EVS PROJECT

WORK

NAME = YOGESH
CALSS = B.COM{CA}
ROLL.NO = 3141610010
COURSE INCHARGE = Dr Neeraj
Singh

ASSIGNMENT 1
 The Environment and Ecosystem
Environmental Studies

Definition:
The science of Environment studies is a multidisciplinary science because it depends on various disciplines like chemistry,
physics, medical science, etc. It is the science of physical phenomena in the environment. It is inherently a
multidisciplinary field that draws upon not only its core scientific areas, but also applies knowledge from other non-
scientific studies such as economic, law and social sciences

the multi-disciplinary nature of environmental studies

Definition:
The science of Environment studies is a multidisciplinary science because it depends on
various disciplines like chemistry, physics, medical science, etc. It is the science of physical
phenomena in the environment. It is inherently a multidisciplinary field that draws upon not
only its core scientific areas, but also applies knowledge from other non-scientific studies such
as economic, law and social sciences
Objectives of Environmental Education

According to UNESCO (1971): The following are the objectives of

environmental education:

1. Awareness:
 To help the social groups and individuals to acquire knowledge

of pollution and environmental degradation.

2. Knowledge
To help social groups and individuals to acquire knowledge of

the environment beyond the immediate environment including

distant environment.
3. Attitudes
To help social groups and individuals to acquire a set of values for
environmental protection.
4. Skills
To help social groups and individuals to develop skills required

for making discriminations in form, shape, sound, touch, habits

and habitats. Further, to develop ability to draw unbiased

inferences and conclusions.

5. Participation
To provide social groups and individuals with an opportunity to be actively involved at all
levels in environmental decision making

Define
In other words environment refers to those surroundings that
surrounds living beings from all sides and affect their lives in toto. It
consists of atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere and biosphere. It’s
chief components are soil, water, air, organisms and solar energy. It
has provided us all the resources for leading a comfortable life.

Components of Environment:
Environment mainly consists of atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere
and biosphere. But it can be roughly divided into two types such as
(a) Micro environment and (b) Macro environment. It can also be
divided into two other types such as (c) Physical and (d) biotic
environment.

(a) Micro environment refers to the immediate local surrounding of

the organism.

(b) Macro environment refers to all the physical and biotic conditions
that surround the organism externally.

ADVERTISEMENTS:

(c) Physical environment refers to all abiotic factors or conditions like

temperature, light, rainfall, soil, minerals etc. It comprises of
atmosphere, lithosphere and hydrosphere.

(d) Biotic environment includes all biotic factors or living forms like
plants, animals, Micro-organisms.

Ecosystem Definition
“An ecosystem is defined as a community of lifeforms in concurrence with
non-living components, interacting with each other.”

Importance of Ecosystem:
1. It provides habitat to wild plants and animals.
2. It promotes various food chains and food webs.
3. It controls essential ecological processes and promotes lives.
4. Involved in the recycling of nutrients between biotic and abiotic components.
5. It helps in maintaining the usual flow of energy in an ecosystem including- Carbon Cycle,
Energy Cycle, Nitrogen Cycle, Oxygen Cycle, and Water Cycle.

Types of Ecosystem
An ecosystem can be as small as an oasis in a desert, or as big as an ocean, spanning thousands of
miles. There are two types of ecosystem:

 Terrestrial Ecosystem
 Aquatic Ecosystem
 Terrestrial Ecosystems
Terrestrial ecosystems are exclusively land-based ecosystems. There are different types of terrestrial
ecosystems distributed around various geological zones. They are as follows:

1. Forest Ecosystems
2. Grassland Ecosystems
3. Tundra Ecosystems
4. Desert Ecosystem

Forest Ecosystem
A forest ecosystem consists of several plants, animals and microorganisms that live in coordination
with the abiotic factors of the environment. Forests help in maintaining the temperature of the earth
and are the major carbon sink.

Grassland Ecosystem
In a grassland ecosystem, the vegetation is dominated by grasses and herbs. Temperate grasslands,
savanna grasslands are some of the examples of grassland ecosystems.

Tundra Ecosystem
Tundra ecosystems are devoid of trees and are found in cold climates or where rainfall is scarce.
These are covered with snow for most of the year. The ecosystem in the Arctic or mountain tops is
tundra type.

Desert Ecosystem
Deserts are found throughout the world. These are regions with very little rainfall. The days are hot
and the nights are cold.

Aquatic Ecosystem
Aquatic ecosystems are ecosystems present in a body of water. These can be further divided into two
types, namely:

1. Freshwater Ecosystem
2. Marine Ecosystem

Freshwater Ecosystem
The freshwater ecosystem is an aquatic ecosystem that includes lakes, ponds, rivers, streams and
wetlands. These have no salt content in contrast with the marine ecosystem.

Marine Ecosystem
The marine ecosystem includes seas and oceans. These have a more substantial salt content and
greater biodiversity in comparison to the freshwater ecosystem.

Structure of the Ecosystem

The structure of an ecosystem is characterised by the organisation of both biotic and abiotic
components. This includes the distribution of energy in our environment. It also includes the
climatic conditions prevailing in that particular environment.
The structure of an ecosystem can be split into two main components, namely:

 Biotic Components
 Abiotic Components
The biotic and abiotic components are interrelated in an ecosystem. It is an open system where the
energy and components can flow throughout the boundaries.

