculate estimated technical and economic aspects of the operations. Mill
technical models can be developed to estimate milling results based on
wheat characteristics or to optimize mill adjustment and flow changes for
milling different wheat mixes. Mill management models include all vari-
ables related to the production costs, from employees’ overtime to the price
of bags for packaging. The matrices generated by the model can interact to
calculate internal rate of return, financial rate of return, and other relevant
economic and financial parameters such as profit per hundredweight of
flour. Both the technical and the economic models can be used by mill man-
agement to simulate various economic scenarios. Thus, the management
model allows the manager to insert specific changes in the mill cost struc-
ture to evaluate their effect on mill efficiency, earnings, and returns. Mill
management should strive to add variables for a particular operation that
will improve estimates and results. Basic structural and conceptual models
for the flour milling industry have been suggested and described by various
authors. (Note: mill capacities for wheat are stated in terms of tonnes and
flour capacities in terms of hundredweights.)
Eustace et al (1976, 1977a,b) developed an economic model for flour
mills of three different capacities. Based on the costs of the building, equip-
ment, installation, and fixed and variable costs, the model calculated esti-
mates of operating costs. These were about $25.92/t ($1.555/cwt) for a 180-
t/day (3,000-cwt/day) mill, $20.42/t ($1.225/cwt) for a 300-t/day (5,000-
cwt/day) mill, and $17.95/t ($1.090/cwt) for a 425-t/day (7,000-cwt/day)
mill, based on a five-day week for 50 weeks. The model was also used to
determine estimated operating costs for the above three hard wheat mills in
the Kansas City area operating with a four-day week, six-day week, and
seven-day week. Schneider and Usset (2000) updated the above model to
estimated prices for a new mill with a capacity of 600 t/day (10,000
cwt/day). The estimated operating costs per unit were determined to be
$29.66/t ($1.78/cwt).
Flores et al (1991) developed a nonlinear model consisting of seg-
mented cubic and linear functions that was used to describe cumulative ash
as a function of the physical characteristics of wheat (kernel size, 1,000-
kernel weight, protein content, whole-wheat ash, pearling value, and Zeleny
sedimentation). The protein content of the flour (i.e., protein recovery in the
mill) was studied as a function of the whole-wheat protein content. The
empirical models were developed using data from 54 samples of hard red
winter wheat milled in the pilot mill of the Department of Grain Science
and Industry at Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS. These empirical
MILL MANAGEMENT 457
models were built into an electronic spreadsheet capable of estimating the

milling yields, ash content, and protein content of straight-grade flours,
patent flour, and the remaining clear flours from the ash curve. This type of
model can help mill management in wheat buying decisions and evaluation
of the wheat’s potential performance in the mill.
Flores et al (1992, 1993) developed a mill management economic model
and built it into an electronic spreadsheet. The model consisted of five
major components or steps: operating characteristics, manufacturing, annual
performance, financial planning, and long-term analysis. A 428-t/day
(7,000-cwt/day) mill producing hard red winter wheat flour was modeled,
and the impact of the following variables was tested: 1) energy costs, 2)
straight flour extraction, 3) hourly wages, 4) bulk flour sales price, and 5)
wheat transportation cost. Analysis by the model of the sensitivity of these
variables indicated that 1) a reduction of 5.0% in energy costs would reduce
variables costs by $0.176/t ($0.008/cwt), 2) a reduction of 1% in flour
extraction from 75% would require an increase in millfeed price of $3.80/t
($3.40/short ton) in order to maintain the net income obtained with 75%
flour extraction, and 3) an increase in hourly wages of $0.22/hr for 31
employees would increase the flour production cost by $0.309/t
($0.014/cwt). Linear relationships were explored between the internal rate
of return and variation in flour sales price and between the internal rate of
return and reduction in wheat transportation cost.
Liu et al (1992) applied the mill management model developed by
Flores et al (1993) in two different studies of the wheat flour milling indus-
try. The first study evaluated the economic performance of a flour mill for
two different years, 1982 and 1987. Changes in capital costs, production
costs, working capital, and internal rate of return were obtained for metro-
politan, nonmetropolitan, and average-sized mills in the midwestern United
States. The second study evaluated the economic impact of the wheat
characteristics of 99 wheat shipments to Japan (1987–1990). A relationship
between total production costs and net income of the mill was developed as
a function of the characteristics of the wheat samples.
The above-described models could be used by the mill manager as a
guideline to construct an original mill management model for specific local
conditions.
Financial Management
The modern head miller should be acquainted with computer software
to determine the effect of small or large capital investments, inventories,
and operating costs on the return on investment. Available software pro-
grams can be formatted for specific mill operations, and the effect of invest-
ments or any other management decision can be measured by its effect on
458 CHAPTER 16
the internal rate of return. Capital investments are justified by reduction of

labor, increase in capacity, increase in extraction, or provision of a new
product or service. The first two reduce the manufacturing cost and are easy
to measure in standard variances of manufacturing costs. Increased extrac-
tion is more difficult to measure. A good extraction baseline is essential for
comparison, and even then, the raw material or other variables may make
extraction data difficult to measure.
The financial controls for the milling operation are the manufacturing
cost and the capital and operating budgets. Computer-assisted management
of inventories can save interest expense by improved run planning to reduce
the amounts of wheat, supplies, and flour carried in stock. The standard
manufacturing cost includes all fixed and variable costs to produce a unit of
flour. Reducing services and increasing production can lower fixed costs.
Variable costs can be lowered by the miller by reduced overtime, efficient
scheduling of maintenance to reduce downtime, good power management,
and increased production. The miller and manager should be informed on a
regular basis of positive or negative variance from the standard. Comparison
data about the industry can be found through national census data. The
operating budget projects the standard costs over time, using an estimated
run time or amount of units of flour to be produced. The extraction and
flour grade percentages also can be predicted to determine selling prices,
and the actual results can be compared on a regular basis. Higher flour
extraction does not change the manufacturing cost but results in using less
wheat per unit of flour, thereby increasing the profit and total return.
The manager may be judged on total costs of the mill operation,
whereas the miller is responsible for flour extraction, grade percentages,
product quality, and manufacturing costs. Increased production lowers the
manufacturing costs. On the other hand, too much capacity can change the
mill balance and cause poor extraction. Obviously, the management and
miller must agree on the operating capacity of the mill. Only the miller
knows how much load to put on the mill, based on the readout of the proc-
ess control recorders and observation of the mill streams and material bal-
ance of stocks in the mill flow.
Conclusion
The changes in the industry brought about by computers, artificial
intelligence, process control, and better inventory control have made possi-
ble “lights out” milling and the ability to operate the mill with fewer
personnel. This has created a greater need for outside technical assistance
and contractors to perform maintenance and sanitation in the plant. It has
also put the miller in a position to make highly valuable technical and man-
MILL MANAGEMENT 459
agement decisions to operate the mill in the most profitable manner. This
trend will continue into the future, and well-trained millers will be in high
demand.
REFERENCES CITED
Brennan, P. 1982. Flour milling technology. Pages 555-599 in: Grains and Oilseeds:
Handling, Marketing, Processing. Canadian International Grains Institute,
Winnipeg, Canada.
Eustace, W. D., Niernberger, F. F., and Ward, A. B. 1976. Economic models of flour
mills, Part I. Capital requirements. Assoc. Oper. Millers Tech. Bull., Nov./Dec.,
pp. 3620-3628.
Eustace, W. D., Niernberger, F. F., and Ward, A. B. 1977a. Economic models of
flour mills, Part II. Operating costs. Assoc. Oper. Millers Tech. Bull., Feb./Mar.,
pp. 3638-3640.
Eustace, W. D., Niernberger, F. F., and Ward, A. B. 1977b. Economic models of
flour mills, Part III. Equipment and equipment costs. Assoc. Oper. Millers Tech.
Bull., Nov./Dec., pp. 3690-3696.
Flores, R. A., Posner, E. S., Milliken, G. A., and Deyoe, C. W. 1991. Modeling the
milling of hard red winter wheat: Estimation of cumulative ash and protein
recovery. Trans. Am. Soc. Agric. Eng. 34:2117-2122.
Flores, R. A., Posner, E. S., and Deyoe, C. W. 1992. Computer simulation model for
wheat flour milling systems. Assoc. Oper. Millers Tech. Bull., Aug., pp. 6079-
6090.
Flores, R. A., Posner, E. S., Phillips, R., and Deyoe, C. W. 1993. Modeling the eco-
nomic evaluation of wheat flour milling operations. Trans. Am. Soc. Agric. Eng.
36:1143-1149.
Liu, M. C., Flores, R. S., Deyoe, C. W., and Posner, E. S. 1992. Assessment of a
computer simulation model for the flour milling industry. Cereal Foods World
37:649-654.
Nault, D. 1964. Second miller. Assoc. Oper. Millers Bull., Nov., pp. 2354-2355.
Schneider, S. P., and Usset, E. C., 2000. Flour production costs at new and old mills:
Opportunities for capital improvements in existing facilities. Assoc. Oper. Mill-
ers Tech. Bull., Sep./Oct./Nov., p. 7527.
SUGGESTED READING
Ackles, A. 1953. The operative miller’s responsibility in management. Assoc. Oper.

Millers Tech. Bull., Jun., p. 2038.
Crowley, P. R., Anderson, M. L., Gracza, R., Grogg, B., Handleman, A. R., Wichser,
F. W., and Whitby, K. T. 1961. AACC particle size committee report: 1961.
Cereal Sci. Today 6:330.
Dechbene, R. L., and Averdieck, W. J. 1987. Triboelectricity: A parameter for solids
Ernst, K. 1981. Elektrische Automation für die Getreideverarbeitung. Mühle Misch-
futtertechn. nos. 12 & 13, 19 & 26, March.
460 CHAPTER 16
Franken, J. L. 1992. Automated process control: How do I get started? Assoc. Oper.
Millers Tech. Bull., Nov., pp. 6117-6119.
Mühlenwes. 4(6):103-105.
Hibbs, A. 1975. The operative miller and milling efficiency. Assoc. Oper. Millers
Tech. Bull., Apr., p. 3537.
Jenike, A. W. 1964. Storage and flow of solids. Bull. 123. Utah Eng. Exp. Stn., Salt
Lake City.
Jul., p. 2869.
Oliver, J. R., Blakenney, A. B., and Allen, H. M. 1992. Measurement of flour color
in color space parameters. Cereal Chem. 69:546-551.
Osborne, B. 1984. Some application of NIRA in the UK to milling and baking
industry. Int. Symp. on Near-Infrared Reflectance Analysis, 7th. Technicon
Industrial Systems, Tarrytown, NY.
Rozsa, T. A. 1948. The granulation curve. Assoc. Oper. Millers Tech. Bull. 1:333-
338.
Rozsa, T. A. 1948. Granulation study of a flour mill. Assoc. Oper. Millers Tech.
Bull. 1:341-350.
Smart, T. 1990. Philosophy of economic justification for automation. Assoc. Oper.
Sugden, D. 1987. The practicality of automated mills. Assoc. Oper. Millers Tech.
Bull., Jul., pp. 5003-5007.
1:168-173.
3180.
Wingfield, J. 1985. Flour mill performance. Assoc. Oper. Millers Tech. Bull., Sep.,
p. 4561.
Wingfield, J. 1990. Putting flour mill yields to work: A computerized, value-added
approach. Assoc. Oper. Millers Tech. Bull., Jul., pp. 5721-5734.
Zumwalt, R. 1967. Cost of running a flour mill. Assoc. Oper. Millers Tech. Bull.,
Mar., p. 2965.
Census: http://www.census.gov (Search: Milling)

Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points:
http://vm.cfsan.fda.gov/~lrd/haccp.html
http://www.allconferences.net (Search: HACCP)
International Organization for Standardization (ISO):
http://www.iso.ch/iso/en/ISOOnline.frontpage
Milling Terms
The following words are shown in bold type the first time they are used
in the text.
Absorption: The percent of water used Alkaline water retention capacity

in making a dough with normal consis- (AWRC): The amount of alkaline water
tency. retained by a flour after a controlled
Action: The mode of grinding on a pair centrifugation. Used as a predictor of
of corrugated rolls. Each sawtooth corru- cookie spread.
gation has a long dull side and a sharp Alpha (α)-Amylase: An enzyme that
side. Dull-to-dull action is an arrange- breaks down the starch molecule to
ment in which the long side of the dextrins of low molecular weight.
sawtooth of the fast roll acts against the Angle of nip: The angle (2α) made by
long side of the sawtooth of the slow roll. the roll faces at the point of contact,
Additives: Any ingredient or substance where they just take hold of a particle
that is put into flour to improve, protect, and draw it into the grinding zone.
or extend its use. Anther: Pollen-bearing part of the
Aeration: Forcing air to flow through a wheat plant stamen.
stationary layer or column of grain to Ash: The residual inorganic material
remove the end products of respiration left after incineration, expressed as a
and to cool and dry the grain. percentage of the original sample. The
Aging: Improvement of baking perfor- ash value is corrected to dry or other
mance of flour by chemical or physical moisture basis for comparison.
treatment, by natural oxidation during Ash curve: A plot of cumulative ash
storage, or by a combination of two or against the percent extraction of flour
more of these factors. from the wheat.
Air lock: A feeder device used either to Aspiration: I) The use of controlled
introduce materials into a positive-pres- velocities of directed air to secure sepa-
sure pneumatic conveying system while ration of particles that have different
minimizing the loss of pressurized air, resistance to airflow due to size, density,
or to release material from a negative- shape, or other physical characteristics.
pressure pneumatic conveying system 2) The use of negative airflow to remove
while minimizing the entry of atmos- unwanted materials, such as dust and
pheric air into the system. seed, from grain.
Aleurone layer: A botanical term desig- Aspirator: A classifying device that
nating a proteinaceous cellular layer in uses a controlled-velocity air stream to
the wheat kernel that envelops the remove light particles from heavy parti-
endosperm and separates it from the cles, based on differences in their densi-
bran or seed coat of the wheat kernel. ties and aerodynamic properties.
461
462 MILLING TERMS
Backwire: A coarsely woven wire Blower: A machine used to supply

