EARTH 2 2nd Edition Hendrix Solutions Manual

EARTH 2 2nd Edition Hendrix Solutions Manual

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Instructor’s Manual Chapter 8
Earth, 2e Volcanoes and Plutons

CHAPTER 8
Volcanoes and Plutons

Resource Integration Guide

▪ Chapter Outline
▪ Chapter Summary
▪ Lecture Suggestions
▪ Key Terms
▪ Web Links
▪ Virtual Field Trip – Suggested Responses

Chapter Outline
8.1 Magma
8.1a Processes That Form Magma
8.1b Environments of Magma Formation
8.2 Basalt and Granite
8.2a Granite and Granitic Magma
8.2b Andesite and Intermediate Magma
8.3 Partial Melting and the Origin of Continents
8.3a When Did Continents Form?
8.3b Partial Melting and the Origin of Granitic Continents
8.3c Horizontal Tectonics
8.3d Vertical Mantle Plume Tectonics
8.4 Magma Behavior
8.4a Effects of Silica on Magma Behavior
8.4b Effects of Water on Magma Behavior
8.5 Plutons
8.6 Volcanoes
8.6a Lava and Pyroclastic Rocks
8.6b Fissure Eruptions and Lava Plateaus
8.6c Volcano Types
8.7 Volcanic Explosions: Ash-Flow Tuffs and Calderas
8.7a Pyroclastic Flows
8.7b Calderas
8.8 Risk Assessment: Predicting Volcanic Eruptions
8.8a Regional Prediction
8.8b Short-Term Prediction
8.9 Volcanic Eruptions and Global Climate

Chapter Summary
Rocks of the asthenosphere partially melt (about 1 to 2 percent) to produce basaltic magma as
a result of three processes: rising temperature, decreasing pressure (called pressure-release
melting), and addition of water. These processes occur beneath spreading centers, in mantle
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Earth, 2e Volcanoes and Plutons

plumes, and in subduction zones. Plate separation at spreading centers lets the asthenosphere rise,
thereby lowering the pressure.
Mantle plumes rise because of their lower density; pressure-release melting then occurs just
beneath the lithosphere. In subduction zones, all three of the magma-forming processes combine,
generating huge amounts of magma and forming both volcanoes and plutons. About 75 percent of
Earth’s active volcanoes lie in the Ring of Fire, encircling the Pacific Ocean basin.

Partial melting of mantle peridotite leads to the enrichment of silica in the melt, generating
basaltic magma. Granitic magma contains more silica than basalt and, therefore, melts at a lower
temperature. It forms by a two-step process, in which basaltic magma is produced beneath a
continent and then rises and melts granitic rocks of the lower continental crust. Granitic magma
typically rises a short distance and then solidifies within the crust between about 5 and 20
kilometers in depth.

Earth’s earliest continents were likely formed by partial melting of the original peridotite
crust to form basalt, and by further partial melting of the basalt to form andesite and then granite.
Some granitic crust existed probably as early as 4.4 billion years ago. The sequence of melting
steps might have been caused either by horizontal tectonics of the early Precambrian crust, or by
vertical mantle plume tectonics, or by both of these processes.

Basaltic magma usually erupts in a relatively gentle manner onto Earth’s surface from a
volcano or flows onto the sea floor at the Mid-Oceanic Ridge. In contrast, granitic magma
typically solidifies within Earth’s crust. These contrasts in behavior of the two types of magma
are caused by differences in silica and water content, with granitic magma containing about 70
percent silica and up to 10 percent water versus about 50 percent silica and 1 to 2 percent water
for basaltic magma. High amounts of silica enhance the viscosity of magma. Water tends to
escape from rising magma, leading to crystallization.

Typically, granitic magma solidifies within Earth’s continental crust to form a large mass of
igneous rock called a pluton. A batholith is a pluton with more than 100 square kilometers of
exposure at Earth’s surface through erosion. A stock is similar to a batholith but is exposed over
less than 100 square kilometers. A dike and a sill are both sheet-like intrusions. Dikes cut across
layering in country rock, whereas sills run parallel to layering.

Magma may flow onto Earth’s surface as lava or may erupt explosively as pyroclastic
material. Pahoehoe is a type of low-viscosity lava, forming smooth, ropy surfaces during cooling.
Aa lava is more viscous and forms a jagged, broken surface. Gas bubbles preserved as holes in
lava rock are called vesicles. Cooling lava contracts and shrinks, with cracks growing downward
through the lava, forming columnar joints. Pyroclastic rock is made up of ejected volcanic
material. The smallest pyroclastic particles (less than 2 millimeters in diameter) are called
volcanic ash; cinders are volcanic fragments of 4 to 32 millimeters in size. Fluid lava can ooze
from cracks in rocks, called fissures, and spread as flood basalt to form lava plateaus or basalt
plateaus covering thousands of kilometers. A volcano is a hill or mountain formed from lava and
rock fragments ejected through a vent located in a crater. Fluid basaltic magma often builds a
large, gently sloping mountain called a shield volcano. A pyroclastic eruption may form a
relatively small volcano called a cinder cone. Alternating eruptions of fluid lava and pyroclastic
material from the same vent create a composite cone, also called a stratovolcano.