Biotic Components
Biotic components refer to all life in an ecosystem. Based on nutrition, biotic components can be
categorised into autotrophs, heterotrophs and saprotrophs (or decomposers).

 Producers include all autotrophs such as plants. They are called autotrophs as they can
produce food through the process of photosynthesis. Consequently, all other organisms higher
up on the food chain rely on producers for food.
 Consumers or heterotrophs are organisms that depend on other organisms for food.
Consumers are further classified into primary consumers, secondary consumers and tertiary
consumers.

 Primary consumers are always herbivores that they rely on producers for food.
 Secondary consumers depend on primary consumers for energy. They can either be a
carnivore or an omnivore.
 Tertiary consumers are organisms that depend on secondary consumers for food.
Tertiary consumers can also be an omnivore.

 Quaternary consumers are present in some food chains. These organisms prey on
tertiary consumers for energy. Furthermore, they are usually at the top of a food chain
as they have no natural predators.
 Decomposers include saprophytes such as fungi and bacteria. They directly thrive on the
dead and decaying organic matter. Decomposers are essential for the ecosystem as they help
in recycling nutrients to be reused by plants.

Abiotic Components
Abiotic components are the non-living component of an ecosystem. It includes air, water, soil,
minerals, sunlight, temperature, nutrients, wind, altitude, turbidity, etc.

Functions of Ecosystem
The functions of the ecosystem are as follows:

1.
1. It regulates the essential ecological processes, supports life systems and renders
stability.
2. It is also responsible for the cycling of nutrients between biotic and abiotic
components.
3. It maintains a balance among the various trophic levels in the ecosystem.
4. It cycles the minerals through the biosphere.
5. The abiotic components help in the synthesis of organic components that involves the
exchange of energy.
 Food chain

The transfer of food energy from one trophic level to another trophic level in an
ecosystem by the repeated process of eating and being eaten is known as food
chain. Generally, food chain starts with the organism which does not eat other
organism and ends with the organism which is not eaten by the other organism.
Eg; Producer→ Primary consumer→ Secondary consumer→ Tertiary consumer
Types of food chain

There are three types of food chain they are;

 Grazing food chain

 DetrituS food chain
 Parasitic food chain

Food web

A food web can be defined as the natural interconnection of food chains and
generally a graphical representation (usually an image) of what - eats - what in
an ecological community.

Types of food web

1. Terrestrial food web: It is the interlocking of various food chains in a terrestrial

land.
2. Aquatic food web: It is the interlocking of various food chains in the pond.
Productivity

The fixed amount of energy which passes from one trophic level to next trophic
level is called productivity and the phenomenon is known as productivity. It is
of two types:

1. Primary productivity: Primary productivity is the rate at which energy is bound or

organic material is synthesized by photosynthesis per unit area of earth's surface per
unit time.
The total solar energy captured in the food material by photosynthesis is known as
gross primary productivity. It is utilized in respiration process in green plants. The
amount of organic matter manufactured per unit area and time that is left after
respiration of green plants is called net primary production.
Net productivity of energy = Gross productivity - energy lost in respiration

2. Secondary productivity:The rate at which the heterotrophic organisms

remanufacture the energy supplying substances is known as secondary productivity.
 The total amount of energy stored in the tissues of heterotrophs (consumers and
decomposers) is known as net secondary production

Ecological Pyramids:
An ecological pyramid is defined as the graphical representation showing the
relationship between the various trophic level of a community. There are three
types of ecological pyramid which are as follows:

1. Pyramid of Numbers:

The pyramid of numbers shows the relationship in terms of a number of producers,

herbivores, and carnivores at their successive trophic levels.
There are two types of pyramid of numbers:

Upright pyramid of number: It is found in the aquatic and grassland ecosystem, in

these ecosystems, there are many small autotrophs which support lesser herbivores
which in turn support the smaller number of carnivores. So, the pyramid is upright.

The inverted pyramid of number; It is seen in the parasitic food chain where one
primary producer supports numerous parasites which support more hyperparasites.

2. Pyramid of biomass:

Biomass can be defined as the total weight of dry matter or fixed energy present in the
ecosystem at any one time. In this pyramid, there is a gradual decrease in the biomass
from the producers to the higher trophic levels.
There are two types of pyramid of biomass:

Upright pyramid: It is seen in forest ecosystem as there is generally gradual decrease

in biomass of organisms at successive levels from the producers to top carnivores.

The inverted pyramid of biomass: This is found in the aquatic ecosystem. Here, the
smaller weight of producers support consumers of large weight.

3. Pyramid of energy:

The energy pyramid describes the complete nature of the ecosystem. An upright
pyramid will always be formed if the rate of energy utilized by different level is
diagrammatically represented. There is always gradual decrease in the energy content
at successive trophic levels from the producers to various consumers. At each trophic
level, there is a successive loss of energy in the form of heat and respiration.
 Intro to biogeochemical cycles
 Energy flows through an ecosystem and is dissipated as heat, but
chemical elements are recycled.

 The ways in which an element—or compound such as water—moves

between its various living and nonliving forms and locations in the
biosphere is called a biogeochemical cycle.