screen secured to the underside of sifter either compressed or rarefied, oil-free
and purifier sieves to retain the sieve- air to the pneumatic conveying system.
cleaning devices and at the same time Bolter: A mill worker whose responsi-
provide a rough surface that imparts bility is to make the flour grades, add
additional motion to the cleaners. improvers and enrichments to the fin-
Bare bolting: Excessive abrasion of the ished flour grades, and bin the flour.
particles on the sieve, which causes Bolters also check the sifters for broken
reduction of particles that pass through sieving cloths that may affect flour
the aperture. This material, intended for color.
a coarser granulation and often highly Bolting cloth: Any of the sieving or
contaminated with bran fiber, passes sifting materials (wire, silk, nylon, and
into the clean flour or separation, pro- other synthetics) used as covers on
ducing specks and lowering the purity frames in milling machines to secure
of the separation. See also Overbolting. separation according to particle size.
Barometric pressure: Pressure that can Bolting: The action of sieving flour
be measured because air has a weight from coarser particles.
that changes as a result of weather con-
ditions. The atmospheric pressure will Bran: 1) The larger (usually over 900
balance a column of mercury of a certain µm) pieces of the bran coat resulting
height if there is a complete vacuum from milling of the wheat. 2) An outer
above it. This is the principle of the portion of the wheat kernel.
barometer, which indicates the barometric Break: 1) The breaking operation in
or air pressure at a certain point on the which the endosperm is removed from
globe. Standard barometric pressure at the bran. 2) The roller mills used in this
sea level, is 760 mm of mercury at 0°C operation.
by definition. Equivalents of this pres- Break flour: Endosperm that is
sure in other units are 29.92 in. of Hg unavoidably reduced to flour granula-
at 70°F; 14.696 1b of force per in.2, tion during the separation of bran and
and 1 atm. endosperm on break rolls early in the
Beaters: A series of plates, rods, slats, milling process.
or other appendages placed around the Break release: The amount of
circumference of a rotating shaft. Beat- endosperm released at each stage of the
ers pick up the material being intro- break system, expressed as a percent of
duced into the machine and throw it the material entering each stage of the
against a surrounding cylindrical shell, break system.
which may be perforated or have Break roll: A shafted steel cylinder
obstructions against which the material having spiral grooves of various design
impacts. cut lengthwise on the surface, used in
Beeswing: The outer skin of wheat that the early grinding steps of milling to
is scoured off. separate bran and endosperm.
Belt conveyor: A moving, endless belt Break system: That portion of the mill-
that supports material and by its motion ing process in which the majority of the
carries the material from one place to bran coat is separated from the
another. The belt is driven by a pulley endosperm particles.
and is supported on both runs, going Bridging (doming, arching in a bin): A
and coming, by rollers or by a runway. failure of material to flow out of a bin
Bleached: A term commonly applied to hopper, usually occurring at the outlet of
flour chemically treated to improve the hopper or at the transition from the
baking and color. bin shell to the hopper cone.
MILLING TERMS 463
Brush: A group of hair-shaped small Corrugated rolls: Grinding rolls that are
pericarp extensions a few microns in corrugated, usually the breaking rolls and
diameter located on one end of the in some cases sizings, head middlings, and
wheat kernel. tail end middlings. See Corrugation.
Bucket elevator: A machine with an Corrugation: One of a series of
endless belt to which cups are attached, grooves machined into the surface of a
used to convey stock vertically. roll chill. Also called a flute.
Bulk: Describing any process or device Crease: The lengthwise folded inden-
that deals with unbagged products of tation characteristic of wheat kernels.
milling. Cumulative ash curve, or Protein
Burr: Both the rotor and the stator of a curve: Graph showing how flour ash or
laboratory mill. The severity of grinding protein increases. It is made by mixing
can be controlled by adjusting the dis- the two flours with the lowest values in
tance between the burrs. the mill and progressively adding the
rest of the individual flours to the mix in
Bushel (Winchester): A volume meas- order of their ascending ash or protein
urement used in the United States to content.
measure test weight. (See the Conver-
sion Factors section.) cwt: Hundredweight; 100 lb.
Cyclone: A dust collector that consists
Certify: To officially approve the
of a cylindrical body attached to a coni-
genetic identity of a new wheat variety.
cal lower member. Dust-laden air enters
Chill: The grinding element of the roller the body tangentially, giving the air a
mill. Roll chills are made of chilled cast centrifugal, cyclonic motion. The heavier
iron. The chilling process produces an dust particles cling to the outer walls and
extremely hard surface (450–550 are directed downward to the outlet. The
Brinell). clean air spirals upward and exits through
Clear flours: Flours composed from the a cylindrical stack at the top center.
tail-end mill streams. These flours are Debranning: The separation of the
not used to produce patent flours and outer layers of the wheat kernel by abra-
have poor color and high ash as com- sion and polishing.
pared to the total flour blend from all Destoner: A machine that separates
the mill streams. stones or other heavy material (by spe-
Coleoptile: A layer that covers the plu- cific gravity) from grain or coarse mill
mule of the embryo. stocks.
Coleorhiza: A layer that covers the pri- Die (in a pasta extruder): The end section
mary root of the embryo. of the pasta extruder that shapes the
extruded dough.
Conditioning: The process of preparing
wheat for milling by application of the Dielectric constant: Provides infor-
following variables: water (added and mation similar to that obtained by elec-
distributed on the wheat), rest time for the trical conductivity but does not require
water to penetrate, and energy (as heat or electrode contact with the sample. Use-
in another form). ful for determining very small amounts
Configuration: The relationship of one of water in organic systems.
roll in a pair to the other roll. Differential: Ratio between the periph-
Cookie spread factor: The ratio (W/T) eral speeds of the fast and slow rolls,
of cookie width (W) to cookie thickness with the slow roll speed equal to I.
(T), measured and adjusted according to Disc separator: A type of separator that
AACC Method 10-50D. makes a separation based on shape and
464 MILLING TERMS
length. Revolving discs with pockets on Embryo: A portion of the germ of the
both faces move through the grain mix- wheat kernel, which is composed of the
ture, picking up only those materials embryonic axis and the scutellum. The
that stay in the pockets. embryonic axis (embryo) is a rudimen-
Distribution table: A chart that shows tary plant that develops at germination
the quantity of material in each process to produce the seedling.
step in the milling system. Endosperm: The inner portions of the
Dockage: The foreign material in a wheat grain.
sample of wheat removed by appropri- Ergot, a disease caused by a fungus
ate sieves and cleaning devices. The (Claviceps purpurea). Also, the dark
Emerson or Carter dockage tester is body produced by the fungus that grows
used by official inspectors in the United in place of the wheat kernel.
States to determine dockage. Ergoty wheat: Wheat that contains
Dosing: Adding exact amounts from more than 0.05% ergot by weight.
different wheat lots to make up mixes. Extraction: The percent of flour, bran,
Drag conveyor: An endless chain, to or feed extracted from wheat, expressed
which is attached a series of paddles or as a percentage of the wheat ground.
flat bars, that moves along a stationary Falling number: A test to detect α-
trough. The paddles or bars push mate- amylase (and therefore sprout damage)
rial and move it along the trough. in wheat. The falling number value is
Dress: 1) The visual appearance of a the number of seconds between the time
stock in respect to the amount of specks that a test tube containing a flour paste
that appear in a slick test. 2) Arrangement is immersed in boiling water and the
of furrows on the grinding stone surface time at which a stirrer-viscometer has
of a stone mill. fallen a prescribed distance through the
Durum: Triticum durum, a tetraploid flour paste.
species of wheat with extremely hard Fan: A device for moving air in exhaust
grain, which is used for macaroni, spa- and pneumatic conveying systems.
ghetti, and other pasta products. Farina: A granular food product pre-
Dust: Very fine particles of grain or pared by grinding and bolting cleaned
grain products. wheat, other than durum and red durum
wheat, to such fineness that it passes
Duster: Also called finisher. Any of
through a no. 20 sieve, but not more
several types of machine, including both
than 3% passes through a no. 100 sieve.
brush and centrifugal, used to supple-
It is freed from bran coat, or bran coat
ment the milling process and increase
and germ, to such an extent that the
the separation of endosperm from bran
percent of ash, calculated to a moisture-
particles.
free basis, is not more than 0.6%. The
Eccentric drive: A drive from a shaft or moisture content is not more than 15%.
part of a shaft that is not centered. Farinograph: A dough-testing machine.
Electrical conductivity: Electrical It measures the plasticity and mobility of
conductivity of a material depends on dough when subjected to continuous
the type, mobility, and concentration of mixing at a constant temperature.
ions in a material. Farinograph water absorption: The
Elevator: 1) A group of concrete, steel, percentage of water required to center
or wood bins used to store wheat or the curve on the 500 Brabender Unit
grain; also called silo. 2) Any conveying (BU) line at the maximum consistency
machine used for lifting grain or other of the dough. Because flours vary in
products vertically. "slacking out" during fermentation, this
MILLING TERMS 465
might not be the true absorption in the charging progresses, the material around
bakery . the core collapses into the funnel, start-
Fast roll: The roll that operates at ing at the top.
higher velocity (rpm) in a pair of grind- Gain: The excess of total product weight
ing rolls that normally operate at differ- over the weight of the dirty wheat
ent speeds. received for milling.
Feed wheat: Hulls, bran, and germ, Gap (grinding): The distance between
along with inseparable endosperm, not a pair of grinding rolls, measured in
used in flour and sold as animal feed. thousands of an inch or fractions of
Fiber, dietary: The parts of the wheat millimeters.
kernel outer layers that pass through the Garlicky wheat: Wheat that (in a
human small intestine undigested and 1,000-g portion) contains more than two
are completely or partially fermented in green garlic bulblets or an equivalent
the large intestine. quantity of dry or partly dry bulblets.
Fiber, insoluble: Fiber that is insoluble Germ: The embryo extracted from the
in aqueous solutions of enzymes wheat kernel.
designed to simulate the human diges- Germinate: To cause to sprout or
tive system. When consumed, such fiber develop.
is not digested in the human small intes-
tine but may be fermented by bacteria in Gluten (wet and dry): A protein sub-
the large intestine. The most concen- stance that amounts to about 85% of the
trated amount of insoluble fiber is found total protein of white flour. Gluten is
in wheat bran. insoluble in cold water and may be
recovered from a weighed sample of
Fiber, soluble: Fiber soluble in aqueous flour by forming a dough ball and wash-
solutions of enzymes that are typical of ing out the starch by pressing or squeez-
the human digestive system. ing the ball by hand, under running
Filter (dust collector): A dust collector water and over a coarse flour silk. When
that utilizes fabrics of various types to the wash water ceases to be cloudy it
capture the fine dust particles in exhaust may be assumed that the material left is
or conveying air streams, releasing the pure gluten. One third of the weight of
clean air to the atmosphere. the wet gluten approximates the protein
Finisher: see Duster. content of the flour. The main compo-
nents of gluten are glutenin and gliadin,
Flakes: The results of grinding exces- normally present in equal parts. The
sively wet kernels, which results in ker- gliadin is a soft, sticky substance that
nels being flattened instead of opened acts as a bond for the less coherent but
during breaking. harder glutenin.
Flour treatment: The addition of for- Grader: A machine or device that sepa-
eign gases and/or solid substances to rates a mixture into two or more fractions.
flour to secure desired effects such as Grain Inspection, Packers, and Stock-
better color, improved baking, and yards Administration (GIPSA): Part of
higher nutrition. the U.S. Department of Agriculture;
Friability: The characteristic of a sub- formerly the Federal Grain Inspection
stance that allows it to be easily crushed Service (FGIS).
into powder. Granulation: Term describing the parti-
Funnel flow: A mode of grain flow. At cle size distribution of flour or inter-
first, only a funnel of material is in mediate stocks in the mill.
motion during discharge, and the outer Granulation curve: A graph that shows
zones remain stationary. Then, as dis- the particle size distribution of a mate-
466 MILLING TERMS
rial. The vertical axis shows the cu- total head is the sum of the velocity
mulative percent tailovers of the sieve head, static pressure head, and elevation
aperture shown on the horizontal axis. head and expresses the transfer of
Granulation distribution. Particle size energy in any fluid-flow problem.
distribution (the weight, expressed in Heat exchanger: A device that transfers
percent, of particles in each sieve-size heat from one liquid or gas to another
category). without allowing them to mix. Air-to-air
Gravimetric feeder: A feeder that heat exchangers have been used to reduce
delivers a preset rate of material through energy consumption by transferring waste
the use of a scale system, as opposed to energy from the exhaust air to the replace-
volumetric delivery. ment air streams of a building or process.
Gravity table: A machine that classifies Hopper: A section of a bin or a machine
by differences in the specific gravity of that is angled toward the outlet.
particles in a mixture. Hybrid: First-generation offspring of a
Grist: Term commonly applied to a cross between two individuals of differ-
wheat mixture. ent genetic constitutions.
Grit gauze (GG): A bolting cloth, the Hysteresis: The lag in moisture content
heaviest quality, commonly used to in wheat at a certain relative humidity
grade middlings. between its adsorption and its desorp-
tion of water vapor.
Grit stone: A precisely sized stone
made of a very hard mineral, e.g., a car- Identity preserved (IP) wheat: Wheat
borundum variety such as emery. that is segregated during growing, har-
vesting, storage, and transportation to the
Gyrating screen (sifter): One or more mill because of its specific qualities.
sieves arranged above each other, moving
horizontally in a circular direction. Image analysis: A technique of sepa-
rating an image into bright and dark
Hand: The direction of movement of areas against a background. The small-
stock relative to a screw conveyor, a pair est picture element of the image, a pixel,
of grinding rolls, or a square sieve in a is registered to give a two- or three-
gyrating sifter. A handy method to dimensional view of the specimen.
determine the hand of a conveyor is to
Impact: 1) Forceful contact, collision.
stand, or imagine that you are standing,
2) A method to reduce particles by using
on one side of the conveyor, with the
the centrifugal force of a rotating impel-
top of the screw turning away from you.
ler.
In this position, if the material is con-
veyed to the right, it is a right-hand Indent cylinder: A type of separator
screw, and if it the material is conveyed that separates by length and consists of
to the left, it is a left-hand screw. a rotating circular cylinder, the inside
surface of which has been impressed
Hazard analysis and critical control with a large number of concave indents
points (HACCP): A program to ensure or pockets. Those materials (either grain
the safety of food in production by or impurities) that fit into the pockets
establishing critical control points are lifted from the mixture.
(CCP) throughout the process and
monitoring them systemically. Infested wheat: Wheat of which a
representative sample (~500 g) contains
Head, head end: The first section of a two or more live weevils, or one live
milling system or the first products from a weevil and one or more other live
machine making separations of mill stocks. insects injurious to stored grain, or two
Head (pneumatic): In the equation or more live insects injurious to stored
known as the Bernoulli's Theorem, the grain.
MILLING TERMS 467
Intermediate materials or stocks: Any entire bin are in motion during dis-
stock that is in between the cleaned charge. The surface level of the material
grain and the finished products in a mill descends at a uniform rate.
flow. Mealy: Description of wheat that has
Intermediate stock distribution: see chalky (nonvitreous) endosperm.
Mill balance. Mellowing (of endosperm): The proc-
Intermediate streams: Streams of ess of becoming soft and ready for mill-
materials flowing between different ing.
stages of the milling process. Mesh: The number of threads, or wires,
Internal rate of return (IRR): A dis- per linear inch of cloth.
count rate at which the present value of a Middlings: Particles of endosperm that
series of investments is equal to the pre- have not yet been reduced to flour.
sent value of returns on those invest-
ments. Mill balance: The optimal distribution
of load to the various processing stages
Invisible loss: The difference in weight in the milling operation.
between the tempered wheat and the
products milled from it, caused by the Milling loss: The loss in weight between
moisture lost through evaporation dur- the weight of wheat flowing to the first
ing milling. break and the total weight of all the final
products. Caused by spills, moisture
Kernel size distribution: The distri- evaporation during milling, and drying by
bution of kernel sizes in a sample of exhaust air from pneumatic and aspi-
wheat. ration systems.
Land: The flat outer surface of a corru- Milling stability: Minimal fluctuations
gated roll that is the remaining surface of the material load to equipment in the
after the corrugations are cut. mill, which results in production of
Light smutty wheat: Wheat that has an more uniform end products.
unmistakable odor of smut, or that con- Mold: A fungus causing food spoilage.
tains, in a 250-g portion, smut balls, por-
Near-infrared reflectance (NIRR): A
tions of smut balls, or spores of smut in
method of detecting molecular activity
excess of a quantity equal to five smut
by energizing the molecules and
balls, but not in excess of a quantity equal
recording the amount of reflectance at
to 30 smut balls of average size. See
different wave lengths in the infrared
smutty wheat.
band of the light spectrum. Moisture,
Lights-out mill: A highly automatic protein, and oil can be quantitatively
flour mill that does not require an opera- determined by this method. Other con-
tor present during most of the 24 hr stituents of grain products can be
operation. detected either directly or by the use of
Loss: see Invisible loss; Milling loss; correlation coefficients.
Shrinkage Near-infrared transmittance (NIRT): A
Manometer (liquid): An instrument for method of examination in which a beam
measuring pressure; essentially a U-tube of light is transmitted through a sample.
partially filled with a liquid (usually The sample, depending on the material
water, mercury, or a light oil) so con- composing it, absorbs part of the light. A
structed that the amount of displacement detector measures the intensity of the
of the liquid indicates the pressure being light that exits the material.
exerted on the instrument. Nip: The area between the rolls where a
Mass flow: A mode of flow of grain. All product is ground.
particles of material throughout the Oil-free air: Compressed air free of oil.
468 MILLING TERMS
Open sifter cloth: Wire or bolting cloth after pearling. This value can be used as
having openings with larger dimensions, a measure of kernel hardness.
in microns. Pericarp: The fruit coat that surrounds
Overbolting: Also called oversifting. A the wheat kernel and adheres tightly to
condition that occurs when excessive the seed coat.
sieve area is allocated for the separation Pin (peg): see Pin mill.
or the sieve aperture is too coarse. In
either case, the material that passes over Pin mill: A mill that has pin breakers in
the screen does not cover the sieves. See the grinding circuit. These may be stator
also Bare bolting. pins between circular rows of pins on
the rotor disc, or they may be two rotors
Overs or Overtails: Particles that pass operating in opposite directions, thereby
over a sieve. securing an increased speed differential.
Paddy table: A machine that separates Pin milling: Grinding with a pin mill.
mainly by specific gravity but also by
the differences in the resilience or Pitch, of flutes: The number of corru-
bounce of hulled and unhulled grain. It gations per circumferential linear inch
consists of a rectangular deck supported on a roll.
by rocking legs and oscillated by an Plansifter: A gyrating bolting machine,
eccentric. The table is divided into zig- the sieves of which are plane or level.
zag compartments by light metal strips Flights projecting at intervals arrest the
about 3 in. deep, running at right angles circular movement of stock on the sieve
to the direction of oscillation. The incli- and forward it to a subsequent sieve.
nation of the table and the speed of Pneumatic conveying: A systematic
oscillation can be adjusted to move the arrangement of tubes, valves, fans, air
denser, less resilient material down the compressors, cyclones, and dust col-
slope and the lighter, more resilient lectors designed to convey grain, mill
material up it. stocks, and finished products by utilizing
Particle size index (PSI): An indicator of the carrying power of moving air.
wheat milling performance associated with Powder (wheat): Pulverized wheat that
wheat hardness and flour granularity. PSI results when the wheat kernel is not at
is calculated as the percent of a wheat meal optimum physical condition for milling.
sample ground on a Labconco mill passing Undesirable because bran powder, equal
through a 425µm screen. As PSI number in particle size to endosperm, might end
increases, the particle size of the flour, or up in the flour.
granulation, decreases.
Prebreak: An impactor or conventional
Patent flour: That “cut” of flour (com- roller mill modified and installed ahead
bination of flour streams) from the front of the regular first break rolls to flatten,
or head end of the mill; contains lower split, or otherwise open the wheat or
ash and protein, shows good dress and other grain.
color, and has the highest market value.
Primary root: The root of the wheat
Peak time: The time required for the plant that initiates the growth of the
farinograph curve to reach its full devel- plant root system. It starts to grow
opment or maximum consistency. Long simultaneously with the plumule or
peak times are usually associated with primary leaf.
strong wheats.
Probe: Device used to obtain a repre-
Pearling: The process of stripping the sentative sample from stationary grain.
outer bran from the wheat. Can be either a hand probe or a
Pearling value: The percent of original mechanical probe.
sample remaining over a 20-mesh wire Protein curve: see Cumulative ash curve
MILLING TERMS 469
Purifier: Machine developed for the developed, and the kernels are still
removal of unattached bran from mid- green and contain a milky fluid. The
dlings, while at the same time grading deposition of the starch is at its high-
the middlings into several fractions by est. Moisture content is ~50%.
size. Yellow ripe: The stage (~40 days
Rebolter: Machine for resifting of the after fertilization) when the green
flour from the various sifter sections of shade of the kernels is changing to
the mill. yellow brown. The kernel, already
Red dog: A low-grade flour, a mixture solid, is no longer dependent on the
of endosperm and bran taken from the plant, and no more nutrients are
tail of the mill, which is intermediate transferred to the kernel. Moisture
between low grade and feed. content is ~30–40%.
Reduction: The process of turning Complete ripe: The stage (~45 days
wheat endosperm into flour. after fertilization) when the physical
and chemical characteristics of the
Reduction flour: Flour gained from the kernels are fixed. Moisture content is
reduction system in the mill. ~20%.
Reduction rolls: Usually smooth rolls, Dead ripe: The stage at which the
running at a speed ratio of 1.5 to 1, used brittle kernel is ready to fall from the
to reduce endosperm to flour. ear.
Redust sifter: A secondary sifter that
Roll configuration: Specifications
removes flour from the fine middlings
related to grinding roll surfaces, such as
from a primary sifter.
action, spiral, and differential.
Redusting: Resifting to secure more
complete separation of particles, usually Roll gap: see Gap.
flour, out of stocks incompletely sepa- Roll stand: A double roller mill con-
rated by a preceding sifter. taining two pairs of cylindrical rolls
Reel: A sifting device consisting of a rotating toward each other.
rotating cylinder with peripheral sides Roller milling: Grinding of wheat
made up of ribs, to which are attached between casted rolls.
bolting cloths.
Rust: A disease caused by the fungal
Relative humidity: Ratio of the amount genus Puccinia. Can cause loss of up to
of water vapor actually present in the air 90% of the affected wheat crop. Differ-
to the greatest amount possible at the ent races attack parts of the wheat plant,
same temperature. Contrasts with abso- especially during hot weather. For
lute humidity, the weight of water vapor example, leaf rust attacks the leaves by
per unit volume, grams per cubic centi- creating orange-yellow patches that
meter, or pounds per cubic foot interfere with the photosynthesis of the
Rheological properties: Plastic proper- plant.
ties of dough during mixing, fermenta- Saltation viscosity: An inherent mate-
tion, and other treatments before baking. rial characteristic that equals the actual
Ring: Stock clinging to the roll surface air velocity in a horizontal pipeline from
in a circumferential line around the roll, which particles mixed homogeneously
usually caused by excessive grinding with the conveying air begin to fall out
pressure, malfunctioning of a roll of the air-material stream.
cleaner, or a combination of the two. Sampler (automatic): Any mechanical
Ripe stages of wheat device that automatically draws a repre-
Milk ripe: The stage (~25–30 days sentative grain sample from a wheat
after fertilization) when the germ is stream at set intervals.
470 MILLING TERMS
Scalp: The particles passing over the change of wheat mix. Subsequently, the
largest-aperture screen in a set of sieves flour is fed slowly back into the main
in a sifter section. flour stream during regular production.
Scalper: A sifting device designed to Shelf life: The length of time a pack-
remove only the coarsest material from aged product can be stored without
a ground product. deterioration.
Screen: A surface made out of woven Shorts: An inseparable mixture of bran,
wire, silk or plastic cloth, or a perfo- endosperm, and germ that remains after
rated or punched plate. Used to separate flour extraction (milling) has been com-
a mixture of various-sized grains into pleted; used for animal feed.
two portions. Shrinkage or disappearance: Losses of
Screenings: Undesirable, nonmillable wheat during production due to factors
materials such as dust, hulls, foreign such as moisture loss; losses to dust,
grain, weed seeds, cracked grain, rocks, microflora, insects, and broken bags;
and other impurities removed from the overpacking; and cleanout losses. Also
grain in the wheat-cleaning section wheat in inventory but not on hand due to
before milling. theft, loss, or accounting error.
Screw conveyor: A conveyor consisting Shrunken and broken kernels: All
of a spiral flighting mounted on a pipe; matter that passes through a 0.064- ×
is either right-hand or left-hand to suit 3/8-in. oblong-hole sieve (minimum
the screw’s rotational direction and the portion size = 250 g).
desired direction of material travel. The Sick wheat: Wheat in which the germ is
flighting may be replaced with a con- discolored and dead.
tinuous helix. The screw is placed in a
trough supported by bearings. Sieve: A unit composed of a fIat-surface
screen cloth, a screen cloth frame,
Scutellum: A part of the wheat kernel; a cleaners, and the surrounding support
feeding organ for the development of structure. Can be placed one on top of
the embryonic axis. It contains some another for a vertical flow or end-to-end
materials that are used as nutrients for for a horizontal flow, making up a
the germinating seed. multiple-sieve sifter flow.
Seed coat: A very thin part of the bran. Sieving to an end point: A practical
Its cellular structure is difficult to method of determining particle size
observe; in wheat, four layers have been distribution of flour.
distinguished. It acts as a semiperme-
able membrane, controlling the kind of Sifter: In principle, any machine that
molecules that can pass through it and utilizes a flat-surface sieve to separate
the rate at which they can enter the seed. particle sizes. In practice, those
machines that make fine-particle separa-
Self-balancing mechanism: A mechanism tions through the use of finely meshed
that contains two fly-wheels that balance screens as opposed to screeners, which
each other while shaking the driven are used for the cleaning of grains.
machine.
Silo: see Elevator.
Semolina: A coarse separation of
endosperm extracted from durum wheat Sizings: The coarsest separation of
that is used to make pasta products. endosperm, which requires intermediate
Sometimes refers to the larger portions reduction before being reduced to flour.
of endosperm released during the break- Slicking of flours: The “slick test” is
ing process. made by pressing one or more samples
Set-off bins: Flour bins used to divert the of flour on a paddle with a highly pol-
flour during mill start-up, shutdown, or ished steel miller's “slick.” The test is
MILLING TERMS 471
used for judging granulation, dress, and surface of the grinding roll. It can be
color of the flour. The “wet slick” test, expressed in inches per linear foot of
sometimes called the “Pekar test,” is roll length, in percentage deviation from
made by submerging the dry slick in the horizontal, or in degrees from the
water and then drying. horizontal. Generates a shearing action.
Slow roll: The one in a pair of rolls run- Split milling: Dividing the numerous
ning at the lower speed. flour streams in a milling system into
Slug: A unit of mass. As an example more than one kind of flour, based on
using the American system, 1 lb is the protein content, flour color, and ash. For
force acting on a mass of one slug that example, production of patent, first
will accelerate the body by 1 ft/sec each clear, and second clear flours from one
second. In the centimeter-gram-second wheat at the same time.
system, the dyne is a force acting on a Spouts: Metal tubes for passage of mill
mass of 1 g that will accelerate it 1 stocks by gravity.
cm/sec each second. Static pressure: The potential pressure
Smutty wheat: Wheat that, in a 250-g exerted in all directions by a fluid at
portion, contains smut balls, portions of rest; usually expressed in inches of
smut balls, or spores of smut in excess water gauge when dealing with air. The
of a quantity equal to 30 smut balls of static pressure can be positive or nega-
average size. tive with respect to the local atmos-
Specific heat: The amount of heat per pheric pressure.
unit mass required to raise the tempera- Stator: The circular disc in a pin mill or a
ture by one degree Celsius. disc mill that does not rotate.
Speck count: A measurement of dark Stock: Any given stream of in-process
specks in mill products such as flour, material in a mill.
farina, and semolina. A Plexiglass grid is Straight-grade flour: A flour formed
placed over the semolina, and the operator from the combined streams of a mill.
then counts the brown and black specks in
Surge bin: A bin above and below a
a given number of squares. Specks come
batch-type machine (for example, a
from the germ, diseased wheat, seeds,
scale) to eliminate fluctuation in the
discolored wheat kernels, stones, and bran
flow of material.
contamination. Especially in semolina,
their maximum number per area is Sweating: Moisture changes that occur
specified by the mill customer. Black between the time the wheat is threshed
specks are undesirable to the pasta or combined and the time it reaches the
manufacturer because they are noticeable mill. In some areas the term “in the
in the finished macaroni. Bran particles sweat” is used to describe the occur-
cause spaghetti to break after drying. rence of free moisture or “sweat” on the
grain after harvest when the wheat is
Spike: About 20 spikelets that are stacked before threshing.
arranged on the top of the wheat stem,
making up the ear or spike. Swing mill: A mill deigned to alternately
process two or more kinds of wheat.
Spikelet: A portion of the young wheat
ear, composed of two empty, boatshaped Tail (noun): The end or the inferior part
glumes, from which two to eight florets of a system.
grow. At the base of each floret is an Tail (verb): To go over the tail end of a
ovary, which, after fertilization, grows sieve.
and forms a grain of wheat. Tail-end breaks: The last breaks in the
Spiral: The amount of slope from the milling process. Fourth and fifth breaks
horizontal that a corrugation has on the are considered tail-end breaks.
472 MILLING TERMS
Tailings: 1) Any stock that is rejected kernels gives an indication of the kernel
from a machine. For example, the overs density and consequent flour yield
that tail at the end of the reel, in sieving. potential.
2) A mill separation that is high in bran Throat (sieve): The channel opening at
content. the tail of the screen through which the
Temperature, dry-bulb: The temper- overs exit.
ature of the air. Throughs: Any material sifted through
Temperature, wet-bulb: The temper- a screen.
ature of the air when it is saturated with Throw: The diameter of the circular
moisture. This is known as the dew point path that a gyrating sifter inscribes on
temperature when moisture is condensed the sieve surface.
to liquid from the vapor state. Total pressure: The algebraic sum of
Tempering (cold, warm): The stage of the velocity pressure and the static pres-
conditioning in which a controlled rest sure (with due regard to sign).
period of the wheat in bins (silos) allows Tramming: The process of aligning the
penetration of added water into the kernels. two rolls in a set so that the grinding
Tempering conveyor: A modified screw line extends across the entire length of
conveyer for adding water, or steam plus the rolls.
water, to wheat. Treated wheat: Wheat that has been
Test weight (kg/hl): A quality test to scoured, limed, washed, sulfured, or
determine the per-bushel weight in kilo- treated in such a manner that the true
grams per hectoliter. (For calculations, quality is not reflected by either the U.S.
numerical grade or the U.S. Sample
see the Conversion Factors section.)
grade designation.
Test weight (lb/bu): A quality test to Underbolting: Also called under-
determine the per-bushel weight, i.e., the sifted. A condition that occurs when
weight of a volume bushel. Expressed in insufficient sieve area is allocated for
pounds of grain per Winchester bushel, the separation or sieve aperture is too
determined by an approved device after fine. In either case, the material that
the removal of dockage. passes over the screen contains particle
Test weight (legal) of wheat in trade: sizes smaller than the sieve aperture.
60 lb/bu. Vapor pressure: Pressure exerted by a
Testa: The innermost bran cells that vapor that is in equilibrium with its
surround the whole kernel, including the solid or liquid form.
germ. This layer includes pigments that Velocity pressure: The kinetic pressure
color the grain. in the direction of flow necessary to
Thermal conductivity: The property of cause a fluid at rest to flow at a given
a material that allows heat transfer by velocity. Usually expressed in inches of
conduction, involving the transfer of water gauge.
energy within the material without any Vitreousness: The condition of being
motion of the material as a whole. glassy in appearance.
Thermal diffusivity: A measure of Washer: A machine that uses water to
transient heat flow, defined as the ther- remove loose dirt from grain that may
mal conductivity divided by the product be difficult or impossible to remove by
of specific heat times density. dry cleaning methods.
Thousand-kernel weight: A quality test Water gauge (WG): A term used after
applied to wheat to determine its poten- numerical pressure figures that means the
tial milling value. The weight of 1,000 figure is calculated in terms of inches of
MILLING TERMS 473
water obtained from the differential water in milling machines to separate material
levels of the two legs of a manometer. according to particle size.
(Example: 2.0 in. WG.) XX: A designation of the strength of
Weevily wheat: Wheat that is infested silk sieves. Double extra (XX), is
with live weevils or other insects injuri- stronger than single extra (X) and less
ous to stored grain. See Infested wheat. than treble extra (XXX). As a result of
Whole wheat flour: Flour made by differences in thread strength, there are
grinding cleaned wheat into a granular differences in aperture and percent open
flour without the removal of bran and area.
germ. Yield, flour: The amount of wheat, in
Wire: Sifting material made out of thin bushels, required to produce 100 lb (1
wire threads; used as covers on frames cwt) of straight-grade flour.
SUGGESTED READING
Anonymous. 1970. Glossary of Milling erican Feed Association, Inc.,