When granitic magma rises to Earth’s surface, it may erupt explosively, sometimes blasting a
column of pyroclastic material 10 to 12 kilometers into the sky.
Instructor’s Manual Chapter 8
Earth, 2e Volcanoes and Plutons

After much of the gas has escaped, this column of ash, rock, and gas falls back to Earth’s surface,
spreading as an ash flow over the land, which later solidifies into ash-flow tuff. The roof of the
magma chamber often collapses, forming a circular depression called a caldera.

Regional prediction of volcanic eruptions is based on the concentration of volcanoes in

certain areas and the characteristics of previous eruptions, but can only estimate probabilities.
Short-term predictions are made on the basis of earthquakes caused by magma movements,
swelling of a volcano, increased emissions of gas and ash from a vent, and other signs that
magma is approaching the surface.

After recent major volcanic eruptions, global temperature decline for a few years has been
measured, probably caused by high-altitude dust particles reflecting sunlight. The same effect on
a bigger scale has been suggested for the end-Permian eruption in Siberia.

Lecture Suggestions
▪ Illustrate how granitic magma rises by doing the following experiment as an analogy:
Place oil and water in a jar, screw the lid on, and shake. Oil droplets will disperse, then
coalesce to form larger bubbles, which rise toward the surface while displacing the water.
▪ List the heights of Hawaii’s main volcanoes (from sea floor to top; see web link below),
and compare to continental mountains (possibly in your area) to demonstrate their
impressive size.
▪ Identify the most active volcanoes during the past 4,000 years in the Cascade Range (see
USGS web link below).
▪ Observe some volcanoes live using web cams (see web link below).
▪ Build a volcano model (see the Geosociety web link below).

Key Terms
pressure-release melting vesicles shield volcano
partial melting columnar joints cinder cone
pluton pyroclastic rock composite cone
batholith volcanic ash stratovolcano
stock cinders ash flow
dike fissures pyroclastic flow
sill flood basalt ash-flow tuff
volcano lava plateau caldera
pahoehoe vent air-fall tuff
aa crater welded tuff

Web Links
http://vulcan.wr.usgs.gov/
The United States Geological Survey Cascades Volcano Observatory’s website.

http://www.volcano.si.edu/
Information on and images for several types of volcanoes across the world from the Smithsonian
Institute website.
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Earth, 2e Volcanoes and Plutons

http://www.solarviews.com/eng/hawaii.htm#intro
Information on Hawaii’s volcanoes.

http://www.volcanolive.com/volcanocams.html
Links to several volcano web cams.

http://www.geosociety.org/educate
Educational website from the Geological Society of America with links to classroom activities.

Virtual Field Trip – Suggested Responses to Follow-Up Questions

Answers will vary, but should include the following information.

1. Old Faithful is a geyser, and geysers occur near active volcanic sites. In other words, geysers
are the surface expression of an extensive underground system of deep interconnected fractures
within hot rocks. Old Faithful erupts approximately every 91 minutes, which is the time it takes
for the following to take place: 1) groundwater in the fractures at shallower levels gets heated to a
boiling point and produces steam that collects in parts of the geyser’s throat; and 2) the growing
steam bubble eventually forces some water out of the geyser’s vent, lowering the pressure in the
water at greater depth within the network of fractures below and causing some of it to flash to
steam. This process forces water and steam upward through the vent, producing an eruption.

2. The color found in hot springs or hot streams is directly related to the minerals/deposits found
within them. Reddish-brown colors are caused by iron-oxide deposits, whereas yellow-colored
deposits indicate deposition of sulfur. Both types of deposits are formed by bacteria. Generally,
iron-oxide group minerals result from the metabolism of iron by some of the bacteria, whereas
sulfur is produced by thermophilic bacteria that reduce the hydrogen sulfide gas that is dissolved
in the thermal water. The term thermophilic indicates that these bacteria are able to thrive in very
hot water. So by studying the color of deposits found in hot springs, we are able to predict the
type of bacteria, the water chemistry (oxidating or reducing), as well as the water temperature.

3. Students should describe at least three to five pros and cons.

Some examples of pros:

• Yellowstone National Park has a large number of geysers, hotsprings, and hot streams,
and therefore has the potential to be a great energy source.
• Geothermal energy is clean and renewable.
• Geothermal energy could help people reduce their energy costs.
• Developing Yellowstone National Park could be a great opportunity to increase the
country’s energy independence.

Some examples of cons:

• Yellowstone National Park is a national park for a reason, and therefore, should be left
alone.
• Other sites indicate that a geothermal energy plant will decrease the flow of geysers and
hot springs.
• One product of geothermal energy is mineral-rich discharge water, which needs to be
properly disposed.
EARTH 2 2nd Edition Hendrix Solutions Manual

Instructor’s Manual Chapter 8

Earth, 2e Volcanoes and Plutons

• The infrastructure required to get the hot water to the consumer can be extensive, and the
aggressive, mineral-rich waters can lead to corrosion and/or skaling within the piping.
• Developing geothermal energy could significantly decrease tourism in the park and area.

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