 Biogeochemical cycles important to living organisms include the

water, carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur cycles.
 ASSIGNMENT
2
Natural Resources and their Conservation
Natural resources are something that is occurring naturally on
Earth. It forms an indispensable part of our lives. It comprises
of air, water, sunlight, coal, petroleum, natural gas, fossil fuels,
oil, etc. However, they are exploited by humans for economic
gain. Natural resources are at depletion because of the overuse.
Some of these resources are available in abundance with the
capability to renew. On the other hand, some are non-
renewable. Thus, it demands a responsible behavior for the
conservation so as to ensure their sustainability.
Why Conserve Natural Resources?
Human beings depend upon the natural resources for their
development activities. If the resources are not used wisely, it
would create an imbalance in the environment. Thus would
head us in opposition to an eco-friendly atmosphere. The need
for conservation arises from the significance of natural
resources. It is as follows-

1. Water is a renewable natural resource. We use it for

drinking, producing electricity, irrigation, in various
industries and for a number of activities. Its scarcity would
cause loss of vegetation, adverse effect on flora and fauna,
erosion of soil, etc.
2. Plants and animals provide a wide range of industrial and
biological materials. Also, it assists in the manufacturing of
medicine and for various other uses.
3. It takes millions of years for the formation of natural
resources.
4. Fossil fuels are of great importance. A lot of energy is
produced from coal, oil and natural gas all of which are
fossil fuels.
5. Forest is the most important natural resource which helps
in economic development. Forest provides paper, furniture,
timber, medicine, gum, etc. Also, it maintains a balance in
the ecosystem. Moreover, it prevents soil erosion and
protects wildlife.
6. Land resources support natural vegetation, wildlife,
transport. The land also provides us food, cloth, shelter, and
other basic needs.
Ways to Conserve Natural Resources
Different ministries of the Government, national and
international agencies have been working for the purpose of
conserving the natural resources.
1. Environment education must be imparted by including the
same in the curricula of the schools.
2. National Parks are making an effort for the safety of the
natural resources.
3. By reducing, reusing and recycling of non-renewable
resources.
4. Non-human species must be disturbed only to meet the
basic needs.
5. Planting of more and more trees to save our forest
resources.
6. Seeking alternatives to non-renewable resources.
7. By increased use of bio-gas and bio-fuels.
8. By preventing the dumping of industrial wastes into the
river bodies. This is a measure to protect the rich marine
life.
9. Overgrazing must be prevented. Also, poaching of animals
must be controlled.
10. Practicing crop rotation techniques helps in maintaining
the fertility of the soil.
11. These are some of the measures which we can
undertake for the conservation of natural resources. As
Human- beings, we have a social responsibility to fulfill
towards nature. Thus, while using resources, we shall
follow the principle of sustainable development.
12. Conclusion
13. Natural resources are a present for the creation.
These help in satisfying the human needs to its fullest.
Furthermore, the rational use of natural resources
 maintains the earth’s atmosphere. Also, the wise use leads
to protection of bio-diversity. Humans cannot imagine
their lives without natural resources. Thus, the
conservation of the same is essential.

Deforestation:
Deforestation is the permanent destruction of indigenous forests and
woodlands. The term does not include the removal of industrial
forests such as plantations of gums or pines. Deforestation has
resulted in the reduction of indigenous forests to four-fifths of their
pre-agricultural area.

Causes of Deforestation:
(1) Population Explosion:
Population explosion poses a grave threat to the environment. Vast
areas of forest land are cleared of trees to reclaim land for human
settlements (factories, agriculture, housing, roads, railway tracks etc.)
growth of population increases the demand for forest products like
timber, firewood, paper and other valuable products of industrial
importance, all necessitating felling of trees.

(2) Forest Fires:

Fires in the forests may be due to natural calamities or human
activities:
(a) Smoldering of the humus and organic matter forming a thick cover
over the forest floor (i.e. ground fires).

(b) Dried twigs and leaves may catch fire (i.e. surface fires).

(c) In densely populated forests, tree tops may catch fire by heat
produced by constant rubbing against each other (i.e. crown fires).
(d) Human activities like clearing forest for habitation, agriculture,
firewood, construction of roads, railway tracks and carelessness
(throwing burning cigarette stubbs on dried foliage).

Fire destroys fully grown trees, results in killing and scorching of the
seeds, humus, ground flora and animal life.

(3) Grazing Animals:

Trampling of the forest soil in the course of overgrazing by livestock
has four reaching effects such as loss of porosity of soil, soil erosion
and desertification of the previously fertile forest area.

(4) Pest Attack:

Forest pests like insects etc. destroy trees by eating up the leaves,
boring into shoots and by spreading diseases.

(5) Natural Forces:

Floods, storms, snow, lightening etc. are the natural forces which
damage forests.

Effects of Deforestation:
Forests are closely related with climatic change, biological diversity,
wild animals, crops, medicinal plants etc.

Large scale deforestation has many far-reaching consequences:

(a) Habitat destruction of wild animals (tree-using animals are
deprived of food and shelter.)

(b) Increased soil erosion due to reduction of vegetation cover.

(c) Reduction in the oxygen liberated by plants through

photosynthesis.
(d) Increase in pollution due to burning of wood and due to reduction
in Car- bon-dioxide fixation by plants.

(e) Decrease in availability of forest products.

(f) Loss of cultural diversity

(g) Loss of Biodiversity

(h) Scarcity of fuel wood and deterioration in economy and quality of

life of people residing near forests.