Terms. Assoc. Oper. Millers Tech. Arlington, VA.
Bull., Aug., p. 3184 Nelson, A. L., 2001. High-Fiber
Association of Operative Millers. 1994. Ingredients. Am. Assoc. Cereal
Cereal Millers Handbook. The Asso- Chem., St. Paul, MN.
ciation, Leawood, KS. Stoate, D. 1981. The Millers Manual.
Committee on Industrial Ventilation, 1988. Printing and Graphic Services, Ltd.
Industrial Ventilation 20th ed. Amer- Bristol, England.
ican Conference of Governmental Wingfield, J. 1989. Dictionary of Mill-
Industrial Hygienists, Cincinnati, OH. ing Terms and Equipment. Associa-
McEllhiney, R. R., Ed. 1985. Feed tion of Operative Millers, Leawood,
Manufacturing Technology III. Am- KS.
WEB SITES FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION
GIPSA, USDA:
www.usda.gov/agency/gipsa/pubs/97ex.pdf
Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP):
www.access.gpo.gov/nara/cfr/waisidx_02/21cfr110_02.html
Conversion Factors
Bushels of wheat to metric tons: multiply by 0.0272155
One metric ton (t) equals:
2,204.622 pounds (lb)
22.046 hundredweights (cwt)
10 quintals
Mill capacity, cwt to ton of wheat: multiply by 0.0605
Specific weight of wheat: kg/hl = lb/bu × 1.292 + 1.419
Specific weight of durum: kg/hl = lb/bu × 1.292 + 0.630
where lb/bu = pounds/bushel and kg/hl = kilograms/hectoliter
Weights, volumes, and prices used in wheat processing:
U.S. wheat is priced in $US per bushel (60 lb/bu).
U.S. bran and mill feed is priced in $US per U.S. ton (2,000 lb).
European wheat is priced in Euro per ton (1,000 kg).
Conversion Table
To convert to Multiply by
Atmospheres pound per in.² (psi) 14.7
Bushel U.S. (Winchester) in.³ 2,150.42
Bushel U.S. (Winchester) ft³ 1.245
Bushel (Imperial) in.³ 2,218.192
Bushel (Imperial) ft³ 1.283.7
Cwt flour per day ton of wheat to 1st BK 0.0605
Hundred weight (cwt) kg 45.359
Liters in.³ 61.0356
U.S. gallons liters 3.7854
Mill equipment
Roll surface: in/cwt fl./24 hr mm/100 kg wheat/24 hr 41.998
Sifter area: ft²/cwt fl./24 hr m²/100 kg wheat/24 hr 0.1536
Purifier width: in/cwt fl./24 hr mm/100 kg wheat/24 hr 41.998
Weights
Metric ton (U.S.) pounds 2204.5855
Long ton (U.K.) metric tons 1.016047
Pounds (U.S.) grams 453.6
Short ton (U.S.) metric tons 0.90719
Short ton (U.S.) (U.S.) pounds 2,000
475
476 CONVERSIONS
Equivalencies
1 g = 0.03527 U.S. ounce (oz) 1 metric ton (t) = 1.102 U.S. short tons
28.35 g = 1 U.S. oz =2,000 lb
1 kg = 2.20462 pounds (lb) 0.90719 t = 1 U.S. short ton
0.4536 kg = 1 lb 1 t = 0.98421 U.S. long ton = 2,205 lb
1 quintal (q) = (100 kg) = 220.5 lb 1.016 t = 1 U.S. long ton
45.36 kg = 1 U.S. hundredweight (cwt) 11,000 cwt = 499 t in term of flour
= 100 lb
Index
AACC methods, 10, 50, 53, 55, 59, 62, 73, online NIR reflectance analysis, 299
85, 89–90, 91–92, 99–100 patent flour, 37
Abrasion and abrasive machines, 5, 28, 199– sampling for, 107–108, 298
200 testing prior to storage, 108–110
Absorption. See Water absorption Andreasen pipette sedimentation method,
Additives, 314–315, 401 312
Aeration, 111, 127–130, 382–383 Argentina, 18
Agtron color meter, 84–85 Artificial intelligence, 400–401
Air, elevator requirements, 104–105 Ash
Air circuit conditioners, 172 break releases, 409
Air classification and classifiers, 303–313 data collection for calculation, 78
Air currents, for separation, 155–157 defined, 4–5, 19
Air locks, 379–380, 428 endosperm, 4–5
Air pressure, 368–370, 372 flour mills, 413–414
Air separation. See Air classification wheat quality parameter, 19–20
Air stabilization systems, 335, 380–382 Ash content
Air systems flour extraction, 26, 73–74, 79
airflow, 377, 392 mill products, 413–414
compressed air, 393–394 straight flour, 74
conveying lines, 376–377 wheat, 19–20
equipment, 372–380 whole wheat flour, 20
fans, blowers, compressors, 372–375 Ash curve index, 80
flour milling, 365–394 Ash curves. See also Tests and testing
future trends, 394 flour, 73–74, 80, 413–414
horsepower, 375–376 hard wheat, 36
pressure losses, 391 kernel size, 25
separating equipment, 377–380 from testing procedures, 26
Air velocity, 366, 370–371, 373, 390–391 Ash values, 19, 78–80
Air volume, 371–372, 375 Asphyxiation, as pest control, 302
Aleurone, in bran, 5 Aspiration and aspirators, 53, 104–105, 155–
Alkaline water retention capacity (AWRC), 157, 199
362 Association of Official Analytical Chemists
Alphega system, in roller mills, 213 (AOAC), 50
Alpine air sifter, 311 Association of Operative Millers (AOM).
Alveograms, 93 See International Association of Operative
Alveographs, 93–94 Millers (IAOM)
American Association of Cereal Chemists Australia
(AACC), 50, 57 impact mills, 191–192
American Institute of Baking, 448 wheat grading and classes, 15–16
Amylographs, 94 Australian Wheat Board, 15, 46
Analysis. See also Flour quality; Tests and
testing; Wheat quality Bacterial growth, during storage, 125
flow diagram, 109 Baits or trap, for pest control, 302–303
477
478 INDEX
Bakeries, mills integrated with, 287–288 Break systems, 25, 212–215

Bakers’ flour, quality control, 439 Brush, 6. See also Wheat kernels
Baking tests, 95. See also Tests and testing Bucket elevators, 117–118, 425
Ball mills, 192–193 Buhler laboratory mill, 58, 62–63, 76, 77
Barley pearler, 28 Bulk flour containers, 322–324
Barometric pressure, 49-50, 367 Bulk flour load-out system, 323
Batch mixing, 297 Burr stone furrows, 187
Beeswings, 157
Bellera (Molinostar) milling system, 281–282 Cadelle, 300
Belt classifiers, 157 Cake flour, 358–361
Belt conveyors, 118–119 Cake mixes, flour for, 317
Belt weigher, schematic diagram, 297 Calcium, 413
Bemis open-mouth bag packer, 320 Canada
Bins. See also Storage maintenance and safety in mills, 433,
flow, 115–116 434
inlet distribution, 114 wheat grading and classes, 15
outlets, 114–116 wheat varieties, 2
storage, 112–116 Canadian Grain Commission (CGC), 15
surge bins, 103 Canadian Western red spring wheat, 170
tempering, 176–177 Canadian Wheat Board, 46
thermal properties, 112 CARE preventive maintenance, 422
Biological hazards, in mill products, 442 Carousel-type packer, 319
Blending. See also Flour-handling systems Carter-Day dockage tester, 9, 15
equipment, 116 Carter dockage tester, 55
flour blending, 294–297 CDI, 77
premix program, 135 Chain conveyors, 121
and storage, 1, 101, 102, 116, 134–136, Chemical Emergency Preparedness and
294–297 Prevention (CEPP), 448
Blendvane discharger, 296 Chemical hazards, 442
Blowers, maintenance, 428 China, 18
Bob-tail unit, 284 Chopin, Tripette & Renaud, 55
Boerner divider, 107, 108 Chopin alveograph, 18, 93–94
Booster unit, 284 Chopin laboratory mills, 65, 166
Brabender (C. W.), 56 Chopin SDmatic, 89
Brabender Quadrumat Jr. laboratory mill, Chung and Pfost equation, 128
59–60 Cleaning and cleaners. See also
Brabender Quadrumat Sr. laboratory mill, Conditioning and conditioners
60–62, 77 air systems, 383–385
Bran, 1, 4, 5, 88-89. See also Wheat kernels central vacuum-cleaning system, 273
Bran dusters, 70, 73 critical control points, 443
Bran finishers, 195–196 durum wheat milling, 331–333
Bran specks, 88–89 flow sheets for cleaning houses, 178–180
Branscan speck counter, 89 future trends, 180–181
Break releases generally, 141–181
adjustments, 407–409 grain cleaners, 54
affected by kernel size, 24 maintenance, 424–425
controlling, 403 preconditioned wheat, 178
cumulative, and ash, 409 prior to storage, 110–111
durum wheat mills, 337 roll cleaners, 210–211
experimental milling, 72 sieve cleaners, 232–235
hard wheat mills, 337 unmillable material, 141–144
schematic explanation, 408 wheat washing, 155
soft wheat mills, 357 Clear flour, 19
wheat kernels, size, affect, 22 Club wheat, stock production, 34
INDEX 479
Co-worker hazards, 442 generally, 116–122