(i) Lowering of the water table due to more run-off and thereby
increased use of the underground water increases the frequency of
droughts.

(j) Rise in Carbon dioxide level has resulted in increased thermal level
of earth which in turn results in melting of ice caps and glaciers and
consequent flooding of coastal areas.

Water resources
Water resources are natural resources of water that are potentially useful. Uses of water
include agricultural, industrial, household, recreational and environmental activities. All living things
require water to grow and reproduce.
97% of the water on the Earth is salt water and only three percent is fresh water; slightly over two
thirds of this is frozen in glaciers and polar ice caps.[1] The remaining unfrozen freshwater is found
mainly as groundwater, with only a small fraction present above ground or in the air.

Drought, floods and shortage of drinking water

The precipitation pattern in India varies dramatically across distance and over calendar months. Much
of the precipitation in India, about 85%, is received during summer months through monsoons in the
Himalayan catchments of the Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna basin. The north eastern region of the
country receives heavy precipitation, in comparison with the north western, western and southern
parts. The uncertainty in onset of annual monsoon, sometimes marked by prolonged dry spells and
fluctuations in seasonal and annual rainfall is a serious problem for the country. [9] Large area of the
country is not put to use for agriculture due to local water scarcity or poor water quality. [10] The nation
sees cycles of drought years and flood years, with large parts of west and south experiencing more
deficits and large variations, resulting in immense hardship particularly the poorest farmers and rural
populations.[11] Dependence on erratic rains and lack of irrigation water supply regionally leads to crop
failures and farmer suicides. Despite abundant rains during June–September, some regions in other
seasons see shortages of drinking water. Some years, the problem temporarily becomes too much
rainfall, and weeks of havoc from floods

Surface and ground water storage

India currently stores only 6% of its annual rainfall or 253 billion cubic metres (8.9×1012 cu ft), while
developed nations strategically store 250% of the annual rainfall in arid river basins. [13] India also
relies excessively on groundwater resources, which accounts for over 50 percent of irrigated area with
20 million tube wells installed. India has built nearly 5,000 major or medium dams, barrages, etc. to
store the river waters and enhance ground water recharging. [14] The important dams (59 nos) have an
aggregate gross storage capacity of 170 billion cubic metres (6.0×1012 cu ft).[15] About 15 percent of
India’s food is being produced using rapidly depleting / mining groundwater resources. The end of the
era of massive expansion in groundwater use is going to demand greater reliance on surface water
supply systems.[16]
India is not running out of water whereas water is running out of India without extracting its full
potential benefits.[17] Land based water reservoirs construction is very costly after meeting the land &
property compensation and rehabilitation expenditures. To create adequate water storage, fresh
water coastal reservoirs located on the sea area near the river deltas, is the suitable option
socioeconomically without land and forest submergence problems

Water pollution
Out of India's 3,119 towns and cities, just 209 have partial treatment facilities, and only 8 have
full wastewater treatment facilities (WHO 1992)[needs update].[33] 114 cities dump untreated sewage and
partially cremated bodies directly into the Ganges River.[34] Downstream, the untreated water is used
for drinking, bathing, and washing.[35] This situation is typical of many rivers in India and river Ganga
is less polluted comparatively.[36]
Open defecation is widespread even in urban areas of India

FOOD RESOURCES
Introduction

Food is essential for growth and development of living organisms.

These essential materials are called nutrients and these nutrients are
available from variety of animals and plants. There are thousands of
edible plants and animals over the world, out of which only about
three dozen types constitute major food of humans.
.1 Food sources

The majority of people obtain food from cultivated plants and

domesticated animals. Although some food is obtained from oceans
and fresh waters, but the great majority of food for human population
is obtained from traditional land-based agriculture of crops and
livestock.

Food crops

It is estimated that out of about 2,50,000 species of plants, only about

3,000 have been tried as agricultural crops. Under different agro-
climatic condition, 300 are grown for food and only 100 are used on a
large scale.

Some species of crops provide food, whereas others provide

commercial products like oils, fibres, etc. Raw crops are sometimes
converted into valuable edible products by using different techniques
for value addition .At global level, only 20 species of crops are used
for food. These, in approximate order of importance are wheat, rice,
corn, potatoes; barley, sweet potatoes, cassavas, soybeans, oats,
sorghum, millet, sugarcane, sugar beets, rye, peanuts, field beans,
chick-peas, pigeon- peas, bananas and coconuts. Many of them are
used directly, whereas other can be used by changing them by using
different techniques for enhancing calorific value.

5.1.3 Livestock

Domesticated animals are an important food source. The major

domesticated animals used as food source by human beings are
‘ruminants’ (e.g. cattle, sheep, goats, camel, reindeer, llama, etc.).
Ruminants convert indigestible woody tissue of plants (cellulose)
which are earth’s most abundant organic compound into digestible
food products for human consumption. Milk, which is provided by
milking animals, is considered to be the complete food. Other
domestic animals like sheep, goat, poultry and ducker can be used as
meat.
5.1.4 Aquaculture

Fish and seafood contributes 17 million metric tonnes of high quality

protein to provide balance diet to the world. Presently aquaculture
provides only small amounts for world food but its significance is
increasing day by day.

5.2 World Food Problems

As per estimates of Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), about

840 million people remain chronically hungry and out of this 800
million are living in the developing world. In last decade, it is
decreasing at the rate of 2.5 million per year, but at the same time
world’s population is increasing. Target of cutting half the number of
world’s chronically hungry and undernourished people by 2015 will
difficult to meet, if the present trend continues. Due to inadequate
purchasing power to buy food, it is difficult to fulfil minimum
calorific requirement of human body per day. Large number of people
are in India are poor which can be attribute to equitable distribution of
income. Food insufficiency can be divided into two categories into
under-nourishment and malnourishment. Both of these insufficiencies
are global problems.

5.2.1 Under-nourishment

The FAO estimates that the average minimum daily caloric intake
over the whole world is about 2,500 calories per day. People who
receive less than 90% of their minimum dietary intake on a long-term
basis are considered undernourished. Those who receive less than
80% of their minimum daily caloric intake requirements are
considered ‘seriously’ undernourished. Children in this category are
likely to suffer from stunted growth, mental retardation, and other
social and developmental disorders. Therefore, Under-nourishment
means lack of sufficient calories in available food, resulting in little or
no ability to move or work.

5.2.2 Malnourishment

Person may have excess food but still diet suffers from due to
nutritional imbalance or inability to absorb or may have problem to
utilize essential nutrients. If we compare diet of the developed
countries with developing countries people in developed countries
have processed food which may be deficient in fibre, vitamins and
other components where as in the diet of developing countries, may
be lack of specific nutrients because they consume less meat ,fruits
and vegetables due to poor purchasing power .

Malnourishment can be defined as lack of specific components of

food such as proteins, vitamins, or essential chemical elements.

The major problems of malnutrition are:

 Marasmus: a progressive emaciation caused by lack of protein
and calories.
 Kwashiarkor: a lack of sufficient protein in the diet which
leads to a failure of neural development and therefore learning
disabilities.
 Anemia: it is caused by lack of iron in the diet or due to an
inability to absorb iron from food.
 Pellagra: it occurs due to the deficiency of tryptophan and
lysine, vitamins in the diet.

Every year, food problem kill as many people as were killed by the
atomic bomb dropped on Hiroshima during World War II. This shows
that there is drastic need to increase food production, equitably
distribute it and also to control population growth. Although India is
the third largest producer of staple crops, it is estimated that about 300
million Indians are still undernourished. India has only half as much
land as USA, but it has nearly three times population to feed. Our
food problems are directly related to population.

5.2.3 Balanced diet

Supply of adequate amount of different nutrient can help to improve

malnutrition and its ill effects. Cereals like wheat and rice can supply
only carbohydrate which are rich in energy supply, are only fraction
of nutrition requirement. Cereal diet has to be supplemented with
other food that can supply fat, protein and minor quantity of minerals
and vitamins. Balanced diet will help to improve growth and health.

5.3 Changes Caused by Agriculture and Overgrazing

From centuries, agriculture is providing inputs to large number of

industries involved in production, processing and distribution of food.
Accordingly, agriculture has significant effect on environment. The
effects of agriculture on environment can be classified as local,
regional, and global level. The agriculture also makes impact on the
usage of land generally as follows:
1. Deforestation
2. Soil Erosion
3. Depletion of nutrients
4. Impact related to high yielding varieties (HYV)
5. Fertilizers related problems include micronutrient imbalance,
nitrite pollution and eutrophication.
6. Pesticide related problems include creating resistance in pests
and producing new pests, death of non-target organisms,
biological magnification.
7. Some other problems include water logging, salinity problems and
such others.

The carrying capacity of land for cattle depends upon micro climate
and soil fertility. If carrying capacity is exceeded than land is
overgrazed. Because of overgrazing the agricultural land gets affected
as follows,
 Reduction in growth and diversity of plant species
 Reduce plant cover leads to increased soil erosion
 Cattle trampling leads to land degradation

5.4 Effects of Modern Agriculture

For sustainable production modern techniques are used to enhance

productivity of different cropping systems under different agro-eco-
zones. Adoption of modern agricultural practises has both positive
and negative effects on environment. Effects of modern agriculture
are briefly discussed under different heads as under:

5.4.1 Soil erosion

Raindrops bombarding bare soil result in the oldest and still most
serious problem of agriculture. The long history of soil erosion and its
impact on civilization is one of devastation. Eroded fields record our
failure as land stewards.

5.4.2 Irrigation

Adequate rainfall is never guaranteed for the dry land farmer in arid
and semiarid regions, and thus irrigation is essential for reliable
production. Irrigation ensures sufficient water when needed and also
allows farmers to expand their acreage of suitable cropland. In fact,
we rely heavily on crops from irrigated lands, with fully one-third of
the world's harvest coming from that 17% of cropland that is under
irrigation. Unfortunately, current irrigation practices severely damage
the cropland and the aquatic systems from which the water is
withdrawn.
5.4.3 Agriculture and the loss of genetic diversity

As modern agriculture converts an ever-increasing portion of the

earth's land surface to monoculture, the genetic and ecological
diversity of the planet erodes. Both the conversion of diverse natural
ecosystems to new agricultural lands and the narrowing of the genetic
diversity of crops contribute to this erosion.