Code of Federal Regulation (CFR), 327 maintenance, 425
Color. See also Flour color; Wheat color pneumatic, 121–122, 372, 385–394
discoloration, 347 screw conveyors, 119–120
durum wheat, 346 space requirements, 116
equipment, 84–85 tempering conveyors, 175
flour extraction, 75 Cookie flour, 361–162
heat-damaged wheat, 12 Cooking tests, for semolina, 348. See also
Kent Jones color value, 79 Tests and testing
meters, 84–85 Corrective maintenance, 420
mill products, 83–84, 346 Coulter counter, 312
quality parameter, 83–84 Count-A-Pak seed counter, 20
semolina, 346 Critical control points (CCP), 441–445. See
separation by, 161–163 also Hazardous/Hazard analysis and
sorting and sorters, 161–163, 332 critical control points (HACCP)
wheat kernels, 3 Critical velocity, 390–391
Colorado wheat, monetary values, 82 Cutting machines, 193–195
Combined (swing) mill flow, 281 Cutting mills, 221
Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Cyclone dust collectors, maintenance, 428
Research Organization (CSIRO), 140 Cylinder separators, 151, 153
Compact mill flow, 283
Compressed air, 393–394 Damaged wheat, 5, 8, 143–144. See also
Computers Starch damage
aid to maintenance staff, 431–432 Debranning and debranners, 196, 197, 199, 284
computer-aided design (CAD) software, Deep Getchell/Getchell cuts, 338
270 Defects, as grading factor, 8, 14
flour mill/experimental laboratories, 50, Demographics, and global wheat transport, 1
82 Desert durum, 335
online quality control, 298 Design. See Mills and milling, design
reports/reporting, 455 Desorption, during storage, 130
roll gap control, 217 Destoners, 153–154
Condensation, 324 Dialectric constant, 160
Conditioning and conditioners. See also Dirt, as hazard in mill products, 442
Cleaning and cleaners Disc mills, 195, 221, 286–287
air circuit conditioner, 172 Disc separators, 150, 153
approaches to, 177 Distribution tables, 410–412
automated, 402 Dockage, and grades/grading, 7, 9. See also
durum wheat milling, 333–335 Wheat sampling
equipment, 174–176 Dosing. See Blending
generally, 141, 163-171 Dough behavior, 92
and heat, 171–174 Drag conveyors, 120–121
laboratory mill consideration, 77 Dry bulb temperature, 366
prior to storage, 111–112 Dry destoning and destoners, 154
and temperature, 171–174 Drying, during storage, 130–133
theory of, 163–171 Durum wheat. See also Durum wheat mills
Confused flour beetle, 300 and milling; Semolina
Conveying and conveyors. See also specific color, 346
equipment/conveyors Desert durum, 335
air pressure systems, 372 falling number, 348
belt conveyors, 118–119 gluten content, 348
chain conveyors, 121 grinding releases, 339
drag conveyors, 120–121 heat damage, 12
energy consumption, 116 major uses, 330
equipment, 116–122 quality, 330–331
480 INDEX
stock production, 34 Episperm, in bran, 5

test weight (TW), 10 Ergot (fungus), 14, 144, 333
U.S. class, 7 Ethyl formate, for killing insects, 133
Durum wheat mills and milling. See also Europe
Durum wheat; Semolina food safety regulations, 442
air stabilization systems, 335 maintenance and safety in mills, 432–
break releases, 337–338 433
breaking stages, 337–338 wheat grading and classes, 17–18
cleaning, 331–333 Experimental mills and milling. See also
conditioning, 333–335 Flour mill laboratories
flow for durum, with paddy table, 332 batch-type, 66, 68, 76–77, 82
generally, 329–348 break releases, 72
machine specifications, 336 data sheet, 81
product quality, 343–348 evaluations, 78–81
purification, 340–343 example, 69–75
repeats (runaround), 341–343 generally, 51–53, 66–77
semolina extraction, 336–337, 343 special adaptations, 75–77
sieving, 340 wheat milling quality, 77
sizings systems, 338–340 Expert system. See Artificial intelligence
Dust, as hazard in mill products, 442. See Extensigraphs, 92–93
also Dust control; Dust explosions Extraction, flour. See Flour extraction
Dust control Extraneous matter, in flour, tests, 91–92. See
air systems, 384–385 also Foreign material; Infestation
emission programs, 446
lubricants for, 421 Falling number (FN)
during storage, 104–105 Australian wheat, 16
Dust explosions, 384–385 durum wheat, 348
French wheat, 18
Electric motors, maintenance, 423–244 wheat quality parameter, 32–33
Electrical conductivity, 160 Fans, maintenance, 428
Electrostatic separation, 160–161 Farina, 329
Elevators, 1, 101–102. See also Storage Farinographs, 27, 92, 347
air requirements, 104–105 Farrand procedures, 89–90
bucket elevators, 117–118 Federal Drug Administration (FDA)
conveying equipment, 116–122 Center for Food Safety and Nutrition,
EPA regulation, Web site, 448 327
facilities and equipment, 102–110 Office of Regulatory Affairs, 327
lubricants, 421 Federal Grain Inspection Service (FGIS), 9
maintenance, 425 Filling hoppers, 11
Embryo, in wheat germ, 5–6 Filter dust collectors, 378–379
Emigration, and global wheat transport, 1 Filters, maintenance, 427
End-products. See also Mill products; Pasta; Filth tests, 91, 301
specific products Financial management, of mills, 457–458
mineral content, 413 Fire protection, 432–433
quality, 343–348 Fisher subsieve sizer, 312
utilization, 31 Flat grain beetle, 300
Endosperm, 1, 3, 4–5, 303. See also Wheat Flour. See also Flour mill laboratories; Flour
kernels mills and milling
Entoletor, impact machine, 160 cake flour, 317, 358–361
Entoleter scourer aspirators, 199 characteristics, 36, 37, 303–306
Environmental considerations, 48-50, 380- cookie flour, 361–362
382, 439-440, 442 enrichment, additives, ingredients, 314–
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 315
440, 446, 448 extraneous matter in, 91–92
INDEX 481
fine grinding, 309–311 environment, 380–382

loading and shipping, 322–324 food safety and hygiene, 435–446
moisture content, 317–318, 334 lubricants for dust control, 421
oxidation, 315 staffing and organization, 429, 449–455
packaging, 318–322 Flour quality, 1, 10, 83, 298, 439
particle size, 86–87, 303–306, 311–313 Flour rebolting, during sieving process, 254–
pH, 91 455
protein content, 304–306 Flour stabilization, 315–317
reconstituted, 313–314 Flour yield, 4, 33-34. See also Flour
rheological properties, 22 extraction
shelf life, 314 Food and Consumer Products Manufacturers
whole wheat flour, 313 of Canada (FCPMC), 448
Flour agitators, 292 Food and Drug Administration (FDA), 91–
Flour ash/wheat ash (FA/WA) ratio, 78–79 92, 301, 313, 314, 329, 364, 422
Flour beetles (Tribolium), 436 Food safety, in flour mills, 95, 435–446
Flour color, 83–84 Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS), 448
Flour dough, behavior, 92 Foreign material. See also Extraneous matter
Flour drying and dryers, 317–318 characteristics, 143
Flour extraction. See also Flour yield cleaning, 142–143
ash content, 26, 73–74, 79 grading factor, 13–14
ash curves, 73–74 hazard in mill products, 442
ash values, 79 moisture, 404
broken and shrunken kernels, 13 as unmillable, 142–143
color grade, 75 Fragment content, 293
flow sheets, 71–72 France, wheat grading and classes, 17–18
Flour-handling systems, 291–324 Freeze-outs (subzero temperatures), 436
Flour mill laboratories. See also Froude number, 389–392
Experimental mills and milling; Flour; Fumigation and fumigants, 126–127, 302,
Flour mills and milling 437
automatic, 56 Fungi, 14, 125, 144, 333, 355
characteristics, 57, 77 Funnel flow, 115–116
communications and computers, 50 Fusarium graminearum, 125
environmental conditions, 48–50
evaluations, 78–82 Gamet automatic sampler, 107
examples, 59–65 Gap roll adjustments, 67–68, 218
facilities, 47–48 Garlicky wheat, 14, 354–355
flour testing, 77 General Mills, Inc., 281
flow sheets, 71–72 Germ, wheat, 1, 5–6, 347. See also Wheat
fully automatic, 56 kernels
generally, 47–95 Germination, 5–6
layout/floor plans, 47–48 Getchell cuts, 38
locations, 47 Glass, as hazard in mill products, 442
procedures and methods, 50, 57–59 Gluten
quality assessment, 83–95 durum wheat, 348
selection of mills, 77 gluten index, 90
small-scale units, 56 insect pests, 91
wheat conditioning, 77 protein content, 26
wheat preparation, 53–56 weakened, 12
wheat quality parameters, 50–51 wet, 90–91
Flour mills and milling. See also Flour mill Glutomatic, 90
laboratories; Mills and milling; Wheat Good manufacturing practices (GMPs), and
mills and milling; specific mills food safety, 435, 440
air-handling systems, 365–394 Grades and grading. See Wheat grades and
controls and tests, 451 grading
482 INDEX
Grain. See Wheat Hard red winter (HRW) wheat, 75

Grain Elevator and Processing Society ash content, 74
(GEAPS), 395 ash curves, 36
Grain elevators. See Elevators characteristics, 36
Grain Inspection, Packers and Stockyards color grade, 75
Administration (GIPSA), 8, 10, 13, 18, 46, heat damage, 12
54, 123, 144 stock production, 34
Grain Inspection Handbook, 13 U.S. class, 7
Granary weevil, 300 Hard wheat, 34-40, 357. See also specific
Granulation and granules. See also Particle hard wheat, e.g. Hard red spring wheat
size Hard wheat mills and milling, 336-337
defined, 251 Hard white wheat, U.S. class, 7
granulation curve, 412 Hard winter wheat, grinding releases, 339
and product quality, 344–346 Harvests and harvesting, 1-2, 101-102. See
semolina, 344–346 also Critical control points (CCP)
and sieving process, 223, 235, 251–255 flour/experimental mill laboratories, 50,
and temperature, 49 95
Gravimetric feeder systems, 296–297 flour milling industry, 441–446
Gravity, wheat kernel constituents, 4 food safety, 435, 440, 441–446
Gravity flow, 274–275 good warehousing practices, 440
Gravity separators, 153 product purity, 181
Gravity tables, 153–155, 157, 383 Web sites, 448, 460
Great Western Manufacturing (GWM), 239, Head millers, 451–453
257 Health hazards, possible in mill products,
Grinder duties, 452 442
Grinding and grinders. See also Roller mills Heat. See also Temperature; Thermal
bran finishers, 195–196 properties
break system, 212–215 and conditioning, 171–174
cutting machines, 193–195 and insect/infestation control, 124–125,
debranners, 196, 197, 199 436
factors, 201–212 spontaneous, 128–129
fine grinding and air classification of and storage, 112–114, 124–125
flour, 303–313 Heat damage, 12–13, 101
future trends, 219 Hectoliter weight, 4, 10, 11
gap adjustments, 67–68, 218 Hegman grind gauge, 312
generally, 185–219 Hoppers, 11, 103, 115
machines and equipment, 186–196 Horiba CAPA-300, 313
prebreak operation, 196–200 Horizontal scourers, 158
principal forces of, 185 Hot spots, aeration for, 127–130
reduction systems, 216–219 Humidity. See Relative humidity
roll adjustments, 58–59 Hundredweight, 270
sizing systems, 215–216 Hydration, semolina, 347
stages in milling of wheat, 277, 336, 398 Hydrators, 165
systems, 185 Hygiene, in flour mills, 435–446
tailings systems, 219 Hysteresis, 129–130
Grinding releases, 339
Grinding stone dress, 285 ICC. See International Association for
Grist and gristing, 134 Cereal Science and Technology (ICC)
Grit and specks, and product quality, 346–347 ICC standard methods, 50, 89, 100
Grits gauze, 232 Identity-known wheat, 102
Gyrating sifters, 224–226, 228, 236–239 Identity-preserved (IP) wheat, 2
Image analysis, 27
Hammer mills, 192–193, 314 Impact machines/Impactors, 160, 198–199,
Hard red spring (HRS) wheat, 7, 12, 36 293, 300, 301
INDEX 483
Impact mills, 191–192 Laboratories. See Flour mill laboratories