5.4.4 Fertilizer-pesticide problems

For photosynthesis apart from water, sunshine and CO2, plants need
micro and macro nutrients for growth. These nutrients are supplied in
the shape of fertilizers. There is lot of potential to increase food
productivity by increasing fertilizer use. On one hand application of
artificial chemical fertilizers increases the productivity at faster rate as
compare to organic fertilizers, on the other hand application of
fertilizers can be a serious problem of pollution and can create
number of problems. Excessive level of nitrates in ground water has
created problems in developed countries. These are:

a. Accumulated phosphorous as a consequence of use of

phosphoric fertilizer are posing serious threat as residues in
domestic water supply and for ecology of river and other
water bodies. Increased level of phosphates in different water
results in eutropication.
b. Effect of chemical fertilizer is long term, therefore leads to net
loss of soil organic matter.

To control insects, pests, diseases and weeds which are

responsible for reduction in productivity different chemicals are used
as insecticides, pesticides and herbicides. Successful control of
insects, pests and weeds increases productivity and reduces losses and
provide security for harvest and storage. Applications of these
synthetic chemicals have great economic values and at the same
time cause number of serious problems such as:

a. Affects human health which includes acute poisoning and

illness caused by higher doses and accidental exposes
b. As long term effect, cause cancer, birth defects, Parkinson’s
disease and other regenerative diseases.
c. Long term application of pesticides can affect soil fertility.
d. Danger of killing beneficial predators.
e. Pesticides resistance and pest resurgence

5 Water Logging

High water table or surface flooding can cause water logging

problems .Water logging may lead to poor crop productivity due to
anaerobic condition created in the soil. In India, deltas of Ganga,
Andaman and Nicobar Islands and some areas of Kerala are prone to
frequent water logging.

6 Salinity

Due to adoption of intensive agriculture practices and increased

concentration of soluble salts leads to salinity. Due to poor drainage,
dissolved salts accumulate on soil surface and affects soil fertility.
Excess concentration of these salts may form a crust on the surface
which may injurious to the plants. The water absorption process is
affected and uptake of nutrient is disturbed. According to an estimate,
in India, 7 million hectare of land is saline and area is showing in
increasing trends due to adoption of intensive agriculture practises.
 Energy
Resources:
Energy is the capacity to do work and is required for life processes. An energy
resource is something that can produce heat, power life, move objects, or
produce electricity.
Matter that stores energy is called a fuel. Human energy consumption has
grown steadily .throughout human history. Early humans had modest energy
requirements, mostly food and fuel for fires to cook and keep warm.

There are 5 fundamental sources of energy:

1. Nuclear fusion in the Sun (solar energy)

2. Gravity generated by the Earth & Moon.
3. Nuclear fission reactions.
4. Energy in the interior of the Earth.
5. Energy stored in chemical bonds.

Solar Energy

Solar Energy arrives from the Sun by electromagnetic radiation. It can be used
directly for heat and converted to electricity for other uses. It is a nearly unlimited
source, it is renewable, and largely, non-polluting.
Nuclear Fission Reactions

Radioactive Uranium is concentrated and made into fuel rods that generate large
amounts of heat as a result of radioactive decay. This heat is used to turn water
into steam. Expansion of the steam can then be used to drive a turbine and
generate electricity. Once proposed as a cheap, clean, and safe way to generate
energy, Nuclear power has come under some disfavor. Costs of making sure
nuclear power plants are clean and safe and the problem of disposing of
radioactive wastes, which are unsafe, as well as questions about the safety of the
plants under human care, have contributed to this disfavor.
Energy in the Interior of the Earth

Decay of radioactive elements has produced heat throughout Earth history. It is

this heat that causes the temperature to increase with depth in the Earth and is
responsible for melting of mantle rocks to form magmas. Magmas can carry the
heat upward into the crust. Groundwater circulating in the vicinity of igneous
intrusions carries the heat back toward the surface. If this hot water can be tapped,
it can be used directly to heat homes, or if trapped at great depth under pressure it
can be turned into steam which will expand and drive a turbine to generate
electricity.

Energy Stored in Chemical Bonds

Energy stored in chemical bonds drives chemical reactions. When the reactions
take place this energy is either released or absorbed. If it is absorbed, it is stored
in the chemical bond for later use. If it is released, it can produce useful heat
energy. electricity, and light.

Hydrogen Fuel Cells are one example: A chemical reaction occurs wherein
Hydrogen reacts with Oxygen in an electrolyte bath to produce H2O, and releases
electricity and heat. The reaction is non-polluting, but currently has problems,
such as safely storing and distributing compressed hydrogen gas, and producing
hydrogen efficiently.

Biomass Energy is an other example. It involves burning (a chemical reaction) of

wood, or other organic byproducts. Such organic material is produced by
photosynthesis, a chemical process which derives energy from the Sun and stores
that energy until the material is burned.

Fossil Fuels - Biomass energy that is buried within the Earth where it is stored
until humans extract and burn it to release the energy. Among these sources are
petroleum (Oil & natural gas), oil shale, tar sands, and coal. All of which will be
one of the primary topics of our discussion here.

Geology and Energy Resources

Exploitation for human use of nearly all of the energy sources listed above,
requires geologic knowledge.

While using direct solar energy to heat water and homes does not require geologic
knowledge, the making of solar cells does, because the material to make such cells
requires knowledge of specific mineral deposits. Chemicals to produce wires
(iron, copper, gold), batteries, (Li, Cd, Ni), and electric motors (Fe, Cu, Rare Earth
Elements) all must be extracted from the Earth using geologic knowledge.

Hydroelectric energy requires geologic knowledge in order to make sure that

dams are built in areas where they will not collapse and harm human populations.

Finding fossil fuels and geothermal energy certainly requires geologic knowledge.

Nuclear energy requires geologists to find deposits of uranium to generate the

fuels, geologists to find sites for nuclear power plants that will not fall apart due to
such things as earthquakes, landslides, floods, or volcanic eruptions, and requires
geologists to help determine safe storage sites for nuclear waste products.

Again, here will concentrate on the fossil fuels.

Fossil Fuels

The origin of fossil fuels, and biomass energy in general, starts

with photosynthesis. Photosynthesis is the most important chemical reaction to us
as human beings, because without it, we could not exist. Photosynthesis is the
reaction that combines water and carbon dioxide from the Earth and its
atmosphere with solar energy to form organic molecules that make up plants and
oxygen essential for respiration. Because all life forms depend on plants for
nourishment, either directly or indirectly, photosynthesis is the basis for life on
Earth. The chemical reaction is so important, that everyone should know it (Hint).

Note that if the reaction runs in reverse, it produces energy. Thus when oxygen is
added to organic material, either through decay by reaction with oxygen in the
atmosphere, or by adding oxygen directly by burning, energy is produced, and
water and carbon dioxide return to the Earth or its atmosphere.

Petroleum

To produce a fossil fuel, the organic matter must be rapidly buried in the Earth so
that it does not oxidize (react with oxygen in the atmosphere). Then a series of
slow chemical reactions occur which turn the organic molecules into
hydrocarbons- Oil and Natural Gas, together called Petroleum. Hydrocarbons are
complex organic molecules that consist of chains of hydrogen and carbon.
Petroleum (oil and natural gas) consists of many different such hydrocarbons, but
the most important of these are a group known as the paraffins. Paraffins have the
general chemical formula:
Petroleum Distribution

As we have seen, in order to form a petroleum reserve, the development of 4

features is necessary :

1. Formation of a source rock.

2. Formation of a migration pathway so that the petroleum can move
upwards
3. Filling a suitable reservoir rock with petroleum.
4. Development of an oil trap to prevent the oil from migrating out of the
reservoir.

Because these features must develop in the specified order, development of an

oil reserve is geologically rare. As a result, petroleum reserves reserves are
geographically limited. The largest known reserves are currently in the Persian
Gulf (see figure 14.15 in your text)..

Although the distribution of petroleum reserves is widespread, the ages of the

petroleum and the reservoirs is somewhat limited. Since older rocks have had
more time to erode or metamorphose, most reservoirs of petroleum occur in
younger rocks. Most petroleum is produced from rocks of Cenozoic age, with
less produced from rocks of Mesozoic and Paleozoic age.
Energy for the Future

Currently, society relies mostly on fossil fuels for energy (39% natural gas, 24%
natural gas, 23% Coal, 8 % nuclear, and 6% other). Since fossil fuels are non-
renewable sources of energy, at least in human lifetimes), we need to ask how
much longer society can rely on this source. Further, what are the options for
the future?

Non-Renewable Resources
First we look at the reserves of various non-renewable energy resources. Look
at figure 14.28b in your text. Note that Uranium (for nuclear energy) and Coal
appear to be most plentiful, while Tar sands and oil shale are currently not
economical. The current known oil reserves will likely run out sometime
between 2050 and 2150.

Currently we are consuming oil at a rate 3 times that of the discovery of new
resources. Even in terms of 4,000 years of human history, the oil age will be
very short lasting only 150 to 200 years.

Coal reserves could last for about 300 years if we can cope with the associated
pollution. Natural Gas is cleaner and can probably last for another 200 years.
Nuclear seems like a good bet in terms of available resources, but can it be
made cheap, clean, and safe? Will the recent problems with nuclear reactors
during the March 11, 2011 earthquake have an effect on the future of nuclear
energy?

Tar Sands and Oil Shale will require research to find more efficient way to
extract, the resource, but will likely be necessary to replace oil in the short
term.

Renewable Resources
Wind power is limited to areas with high consistent winds, and so is limited to
very specific areas. The wind mills are not aesthetically pleasing to look at at,
make a lot of noise and kill large numbers of birds, all problems that would
need to be overcome to expand this resource.

As for hydroelectric resources, they will not likely increase, since most rivers
are already dammed and there are few places left where new hydroelectric
facilities could be built.

Geothermal energy is limited to areas of known thermal activity (mainly

recently active volcanic areas). It is a great local resource, but will never play a
major role as an energy resource.

Solar energy is a huge source, but requires other resources (Li, Rare Earth
Elements) to exploit. Many of these problems might be overcome with new
research and the development of new technologies.

Hydrogen Fuel Cells are another promising resources with plenty of supply, but
needs further research and technological development.

Future energy resources have huge environmental, political and economic

implications that could change the world order. Still, the geologic aspects of
energy resources will play a large role
 Land
Resources
Land and Land Resources refer to a delineable area of the earth's terrestrial
surface, encompassing all attributes of the biosphere immediately above or
below this surface, including those of the near-surface climate, the soil and
terrain forms, the surface hydrology (including shallow lakes, rivers, marshes
and swamps), the near-surface sedimentary layers and associated groundwater
and geo-hydrological reserve, the plant and animal populations, the human
settlement pattern and physical results of past and present human activity
(terracing, water storage or drainage structures, roads, buildings, etc.)