Impurities, methods of separating, 144–163 Lesser grain borer, 300
See also Purifiers and purification Life styles, and global wheat transport, 1
Indented cylinder separators, 151 Light smutty wheat, 14
Indian meal moth, 300 Lights-out milling, 272, 458
Infestation. See also Extraneous matter; Lubrication and bearing maintenance, 421–
Foreign material; Pest control 422
controlling during storage, 123–124, 133
controlling in flour mills, 293, 298, 300– Magnesium, 413
303, 435–437 Magnetic separators, 145–146
gluten damage, 91 Maintenance. See Mills and milling,
impact machines, 293 maintenance
Ingredients feeders, 292 Management. See Mills and milling,
Insect-growth regulators, 302–303 management
Insecticides, 302 Manitoba spring wheat, 49
Insects. See Infestation Manometers, 369
Intensive tempering conveyors, 175 Martin color grader, 84
Intermediate stocks, testing of, 405–417 Maztech SPX Speck Expert, 89
International Association for Cereal Science Media screens, 257
and Technology (ICC), 50 Megazyme International, 100
International Association of Operative Megazyme test kits for starch damage, 89
Millers (IAOM) Metal, as hazard in mill products, 442
Food Protection Committee, 440 Methods and procedures, 50, 57-59, 99–100
Technical Committee, 271, 276 Miag Co., 56
International Grain Council, 46 Miag laboratory mill, 63–65, 76, 77
International Organization for Miag Vario experimental roll stand, 76–77
Standardization (ISO), 437–440, 448, 460 Microbiological hazards, in mill products,
See also specific ISO standards 442
International Standards Organization (ISO), Microorganisms, as pest control, 302–303
50, 181, 422 Microtrac particle size analyzer, 312
Irradiation, for insect control, 300, 301–302 Mill design. See Mills and milling, design
ISO 9000, 437-441 Mill flow sheets, 276–284
ISO 9001, 9002, 9003, quality systems, 438 Mill managers, 449–450
ISO 9004, quality management and system Mill products, possible health hazards in,
elements, 438 442. See also End-products
ISO 14000, 14001, environmental Mill rolls, technical features, 69. See also
management, 439–440 Roll mills
ISO 14010, 14011, 14012, environmental Millers, 451–454
auditing, 440 Milling machines, maintenance, 424
ISO 14020/24, environmental labeling, 440 Milling yield, predicted, 4
ISO 14031/32, environmental performance Mills and milling. See also Flour mills and
evaluation, 440 milling; Experimental mills and
ISO 14040/43, life cycle assessment, 440 milling; Wheat mills and milling
ISO standard methods, 50, 95, 100, 181 air control, 403–404
automation, 399–404
Jet mills, 310–311 capacity, 398–399
central vacuum-cleaning system, 273
Kent Jones color grader, 83–84 construction, 270–271, 288
Kent-Jones color value, 79 design, generally, 269–288
Kernels. See Wheat kernels equipment, 274–275
Kice “shortflow” milling unit, 283 extraction control, 402, 409–410
Kice table top aspirator, 53 fire protection, 432–433
flow sheets, 276–284
Labofix laboratory grain cleaner, 54 land requirements, 270
484 INDEX
lighting, 272–273, 274 Nonwheat material. See Dockage

maintenance, generally, 419–433 Nova sieves, 237–238
management, generally, 449–459 Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), 175–
management, models, 456–458 176
power usage, 275–276
process control, 397–417 Occupational Safety and Health
raw materials, 404 Administration (OSHA), 384, 395, 432,
safety, 273, 432–433 434, 440, 448
security, 273 Operational maintenance, 420–422
sensors, 401 Optical bulk sorters, 162
special-purpose mills, 284–288 Oxidation, of flour, 315
stock quality control, 401
technical efficiency, 416–417 Packaging, of flour, 318–322
turn-key design, 269 Packers. See Packaging
windows, 272 Panned-disc mills, 310
Mine Safety Appliances (MSA) Co., 313 Particle size, 86–87, 262–264, 303–306,
Mineral content, 413 311–313. See also Granulation and
Minolta colorimeter, 84 granules
Mixed wheat, U.S. class, 7 Particle size index (PSI), 29, 362
Mixographs, 94 Pasta, quality, 90, 343–348. See also
Modified atmospheres, as chemical pest Semolina
control, 302 Pasta plants, mills integrated with, 287–288
Moisture, 101, 108–109, 125, 128–129. See Patent flour, 19, 37
also Relative humidity Pearling and pearlers, values, 22, 28
ash values, 78 Pekar test, for color, 83
flour, 78, 334 Pericarp (fruit coat), in bran, 5
flour stabilization, 316–317 Pest control, in flour mills, 298, 300–303,
heat damage, 12 435–347. See also Infestation
for milling, 167 Pheromones, as pest control, 302–303
product quality, 344 Phosphorous, 413
rest time, determination, 167 Phostoxin, minimum exposure periods for,
semolina, 344 126
separation of foreign material, 404 Pillsbury Company, HACCP food safety
and storage, 12, 113, 123, 125, 130 program, 442
wheat quality parameter, 18–19 Pin mill, 310
Mold, during storage, 101 Pin mills and milling, 359, 361
Molinostar milling system, 281–282 Pitot tubes, 368
Moody's correlation, 389 Potassium, 413
Morphology, of wheat, 4 Prebreak operations, 196–200. See also
Motomco moisture meter, 18–19 Grinding
Multomat laboratory mill, 63–65, 76, 77 Precleaning. See Cleaning
Preconditioning. See Conditioning
Natick Laboratories, U.S. Army, HACCP Premix programs, for blending, 135
food safety program, 442 Pressure curves (alveograms), 93
National Aeronautics and Space Preventive maintenance, 422–423
Administration (NASA), HACCP food Probes and probing, 8, 106, 127
safety program, 442 Procedures. See Methods and procedures
Near-infrared (NIR) control, 87–88, 166, Process control. See Mills and milling,
401, 415–416 process control
Near-infrared (NIR) hardness, 167 Programmable logic controls/controllers
Near-infrared reflectance (NIRR), 47, 88, (PLCs), 283, 431
109–110, 124, 299, 416 Protein
Near-infrared transmittance (NIRT), 32, 88, in flour, 304–306
109–110 and flour yield, 4
INDEX 485
and gluten yield, 26 differential, as grinding factor, 205–206

in semolina, 348 direction or action, as grinding factor,
and wheat kernel size, 22 206
in wheat kernel spikelets, 3–4 exhaust, 211–212
as wheat quality parameter, 30–32 feeders, 209–210
PSI. See Particle size index (PSI) for grinding, 187–191, 201–212, 221
Purdue University hand, as grinding factor, 207
Agricultural Communication Dept., 140 land, as grinding factor, 208
Cooperative Extension Service, 136 length, as grinding factor, 202
Purification and purifiers. See also maintenance, 425–426
Impurities operation of, 201–212
air systems, 383–385 prebreak mills, 197–198
bran removal from sizings, 38 revolutions per minute, as grinding factor,
defined, 259 208
durum wheat milling, 340–343 roll changing, 212
flow balance, 265–267 roll chills/chill rolls, 202–204
future of, 267 roll cleaners, 210–211
generally, 1, 259–267 roll configurations, 201
maintenance, 427 roll gaps, 201, 217
particle dimensions, 262–263 spiral, as grinding factor, 207
particle specific gravity, 263–264 surface, as grinding factor, 202–204
principles of, 260–264 taper, as grinding factor, 204
purifier surface, 264–265 Roncaglia milling system, 283
Ross experimental milling system, 68
Quality. See Durum wheat, quality; Flour Ross roll stand, 73
quality; Wheat quality Russia
gluten quantity and quality determination,
Rapid Visco-Analyser (RVA), 94–95 91
Recall programs, 445–446 wheat grading and classes, 16–17
Reciprocating sifters, 225–226, 239 Russian Grain Grading, 46
Reconstituted flour, 313–314
Reel sieves/sifters, 226–227, 240–242 Safety, food. See Food safety
Refrigeration, of stored wheat, 132. See also Safety, in mills. See Mills and milling
Temperature Saltation velocity, 366
Relative humidity. See also Moisture Sampling. See also Dockage; Wheat kernels,
defined, 366 size
and flour, moisture content, 334 analysis, 107–108, 298
in mill laboratories, 48–49 automatic, 105–106, 107
and moisture content, 128, 334, 382 elevators, 105–108
during storage, 130 grading, 7–9
Reports and reporting, 450, 455 manual, 105–106
Reynolds number (Re), 388–389 online automatic flour sampler, 299
Risk management, 442 probes, 8, 106
Ro-Tap sieve shaker/sifter, 21 seeds found during, 142
Roll gap, defined, 201 size distribution, 21
Roll surface, 200–201, 202–204 and storage, 105–108
Roller mills. See also Grinding Sanitation standard operating procedures
accessories, 209–212 (SSOPs), 441
Alphega system, 213 Satake Color Grader PCGA, 83–84
automatic engagement/disengagement Satake T-ROLL experimental mill stand, 76,
device, 210 77
centrifugal sifters, 214 Scab (fungus), 125, 355
corrugation, as grinding factor, 205–208 Scalperators, 111
diameter, as grinding factor, 201–202 Scourers, 158, 199
486 INDEX
Screw conveyors, 119–120 Sieve separators, 149

Scutellum, in wheat germ, 5–6 Sieving process. See also Separators and
SDmatic (Chopin), 89 separating; Sifting and sifters; Sorting
Sedimentation, 312–313 and sorters
Seed coat, in bran, 5 centrifugal force, 227–228, 241
Seeds, found during sampling, 142 defined, 223
Sefar Group, media screens, 257 direction of sieve movement, 223, 224–
Semolina. See also Durum wheat; Durum 227
wheat mills and milling durum wheat, 340
absorption, 347 end point, 86, 311
color, 346 flour rebolting, 254–255
cooking tests, 348 flour sieving, 293
defined, 329 frame types, 237
extraction during durum milling, 336– future developments, 255–256
337, 343 generally, 21, 223–256
granulation, 344–346 granulation, 223, 235, 251–255
moisture content, 344 load, 235
product quality, 343–348 mill flow, 406
protein content, 348 Nova sieves, 237–238
specks and grit, 346–347 particle size measurement, 86–87, 311–
temperature, 348 313
Separating and separators. See also Air principles of, 223–235
classification; Sieving process; rate of sieve movement, 223, 227–228,
Sifting and sifters; Sorting and 253
sorters reel sieves, 226–227
by air currents, 155–157 screen acceleration, 223, 228
by color differences, 161–163 screen aperture size and open area, 223,
cylinder separators, 151, 153 229–230, 235
disc separators, 150, 153 screen elongation and tension, 234
by electrostatic characteristics, 160–161 screen-tightening device, 234
of flour, 309 sieve cleaners, 232–235
by friability under impact, 159–160 sieve material and weave, 223, 230–232
by gravity, 153–155 sieve surface and flow, 223, 235, 242–
of impurities, methods for, 144–163 251
insect control, 300–301 square sieves, 236
by length, 148–149 stacking, 243–251, 255
magnetic and nonmagnetic metals, 145– standard specifications, 243
146 surface and flow, 242–251
by shape, 150–153 throw, 227
sieve separators, 149 Sifters and sifting. See also Separators and
by size and dimensions, 146–148 separators; Sieving process; Sorting and
by specific gravity, 153–155 sorters; specific sifters
spiral gravity separators, 153 centrifugal vibrating dust sifters, 241
by surface friction, elasticity, texture, Crossyoke sifter, 239
hardness, 157–159 durum wheat, 340
by width, 148 flow, 243–251
Shelf life, 314 gyrating sifters, 224–226, 228, 236–239
Shift millers, 452, 453–454 maintenance, 426–427
Shipping, of flour, 322–324 reciprocating sifters, 225–226, 239
Shore scelerosope, 204 reel-type sifters, 240–242
Shriveled kernels. See Wheat kernels, sifting materials, comparison, 229–230,
shrunken and broken 231
Sick wheat, from deterioration during test sifters, 405, 406–407
storage, 128 Web sites, 257
INDEX 487
Silos. See Bins; Elevators temperature, 112–114, 123, 127, 132

Single-kernel characterization system thermal properties, 112–114
(SKCS), 29–30, 47, 77 weighing, 102–103
Sizing production, as wheat quality wheat sweating, 34–40
parameter, 33 Storage bins. See Bins
Sizings systems, 338–340 Stored Grain Research Laboratory (SGRL),
Skin-burned, heat damaged wheat, 12–13 140
Sling psychrometers, 367 Straight-grade flour, 19, 26, 27, 74
Small-scale milling, 56 Surge bins, 103
Smutty wheat, 14 Sweating. See Wheat sweating
Soft red winter wheat, 7, 12, 34, 354–355 Swing mill flow, 281
Soft wheat
break releases, 357 T-ROLL experimental roll stand (Satake),
as distinctive, 311 76, 77
milling of, 311, 353–363 Tail-end breaks, 141
quality, 353–354 Temperature. See also Heat; Refrigeration;
scanning electron microscope micrograph, Thermal properties
356 condensation, 324
sprout damage control, 358 conditioning, 171–174
Soft wheat flour, component size defined, 367–368
distribution, 305 dry bulb temperature, 366
Soft white wheat, U.S. class, 7 flour stabilization, 316–317
Sorting and sorters, 161–163, 332. See also fumigation, 126
Separators and separating; Sieving granulation, 49
process; Sifting and sifters insect/pest control, 126, 300, 301, 436–
Sound (undamaged) wheat, 12–13 437
Sound wheat, 315 mill laboratories, 48–49
Special-purpose mills, 284–288 moisture, 113, 123, 125, 128, 317–318
Specks and grit, 88-89, 346–347 semolina, 348
Spikelets, 3–4. See also Wheat kernels storage, 112–114, 123, 124–125, 127, 132
Spiral gravity separators, 153 wet bulb temperature, 366–367
Split milling, 359 Tempering, 22–23, 55, 167, 175
Spouting, 275 Tempering bins, 176–177
Starch, and flour yield, 4 Tempering conveyors, 175
Starch damage, 89–90 Test sifters, 405, 406–407
Static pressure (SP), 366, 375, 389 Test weight (TW), 2, 8, 10–12, 11
Stock quality control, 401 Testa (episperm), in bran, 5
Stoke’s law, 313 Tests and testing. See also Analysis; Ash
Stone mills, 186–187, 284–286 curves; specific tests
Stones, 8, 442 instruments, 92–95
Storage. See also Bins; Blending; Elevators intermediate stocks, 405–417
bulk, 12 for quality, 83–95
dust control, 104–105 wheat kernel size, 23, 126
facilities and equipment, 102–110, 112– Thermal conductivity, 112
122 Thermal diffusivity, 112
flour storage, 294–297 Thermal properties, and storage, 112–14. See
generally, 1, 101–136 also Heat
and heat, 112–114, 124–125 Thousand-kernel weight (TKW), wheat
milling value/quality parameter, 34–40 quality parameter, 20–21
procedures and control, 136 Total pressure (TP), 366
quality preservation, 123–133 Training, for mill employees, 454–455
receiving and unloading, 103 Tramming, of rolls, 201
refrigeration, 132 Transportation, condensation problems, 324
sampling, 105–108 Traps or baits, for pest control, 302–303
488 INDEX
Treated wheat, 14 Wheat cleaning. See Cleaning

Tribolium (Flour beetles), 436 Wheat color, 3, 83–84
Trieur cylinder separators, 153 Wheat conditioning. See Conditioning
Tristimulus systems, 86 Wheat germ. See Germ, wheat
Turning, during storage. See Aeration Wheat grades and grading
damage during storage, 101
Unclassed wheat, U.S. class, 7 dockage, 7, 9
United Milling Systems, disc mills, 221 European grades, 17–18
Unmillable material, 141–144 factors, 8, 10–14
Urschel, cutting mills, Web site, 221 generally, 3, 6–18
U.S. Air Force, Space Laboratory Project other national systems, 15–18
Group, HACCP food safety program, and quality, 10
442 requirements, 8
U. S. Agriculture Department (USDA), 364, sampling, 7–9
421–422 U.S. grades and requirements, 8
Wheat kernels. See also Bran; Brush;
Valve packer, 321 Endosperm; Germ; Thousand-kernel
Vapor pressure, 366 weight (TKW); Wheat kernels, size
Vario experimental roll stand, 76–77 color characteristics, 3
Velocity. See Air velocity defined, 3
Velocity pressure (VP), 366, 373 economic value, 1
Vibra-hopper bin bottom discharger, 296 generally, 1, 3–6
Vibrator feeders, 57 hardness, as quality parameter, 28–30, 31
hardness, scale, 31
Warehouses and warehousing, good morphology, 4
practices, 440 protein content, 3–4
Washing. See Wheat washing purity, 1
Water absorption shape, as quality parameter, 27
dough quality, 347 shrunken and broken, as grading factor,
flour particle size, 303 12–13
semolina, 347, 348 specific gravity of constituents, 4
starch damage, 89–90 spikelets, 3–4
during storage, 130 surface crease, 4
wheat kernel size, 22 wheat heads, development, 3
Water penetration rate, and wheat kernel Wheat kernels, size. See also Particle size
size, 23 index (PSI); Wheat sampling
Waxy wheat, as quality parameter, 40 and ash curves, 25
Weighing, during storage, 102–103 break releases affected by, 24
Weight. See Hectoliter weight; millability/milling performance, 21–27
Hundredweight; Test weight (TW); milling stability, 27
Thousand-kernel weight (TKW) and moisture, 23
Wet bulb temperature, 366–367 and tempering, 22–23
Wheat tests and testing, 23, 126
certification, 1–2 water penetration rate, 23
characteristics, 36, 70 wheat quality parameter, 21–27
classes, stock production of, 34 yields in break systems, 25
classes and classification, 1–3, 7, 14 Wheat mills and milling. See also Flour
global transportation, 1 mills and milling; Mills and milling
other classes, as grading factor, 8, 14 break releases, 337
as raw material, generally, 1–41, 101 kernel size, effect on, 21–27
U.S. classes, 7 machine allocation, 279
varieties, 1–2 machine specifications, 336
Wheat ash. See Ash soft wheat milling, 353–363
Wheat blending. See Blending Wheat moisture. See Moisture
INDEX 489
Wheat quality, 1. See also Analysis; Flour Wheat sampling. See Sampling
quality Wheat storage. See Storage
analysis, 108–110 Wheat sweating, changes in milling
flour mill laboratories, 50–51, 83–84 properties, 34–40
future, 41 Wheat washing, 155
and grading, 10 Whole wheat flour, 313–314
parameters, 18–41, 50–51 Wood, as hazard in mill products, 442
soft wheat, 353–354
and storage, 101, 123–133 Yield. See Flour yield; Milling yield

Wheat Flour Milling

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Wheat Flour Milling

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Cover images courtesy of Buhler Inc.

(roller mill); Satake USA

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 2004110296

All rights reserved.

Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper

AACC International, Inc.

Preface to the First Edition

2. The Flour Mill Laboratory • 47

4. Wheat Cleaning and Conditioning • 141

5. The Grinding Process • 185

6. The Sieving Process • 223

7. The Purification Process • 259

8. Mill Design • 269

9. Flour Handling and Blending • 291

10. Milling of Durum Wheat • 329

11. Milling of Soft Wheat • 353

12. Air in the Flour Milling Industry • 365

13. Mill Process Control • 397

14. Mill Maintenance • 419

15. Food Safety and Hygiene in the Flour Mill • 435

Milling Terms • 461

Factors of Conversion • 475

Wheat: The Raw Material

The Wheat Kernel

Fig. 1-1. Development of a wheat head. (Adapted from Smith, 1945)

Minimum Pound Limits of

U.S. Sample grade

where MBD = metric bulk densities, expressed in units of kg/hL, and TW =

by the following conditions: vibrations in the testing lab, various levels of

ing locations and is dependent on harvest and grain-handling methods. The

Canadian Grading System

Australian Grading System

dough properties. Two additional classes, Australian general-purpose wheat

Russian Grading System

strength (W determined with the Chopin alveograph), falling number, and

Other National Grading Systems

Wheat Quality Parameters

Fig. 1-4. Motomco moisture meter. (Courtesy of Seedburo Equipment Co.)

be attributed to environmental and genetic factors and to their interaction.

Fig. 1-5. Count-A-Pak seed counter, used to determine thousand-kernel weight.

is believed to contribute to their greater water absorption. Apparently, small

The farinograph mixing curves of straight-grade flours milled from

Fig. 1-10. Barley pearler, used to determine resistance to abrasion. (Courtesy of

certain wheat on a mill. Different approaches have been described by vari-

Fig. 1-11. Single-kernel characterization system—SKCS 4100. (Courtesy of the

Fig. 1-12. Schematic description of the single-kernel characterization system

Satumbaga et al (1995), Gaines, et al (1996), Osborne et al (1997), and

Fig. 1-13. Schematic description of relationship between wheat kind, protein

where DPPC = determined percent of protein content in the lab, DMB =

supply important information to the miller for segregating received wheat to

Falling Number Value

Fig. 1-14. Falling number. (Courtesy of the Perten Co.)

strategy or to direct incoming wheat to storage facilities. Although highly

rejected regardless of its other virtues. Even in early civilizations, those

Changes in Milling Properties of Newly Harvested

extent of reduction during milling, as the chunks of endosperm continue to

Hard Red Winter Hard Red

milling parameters at the beginning of the sweating period, followed by