Forest Resources
Forests are the dominant terrestrial ecosystem of Earth, and are distributed
across the globe. Forests account for 75% of the gross primary productivity of
the Earth's biosphere, and contains 80% of the Earth's plant biomass.
A forest constitutes many components that can be broadly divided into two
categories that are biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) components. Forest is
made up of many layers such as forest floor, understory, canopy, and emergent
layer.
Forests can be classified in various ways such as Boreal, Temperate, Tropical
types with their numerous subtypes. Due to increasing population and
consequential expansion of modern civilization, there has been continuous
depletion of natural forests over the centuries.
In 1990, the world had 4128 million ha of forest; by 2015 this area had
decreased to 3999 million ha. This is a change from 31.6 percent of global land
area in 1990 to 30.6 percent in 2015. Average per capita forest area declined
from 0.8 ha to 0.6 ha per person from 1990 to 2015.
Over the past 25 years, global carbon stocks in forest biomass have decreased
by almost 11 gigatonnes (Gt). This reduction has been mainly driven by
conversion to other land uses and to a lesser extent by forest degradation.
Usefulness of Forest Resources
 Forest is an important natural resource. Forests are vital for the
ecological balance and play an important role in temperature regulation
in the atmosphere.
 Forests are natural and vast reservoir of food and shelter for animals.
They provide natural habitats for numerous species of plants, animals
and micro-organisms.
 Forests provide timber, bamboo, canes, leaves, grass, oil, resins, gums,
shellac, tanning materials, dyes, hides, fur, fruits, nuts, roots, tubers and
other useful things for human beings.
 Forests provide raw materials for forest-based industries.
 Forests are the natural home to medicinal herbs and plants.
 Forest directly or indirectly affects the climate (temperature,
precipitation, moisture, underground water-table).
 Forests prevent floods and soil erosion, land degradation and improve the
quality of air and water.
 Forests help in purifying air, water, and soil pollution.
7.1 Land as a Resource

Land area constitutes about 1/5 of the earth surface. To meet out the challenging
demand of food, fibre and fuel for human population, fodder for animals and
industrial raw material for agro based industries, efficient management of land
resources will play critical role. Soil, water, vegetation and climate are basic
natural resources for agricultural growth and development.

7.2 Land Degradation

Due to increasing population, the demands for arable land for producing food,
fibre and fuel wood is also increasing. Hence there is more and more pressure
on the limited land resources which are getting degraded due to over-
exploitation. Nearly 56% of total geographical area of the country is suffering
due to land resource degradation. Out of 17 million hectare canal irrigated area,
3.4 million hectare is suffering from water logging and salinity. Soil erosion,
water logging, salinization and contamination of the soil with industrial wastes
like fly-ash, press mud or heavy metals all cause degradation of land.

7.3 Soil Erosion

Soil erosion refers to loss or removal of superficial layer of soil due to the
action of wind, water and human factors. In other words, it can be defined as the
movement of soil components, especially surface-litter and top soil from one
place to another. It has been estimated that more than 5000 million tonnes
topsoil is being eroded annually and 30% of total eroded mass is getting loosed
to the sea .It results in the loss of fertility. It basically is of two types, viz.
geologic erosion and accelerated erosion. Various factors which affect soil
erosions include soil type, vegetation cover, slope of ground, soil
mismanagement and intensity and amount of rainfall. Wind is also responsible
for the land erosion through saltation, suspension and surface creep.

In order to prevent soil erosion and conserve the soil the following conservation
practices are employed,
 Conservational till farming, Contour farming and Terracing
 Strip cropping and alley cropping
 Wind breaks or shelterbelts
7.4 Salinization

It refers to accumulation of soluble salts in the soil. Concentration of soluble

salts increases due to poor drainage facilities. In dry land areas, salt
concentration increases where poor drainage is accompanied by high
temperature. High concentration of salts affects the process of water absorption
hence affects the productivity.

7.5 Water Logging

Excessive utilization of irrigation may disturb the water balance which can lead
to water logging due to rise of water table .Anaerobic condition due to poor
availability of oxygen in water logged soils may affect respiration process in
plants which will ultimately affect the productivity of water logged soil.

7.6 Desertification

Desertification is a process whereby the productive potential of arid or semiarid

lands falls by ten percent or more. Desertification is characterized by
devegetation and depletion of groundwater, salinization and severe soil erosion.

7.6.1 Causes of desertification

 Deforestation
 Overgrazing
 Mining and quarrying
7.7 Shifting Cultivation

Shifting cultivation is a practice of slash and burn agriculture adopted by tribal

communities and is a main cause for soil degradation particularly tropical and
sub tropical regions. Shifting cultivation which is also popularly known as
‘Jhum Cultivation’ has lead to destruction of forest in hilly areas .It is
responsible for soil erosion and other problems related to land degradation in
mountainous areas.

7.8 Man Induced Landslides

Human race has exploited land resources for his own comfort by constructing
roads, railway tracks, canals for irrigation, hydroelectric projects, large dams
and reservoirs and mining in hilly areas. Moreover productive lands under crop
production are decreasing because of development activities. These factors are
affecting the stability of hill slopes and damage the protective vegetation cover.
These activities are also responsible to upset the balance of nature and making
such areas prone to landslides.

Thank you